Science notes : Rocks

Introduction

Rock, or stone, is a hard material made up of one or more minerals. Rock makes up the outer
layer of Earth, called the crust. The lower parts of this layer are solid rock, or bedrock. Broken
bits of rock lie on top. The tiniest bits of rock make up sand and soil. Underneath Earth’s
crust is another layer of mostly solid rock, called the mantle. Pools of melted rock, or
magma, form in the mantle.

There are three types of rock: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. These names
describe how each type of rock was formed.

Igneous rock is hardened magma. Magma may escape through cracks in Earth’s crust. It
may also come to Earth’s surface when a volcano erupts. As the escaped magma cools, it
hardens into solid rock. Granite and basalt are examples of igneous rock.

Sedimentary rock may form from pieces of other rock. In a process called erosion, wind and
water slowly break rock into tiny pieces. Water washes the pieces into rivers. They settle
along the river bottom in soft, loose layers called sediment. Over millions of years the
sediment builds up, hardens, and becomes solid rock. Sandstone is a sedimentary rock that
forms in this way. Sedimentary rock also may form from the remains of dead animals or
plants. Limestone is a sedimentary rock that is made up of the shells and stony skeletons of
certain kinds of living things.

Metamorphic rock forms from old igneous or sedimentary rock. Several forces can change
old rock into new metamorphic rock. Great heat and pressure inside Earth’s crust can shape
old rock into metamorphic rock. Water can dissolve minerals in old rock or carry new
minerals into it to form metamorphic rock. The heat of magma can also change old rock into
metamorphic rock. Marble and slate are examples of metamorphic rock.

The Rock Cycle

Rock is always being formed, worn down into pieces, and then formed again. This is called
the rock cycle. Rock wears down through erosion. Pieces of rock then settle down and
slowly become sedimentary rock. If sedimentary rock becomes deeply buried, it may melt
into magma. Then the magma may return to the surface as igneous rock. Deeply buried rock
may also become metamorphic rock. The rock cycle takes many millions of years.
Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma or lava) and
are classified as intrusive (slow cooling, large crystals, coarse texture like granite) or
extrusive (fast cooling, small or no crystals, fine/glassy texture like basalt or obsidian)

Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when hot, molten rock crystallizes and
solidifies. The melt originates deep within the Earth near active plate boundaries or hot
spots, then rises toward the surface. Igneous rocks are divided into two groups, intrusive or
extrusive, depending upon where the molten rock solidifies.

Intrusive Igneous Rocks:

Intrusive, or plutonic, igneous rock forms when magma is trapped deep inside the Earth.
Great globs of molten rock rise toward the surface. Some of the magma may feed volcanoes
on the Earth's surface, but most remains trapped below, where it cools very slowly over
many thousands or millions of years until it solidifies. Slow cooling means the individual
mineral grains have a very long time to grow, so they grow to a relatively large size. Intrusive
rocks have a coarse grained texture. Some common intrusive igneous rocks are granite,
diorite, gabbro and peridotite.

Extrusive Igneous Rocks:

Extrusive, or volcanic, igneous rock is produced when magma exits and cools above (or very
near) the Earth's surface. These are the rocks that form at erupting volcanoes and oozing
fissures. The magma, called lava when molten rock erupts on the surface, cools and
solidifies almost instantly when it is exposed to the relatively cool temperature of the
atmosphere. Quick cooling means that mineral crystals don't have much time to grow, so
these rocks have a very fine-grained or even glassy texture. Hot gas bubbles are often
trapped in the quenched lava, forming a bubbly, vesicular texture. Some common extrusive
igneous rocks are rhyolite, andesite, basalt and obsidian.

Sedimentary rocks

Sedimentary rocks are one of three main rock types, alongside igneous and metamorphic
rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed over million of years, as sediments (broken remains
of other rocks) compact on the Earth's surface, under seas, lakes, and oceans. Different
sedimentary rocks include:

sandstone

limestone

shale

chalk
The rock debris is deposited by a river into a water source, where they join together
through a process called sedimentation.

Stages of Formation

Weathering & Erosion: Pre-existing rocks (igneous, metamorphic, or older sedimentary) are
broken down by physical (freeze-thaw, abrasion) and chemical (acid rain) forces, creating
smaller pieces (sediments).

Transport: Wind, water (rivers, glaciers), and gravity move these sediments away from their
source area.

Deposition: Sediments settle out of the transporting medium (air, water, ice) in a new
location, often in basins, lakes, or oceans, forming layers.

Compaction: The weight of overlying layers squeezes water and air out of the lower layers,
compressing the sediments.

Cementation (Lithification): Dissolved minerals in groundwater precipitate (harden) in the

spaces between sediment grains, acting as a natural glue that binds them together into
solid rock.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic: Made from fragments (clasts) of other rocks (e.g., sandstone, shale, conglomerate).

Chemical: Form from minerals precipitating directly from water (e.g., rock salt, some
limestones).

Organic/Biogenic: Form from the accumulation of organic debris (e.g., coal, fossiliferous
limestone).

Key Features

Layering (Bedding): The most distinctive feature, reflecting successive deposits over time.

Fossils: Often contain fossils because organisms get trapped during deposits .

Uses of Sedimentary Rocks

The use of sedimentary rock can be found in most buildings and monuments. Some uses of
this type of rock are provided below.

Limestone is used to make cement.

Limestone and sandstone are used for building stones

Quartz is a type of sedimentary rock which is used to make glass.

Rock gypsum is used to make plaster.

Natural gas, oil, coal, uranium, and other energy resources are formed in and come from
sedimentary rocks.

Metamorphic rocks

They are formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are changed.

Heat and/or pressure will cause the elements in the original rock to react and re-form.

They are crystalline and often have a “squashed” (foliated or banded) texture

Metamorphic rocks are usually highly resistant to weathering and erosion, making them very
hard-wearing and a popular choice for building materials.

Examples of metamorphic rock include:

Marble - is formed from the sedimentary rock, limestone.

Quartzite - is formed from the sedimentary rock, sandstone.

Slate - is formed from the sedimentary rock, mudstone.

Gneiss and Granulite - is formed from the igneous rock, basalt.

Schist - is formed from the sedimentary rock, mudstone.