Chapter 4: Sheep and Goats Production

4.1. Origin, domestication, population & distribution of sheep

& goats

4.1.1. Origin and domestication of Sheep (Ovis aries)

The domestication of sheep and goats:

 Roughly 10,000 years ago,

 In lockstep with the 1st domestication of plant crops - Wheat

and Barley.

 In the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia and nearby mountain

zones of western Asia
Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia
 A crescent-shaped area of fertile land in the Middle East
 Extend from Eastern Mediterranean coast through the valley
of Tigris & Euphrates Rivers to the Persian Gulf.
 It was the center of Neolithic development of Agriculture
 It was the cradle of Assyrian, Sumerian, & Babylonian
civilizations.
Population and distribution (geographical) of sheep and goats

 Widely adapted to different climates - Arid, semi-arid, humid

rainforest

 In the arid tropics - Goat - highest proportion ; Sheep lower than

goats

 Highest concentration of goats are in Africa & Indian sub continents

 Temperate areas are main areas of distribution for sheep.

Climate - The long-term (30 years) pattern of weather in a particular

area.
Weather - Can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, month-to-month (year-to-
ear)

What is the difference and similarity Between Sheep and Goat ?

Similarities
 Both are ruminants.
 Both were domesticated about 10,000 years ago.
 Both have a similar gestation period
 Both are social animals
 Both are hoofed herbivorous grazing or browsing mammals
Differences
Particulars Sheep Goat
Genetic difference 54 chromosomes 60 chromosomes
Morphological (physical appearance) difference
 Body covering Hair, wool Hair
 Tail orientation Hangs down Points up wards
Behavioral difference
 Intelligence Less intelligent More intelligent
 Tolerance to rain Tolerant to rain Less tolerant to rain
 Travel Move slowly Travel long distance & Fast
 Feeding habit Grazers Browsers
4.2. Sheep and Goats breeds
4.2.1. Breeds of Sheep
Menz - Shoa, Abyssinian, Ethiopian highland sheep
Sekota - Tigray Highland, Abergelle
Semien - The largest of highland wooled sheep
Tikur
 Mostly black coat; small body size
 Reared by Amhara communities
Wollo - Small size; Reared by Amhara communities
Farta - Wooly under coat; Reared by Amhara communities
Washera (Agew, Dangilla)
 Large body size; reared by Amhara and Agew communities
Adilo (Wolaita)
 Long tail reaching the hocks; Reared by southern communities
Arsi- Bale - Long, Medium sized, Reared by Oromo communities
Bonga - Gesha, Meni
 Large size; Reared by Keffa, Sheka and Bench communities
Afar (Adal, Danakil)
 Reared by Afar, Amhara, Tigray people
 Uniform creamy white/ beige coat
 Fat tail, Medium size, Wide rump,
 Rudimentary ear, Polled, Dewlap
BHS (Wanke, Ogaden)
 Short , Fat rump with a stumpy appendage , Medium size, Polled,
 Well developed dewlap, Uniform white body and black head & neck
 Reared by Somali, Oromo, Konso, South Omo
Horro
• Long, fat tail extending below hock, brown & fawn are dominant colors
• Large size, leggy, both sexes are polled.
• Reared by Oromo, Benishangul , Gambella communities
Gumz
 Long, thin tail, Long pendulous ear, polled;
 Reared by Gumz, Amhara
4.2.2. Breeds of Goats
 Nubian Abergelle

Western Highland

Afar
Western
lowland
Central Highland

Hararge highland

Short-eared Somali

Keffa

Long eared Somali

Woyto-Guji
Arsi-Bale
Abergelle
 Found Along the Tekeze River, Some parts of Alamata (Tigray Region), Wag
Hamra (Sekota) , East Gondar zones
 Purpose
 Milk (milked for domestic consumption)
 Skin - to make aprons, containers, etc.
 Manure - to fertilize backyard farms
Afar ( Adal, Danakil)
 Natural habitat is Afar Region
 Found in North & West Hararghe; extends to Eritrea and Northern Djibouti
 Adapted to arid environments, Hardy & treak long distance
 Purpose – for milk, meat and skin production ; Social affairs
Arsi-Bale
 Found in Arsi, Bale, Western Hararghe, Sidama highland, in most areas of
the Rift Valley from Lake Abaya to south Shoa Zone
 Purpose - For meat, milk and skin production.
Begayit (Barka in Eryteria)
 Mainly found in Western Tigray , Udder is relatively large udders
 Purpose - milk
Central Highland
 Relative to W. Highland & Keffa goats
 Found in Wollo, Gondar, Shoa
 Skin is an exportable commodity
Keffa
 Related to the Western Highland goat
 Widely found widely in the highlands & lowlands of Keffa, South Shoa zones
 Purpose- Meat and social functions
Somali
 Two types - Short-eared and Long eared Somali
 Both types have white Coat color
 Purpose - for milk production, meat, skin production and social affairs

Short-eared Somali Long-eared Somali

Distribution  North and Easter Ogden  All parts of Ogden ,
 Dire Dawa  Bale lowland,
 Borana zones,
 Some part of Sidama
Body size Smaller Larger
Ear size Shorter Longer
Ear orientation Slightly forward pointed  Horizontally oriented
 Semi-pendulous
Western Highland

 Relative to Central Highland & Keffa goats

 Widely found in Highlands of South Gondar, Gojam, Wollega, West Shoa.

Western Lowland ( Gumuz)
 Closely related to Central & Western Highland goats
 Distributed along the Sudan border i.e. Metekel, Assosa, Gambela
 Milked in pastoral & agropastoral areas.

.
Woyto-Guji
 Found from South Omo to southern Sidama and Wolayita
 Along the Gelo valley to the south of Lake Abaya and adjacent areas.
 Purpose - for milk, meat, skins, some social functions.
Hararge highland
 Small size, used for meat, milk, skin production, social functions
Boar
NOTE

Unique features of some goat skins types in the international market.

 Bati-genuine - from the highlands
 Bati-type - from the lowlands

Bati-genuine
 Highest quality class goat skins in the world
 Excellent raw material for producing high quality leathern (Known world-wide)
 Characteristics - Thicker, Highly flexible, Clean inner surface

Unique features of some Sheep skins

 Highland sheep & Selale type (hair sheep )
 World’s finest
 Excellent raw material for high quality leather
 Dresses, Gloves, Sports gloves, Other garments
4.3. Sheep and Goat production Systems

Criteria used to classify sheep and goat production systems

1) Degree of integration with crop production and contribution to livelihood,
2) Level of input and intensity of production,
3) Agro-ecology,
4) Length of growing period and
5) Relation to land and type of commodity to be produced.

The major production systems are

 Highland sheep - barley system,
 Mixed crop - livestock system
 Pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems.

Production systems not currently practiced widely but have a future are:
 Ranching
 Urban & peri-urban (landless) sheep & goat production system.
Highland sheep–barley system
 Found in the highlands above 3,000 m.a.s.l.
 Major crops grown are barley and pulses - Faba beans, lentils, etc.
 Sheep are the dominant livestock species.
 Main feed resource-base are wasteland grazing, stubble, straw
 Sheep are reared mainly for meat, skins, coarse wool production

Mixed crop–livestock systems

 Found in the altitude ranges between 1,500 and 3,000 m.a.s.l
 The system is based on cropping and livestock husbandry
 Both sheep and goats are raised in this system
 The integration of crops and livestock is high in most areas.
 Sheep are more dominant than goats in this production system.
 Low input / low output system mostly
Pastoral and agro-pastoral production systems

Pastoral system
• No crop agriculture ; High mobility in search of grazing and water.
• Found at altitudes below 1,500 m.a.s.l. - Annual precipitation is < 500
mm.
• Range land is the main land resource.
• 50% of household revenue comes from livestock
• More goats than sheep in this system
• Livestock management is directed towards risk minimization,

Agro-pastoral system
 Practiced below 1,500 m.a.s.l.
 Characterized by less integration with crop production
 Producers have a permanent residence
 Their movement is limited in terms of both distance and duration.
 Low input / low output system
Ranching
• Range-based system of livestock production
• Can be considered as a modern land use system
• Labor-extensive system
• The main function of the system is to generate cash income
• Management of livestock is characterized by grazing within defined
borders and an individual tenure system with possibilities of intensified
feeding and watering of animals.

Urban & peri-urban (landless) sheep & goat production system

• The system involves production within and at the periphery of cities
• Feed resources - household wastes, market area wastes, mill
leftovers, by-products, roadside grazing (particularly in the peri-urban
system).
• Small-scale sheep fattening is emerging
• It could be high input / high output (low input / low output) system.
• In most cases, the type of sheep & goats available from this system
are :
• For local consumption,
• Well-finished, fatty animals for local Ethiopian market.
4. 4. Feeding of Sheep and Goats

Digestive System of Sheep and Goats

Some of the unique features of SHOOT digestive tract are:
 Ability to digest carbohydrate sources not digested by monogastrics
 Large stomach volume to accommodate and utilize bulky feeds
 Mouth & teeth are adapted for prehension & grinding of fibrous feeds
 Well-developed salivary glands for production of large volumes of
saliva

Why sheep and goats need nutrients?

 For Production, Reproduction, Growth, Lactation, Walk long
distances
There are six nutrients found in feedstuffs
 Water, carbohydrates, fats (lipids), protein, minerals, and
vitamins.
Feed Classification
 Feeds are classified according to the amount of specific nutrients they supply.
 Main classes of feedstuff are:
 Roughages- Dry Roughage and Succulent
 Concentrates - Energy-rich and Protein-rich concentrates
Feed - Food given to SHOOT in the course of animal husbandry
Feedstuffs - Any of the constituent nutrients of an animal ration

Roughages:
 Bulky feeds containing relatively large amounts of poorly digestible material,
 Crude fiber is more than 18% .
 Two categories of roughage (based upon their moisture content)
 Dry roughage and Succulent
Succulent feeds
 Usually contain more than 75% moisture and
 Include pasture, cultivated fodder crops, tree leaves, root crops, Silage.

Dry roughages
 Contain only 10 to 15% moisture.
 Hay and crop residues fall in this category
Concentrate:
 Feed (feed mixture) which has high amounts of Protein and carbohydrates
 Expensive, Usually low In moisture
 Rich In either Energy or Protein
 Contains less than 18% Crude Fiber

Energy-rich concentrates
 Feeds with high levels of energy but low in protein content.
e.g.,
 Grains and seeds (best energy sources; Generally expensive due to use as
human food),
 Mill by-products (cheaper & widely used e.g. brans, shorts) & root crops.

.
Protein-rich concentrates
 Have higher amount of Protein e.g., Oilseed cakes, Brewers
grain
Oilseed cakes - by-products left after extraction of oil from
oilseeds
Brewer’s grain
 by-products of the brewery industry.
contain
Nutrient 18% CPof and
composition feeds15%
usedCF
for sheep and goats
 Substantial production of this product from home brewing.
NOTE
 Excess energy is accumulated in the form of body fat,

 Excess protein can also make contributions to energy

Energy is measured in mega joules or calories

1calorie = 4.2 joules
General / Practical Guidelines of feeding sheep and goats
1. Avail fresh and clean water to all classes of SHOOTs at all times
2. Offer free access to forage (pasture, browse, hay)
3. Feed all animals with adequate feeder space – to avoid fighting.
4. Provide fresh feed & remove stale (contaminated) from troughs
5. Feed by splitting them into age and physiological groups
6. Supplement forage(pasture) and hay with concentrates as needed
7. 3) Feed concentrate, half in the morning and half in the evening.
8. Balance available feed and No. of animals
9. Add free-choice salt ( Mineral blocks) as freestanding
[Link] sudden changes in the type and quantity of feed
[Link] not underfeed (overfeed)
[Link] sheep/goats with poor teeth
Sheep and goats consume 3.5-4% of their BW on a DM basis.
Nutrients Requirement of Sheep and Goats

For what purpose nutrients? - To sustain life, produce & reproduce

Sheep and goats require

 Water, Energy, Protein, Vitamins, Minerals
 The most limiting factor in a diet is energy.
 Energy is supplied in the ration through hay and concentrate mix

The nutrients requirement of sheep and goats:

 Similar in both species
 Depends on animals physiological state and function
 Age, BW, Exercise/activity, Climate/environment
 Stage of production, Level of production

NOTE
 Larger animal need more feed to maintain its body function.
 When production increases, nutrient demand and feed requirement
increased
Requirements are for:

 Growing lamb = Maintenance + growth

 Suckling ewe = Maintenance + growth + milk production;

 Pregnant doe at the last stage of pregnancy

= Maintenance + growth + pregnancy;
Water Requirement of Sheep and Goats
 Water is the most critical of all nutrients required
 Necessary for all life functions including digestion of food.
 70 % of animal’s body is water

Inadequate water supply will dramatically decrease productivity

 Animals will eat less,
 Poorly digest feedstuff,
 Prone to digestive and metabolic problems.
Animal body can lose nearly all fat & over ½ of its protein and still live.
If the animal loses 20% of its body water, will die.

Animals can get their water from 3 sources:

 Drinking water.
 Free water found in feed.
 Metabolic water from nutrient oxidation in the body.
The amount of water an animal needs depends on:
• Climate,
• Type of feed eaten,
• Type and level of desired production (milk, growth, etc.).
Recommendation of water for Sheep and goats
 Supplied 4x the amount of water as the amount of feed dry matter (DM)
consumed, i.e., 4 kg water for 1 kg feed DM.
 Water requirement of sheep and goats is about 1.5 to 2.5 liters per day.
 They may need more water at higher temperatures.
Recommendation of water for lactating animals
 Additional 2 liters of water per liter of milk produced

Water content of various feeds

Feed %
Succulent feed (Roots, tubers and green fodder) 80 - 90
Silage 75 - 80
Cereal grains, milling by-products, hay 12 - 16
Crop residues 8 - 12
The Available Feed Resources for Sheep and Goats are:
 Natural pasture and browse
 Hay , Standing hay
 Crop residue ( Cereal, Pulse)
 Root crop leaves
 Sugar cane tops/leaves
 Agro-industrial by-products
 Oilseed cakes
 Milling by-products
 Local brewery by-products
 Brewery wet spent grain
 Molasses
 Thinning and leaf strips from maize and sorghum

Wheat straw Corn Stover and cobs

4.5. Reproduction in sheep and Goats
Reproductive Organs of Females
 The reproductive tract of ewes and does is similar.
 It consists of the vulva labia, vagina (copulatory organ), cervix, body of the
uterus, uterine horns, oviduct (fallopian tube) and the ovary.
Ovaries:
 Contain ova (eggs) & secrete female reproductive hormones (progesterone
and estrogens).
Oviduct:
 Opens like a funnel (the infundibulum) near the ovary.
 The infundibulum receives ova released from the ovary
 site of fertilization
 involved in sperm transport,
Vulva - barrier for preventing external contamination of the female
reproductive tract.
Vagina - the site of semen deposition during natural mating.

Cervix:
• the gateway to the uterus and is a muscular canal consisting of
several folds of tissue referred to as “rings.”
• participates in sperm transport, blocks bacterial invasion.

Uterus:
• consists of two separate horns (coruna).
• provides a proper environment for embryo development,,
Hormones Controlling Reproduction in Females

 Estrus cycle is controlled by GnRH (Gonadotrophic Releasing

Hormone) released by the hypothalamus.

Just before the onset of estrus,

 Pituitary gland releases Luteinizing Hormone (LH) & Follicular
Stimulating Hormone (FSH).
 FSH and LH - regulate growth of follicles
 LH stimulates the follicle to produce Estrogen.
 Estrogen brings the ewe into behavioral estrus or ‘heat.’
Heat Detection, Mating Management and Pregnancy Testing

Detection of estrus
 Very important when AI is conducted, and
 When mating is controlled, i.e., sires do not run with
females.

Behavioral signs of estrus in Does:

 Bleating continuously
 Swollen – red colored vulva,
 Flagging of the tail,
 Frequent urination,
 Cervical mucus discharge, which causes hairs to stick
together
 Restlessness,
 Mounting other goats and
Behavioral signs of estrus in Ewes:
 Estrus signs in ewe are not obvious unless a ram is present.
 The best confirmation of estrus is stands when being mounted –
(‘standing heat.’ )
 The duration of estrus is variable:
 Shorter in younger ewes and does but
 Longer in older animals.
 Normal duration will be 24 to 36 hours.

Estrus detection techniques

 Estrus in SHOOTs is relatively easy to detect compared to
cattle
 Heat sighs are well pronounced in goats.
 Regular detection of estrus is necessary

Ways of estrus detection:

 Using a teaser ram or buck
 Using a teaser with a marking harness
Using a teaser ram ( buck):
 Teasers are vasectomized or epididymized males

Tying an apron
 Apron is made of leather (canvas )around the body of a ram/or
buck
 Purpose is to prevent the penis from entering the vagina
Using a teaser with a marking harness

 When a ram/buck with a marking harness mounts a female in

estrus, some of the marking pigment will be transferred to the
rump of the female.
Mating Management
3 types of mating - Flock-mating, Pen-mating, Hand-mating

Flock-Mating
 Fertile rams (bucks) are allowed to remain continuously with a group
of females.
 Avoids the need for heat detection
 Inbreeding and subsequent declines in productivity could occur
unless males are rotated or replaced on a pre-determined period
 Commonly practiced by pastoralists.

Pen-Mating
 Involves confining a sire with a group of females, in a paddock. e.g., for
mating during the service period.
 A variation of this method may include housing groups of females with a
selected breeding ram/buck at night.
Hand-Mating
 Involves detecting females in estrus & bringing them to breeding males
 Regular and efficient heat detection methods are essential.
 The PM–AM method of breeding is used,
 One sire kept by an individual will serve sheep (goats) of many
surrounding owners who bring ewes(does) in estrus to the male.

Pregnancy Testing - Non-return to estrus, Progesterone test,

Ultrasonography.

Non - Return to estrus

 Frequent checking of animals after the normal estrus cycle (17 days for
sheep and 21 days for goats) for visual signs of estrus
 Animals not returning to estrus after the normal period are considered to
be pregnant.

Progesterone test - Milk or in blood samples is a common test.

Ultrasonography – can be done as early as 28–30 days using intra-rectal

Reproductive Performance

Measures of reproduction commonly used:

 Age at puberty,
 Age at first lambing/kidding,
 Post-partum interval,
 Parturition interval

Age at puberty
 Difficult to have an accurate measure of puberty unless hormonal
assays are done at certain intervals (bi-weekly)

 On experimental stations, puberty may be recorded as the 1st

behavioral estrus observed - This estrus is called pubertal estrus.

 The manifestation of pubertal estrus is not strong;

 Its duration is short - Require close attention for heat detection.

Age at first lambing/kidding
 Variations among breeds for this trait (12–24 months).
 Usually late in animals living in harsh environments.

Post-partum interval (PPI)

 Time between parturition and resumption of cyclic ovarian activity
 Affected by Nutrition, suckling, parity (No. of times kidded/lambed) , breed
 Mean interval of 83.5 days (51–133 days) has been reported for Somali
goats.

Parturition interval (lambing/kidding interval)

 The No. of days between successive parturitions
 Under normal circumstances (no drought),
 Tropical sheep/goats should be lambing/kidding at least 3 times in 2
years
 Lambing/ Kidding interval should not exceed 8 months (245 days).
 Better nutrition and early weaning could impact this measure of reproductive
performance
Chapter 4.6. Managements of Sheep and Goat
The routine SHOOT husbandry practices
1) Identification & Marking
 Tattooing, Ear tagging, Ear marking (Ear notching
2) Castration - Elastrator ring, Burdizzo method, Surgical method
3) Tail Docking - elastrator rings, Burdizzo or a knife.
4) Hoof/Foot Trimming
5) Dehorning
6) Age determination by dentation
7) Estimating Live Weight

Identification and Marking

• Three commonly used methods are
• Ear tagging
• Tattooing, and
• Ear marking or notching.
Ear tagging -
 Definition - Attaching a tag to the ear
 Importance
 Identification of an animal (throughout its lifetime)
 For management and breeding activities
 Instruments - An ear tag applicator , uniquely numbered ear tag
Ear notching (marking)
 Involves cutting notches out of the side of the ear in a sequence.
Instrument - sharp knife or ear clipper

Tattooing
• Ear is the most popular place
• If done on other parts of the body - skin damage
Method - Using tattoo pliers and tattoo numbers or letters
Castration
• It is the removal of testicles from the ram/buck.
• Ideally, should be done at less than 3 weeks of age,
• Under Ethiopian conditions not usually done at this time
• Three methods of castration commonly used are:
1) The application of elastrator ring,
2) Use of burdizzo, and
3) Surgical method.

a) Elastrator Ring
 Putting a heavy rubber ring around the scrotum using elastrator
ring, .
 Cause to dry & slough off in 10 to 14 days after
application.
 Ensure that both testicles are below the ring
 Rings must be applied while the scrotum is still very small,
Elastrato
r
b) Burdizzo method

c) Surgical method
 The testicles may be surgically removed
 Not advisable for non-health professionals to use this method of castration.
Tail Docking
 Not common in Ethiopia except in some parts of the country, e.g., Gojjam and
some parts of Arsi,
 Normally done for ewe lambs only.

Docking Methods
Docking may be performed by using
 Elastrator rings ; Burdizzo or A knife

Emasculator and tail docker

Docking Using Elastrator & Rubber Rings
 It is a simple way of docking young animals
 Placed the rubber ring leaving 3–5 cm of the tail, sufficient to cover the
vulva in ewe lambs.
 Rings should be applied before 2 days of age
Docking using Burdizzo (knife) - Burdizzo is used to crush the tail between
the vertebrate joints.
Hoof/Foot Trimming – using Hoof trimmer (Hoof shear)
Dehorning
 It is the process of removing the horns of livestock.
 Not practiced in Ethiopia.
 Can be done with Surgical wire, Horn saw, etc.
Dehorning saw
and shear

Housing and Handling Facilities

 Site Selection
 Facilities Housing

Purposes of housing
 Creating suitable environment for animals physiological state - comfortable
 Provide safe working environment
 Protect animals from:
 Climatic stress (extreme heat, cold, rain, wind, etc.)
 Predators and theft;
 Minimize injury to stock
 Minimize transmission of diseases
Site Selection
If a choice is available, consider the following:
 Temperature and rainfall;
 Topography/drainage
 Wind direction ;
 Distance from residential area;
 Closeness to water supply system;
 Probability of future expansion;
 Accessibility to electric supply system, road facilities, etc.;
 Availability of labour in the area ;
 Availability of social services.
Facilities
• Some of these facilities are:
• Fences, Handling pens,
• Housing (house/barn – different kinds of buildings),
• Dipping vats/spraying area,
• Isolation ward for sick animals,
• Manure disposal pit (away from the house), and
• Equipment (feeding and watering troughs, etc.)
Type of housing
 Simple to complex structures ;
 Varies with production system
 Appropriate design prior before beginning construction.
 Include floor plan, walls, roofing, other additional facilities.

Space requirements
Floor slope - 5% (minimum slope) (for every 1 m there should be a fall of 5
cm)
Spacing - Adult sheep - 1.5 cm (slightly narrower for goats) ; Young lamb - 1.3
cm Space (m2 /animal)
Type of housing Breeding Breeding Young Additional
female male stock
Permanent 1.2 2.0 0.8 Exercise yard,
confinement feed racks and
(zero grazing) watering trough
Night housing and 0.8 1.5 0.5
day time grazing
Roof
Purpose - Protects against the sun and rain
Requirement - Under surface should remain cool & watertight
Construction materials - Iron sheet, Grass/bushes , Wood, , Stone/brick , Earth.

Walls
 Partially open - to allow movement of air (warm climates)
 Complete - to keep out predators.
 Outer walls - protect the animals from external influences
 Separation walls - prevent mixing among animals.

Dipping vat
 Conventional - Made of concrete , Permanently placed dip vats
 Mobile - Made of plastic, Size could vary according to flock sizes

Watering trough - Any type of watering trough used should be easy to

clean
4.7. Constraints of Sheep and goats Production

The major constraints are:

 Scarcity of feed;
 Lack of infrastructure
 High mortality rates;
 Inadequate veterinary coverage
 Long marketing channels and lack of market information
 Low product quality
 Absence or inadequate provision of credit services
 Low average reproductive rates

Feed-Related Constraints of Sheep and Goat Production in

Ethiopia
 Marked seasonal variation in the quantity and quality
 Inadequate feed supply
 Low feeding value of available feed resources
 Limited intake of feeds with poor digestibility
 Inability to make maximum use of the limited total feed
resources.
Chapter 5: Poultry Production and Hatchery
Management

The role of poultry production

 Product is acceptable by most of the community - Egg, meat
 Meat and eggs are proteinous feed
 Contributes for food security - Meat and egg for household consumption
 Immediate source of cash income
 Creates employment,
 wide range of adaptability for different agro-ecologies
 Requires low initial capital investment - Small land, Low labour input,
 Source of organic fertilizer
 Efficient feed converters
5.1. Origin and classification of poultry

Original homeland of chicken - India and middle area of East Asia

Classification
 Based on their origin
 Based on Basis of production

Based on origin - American, Asiatic, English, Mediterranean

Based on basis of Production (purpose) - Layer, . Broiler, Dual-Purpose

5.2. Poultry Production Systems in Ethiopia

Three major production systems in Ethiopia

1) Large scale commercial

2) Small-scale commercial

3) Village or backyard

Large-scale commercial production system

 Entirely market oriented
 Highly intensive production system
 Characterized by higher level of productivity
 Involves an average of ≥ 10,000 birds
 Kept indoor with medium to high bio-security level.
 Better biosecurity practices reduced chick mortality rates to merely 5%.
 Heavily depends on imported exotic breeds
 Breeds require intensive inputs - Feed, housing, health, modern management system)
 Accounts for nearly 2% of national poultry population.
Small-scale intensive production system
 Characterized by - Medium level of feed, water & veterinary service inputs,
 Minimum to low bio-security.
 Most farms obtain their feed & foundation stock from large commercial farms.
 Coccidiosis is common
 Cause of mortality
 Reduced weight gain
 Reduce egg production
 Affect market value of birds

Village/indigenous production system

 Little (No) inputs for housing, feeding & health care
 Scavenging is the only source of diet
 Minimal level of bio-security,
 High off take rates
 High level of mortality
 Does not involve investment beyond cost of the foundation stock
 Some hybrids and exotic breeds may be kept under this system.
5.3. Incubation and Hatchery Operation
Incubation
 The process by which an egg develops an embryo within the egg, after
the egg's formation and ovipositional release
 Oviposition is the process of laying eggs.

Egg incubators
 Devices (machines) used to artificially incubate fertilized eggs.
 They make the eggs warm embryos to grow and hatch without mother hen

Incubators can be
 Semi-automatic - requires an operator on and off (not all day)
 Fully automatic- don't require operator, function without human
interference

Incubators are designed with 2 separate compartments.

 1st compartment - eggs are kept under incubation up to 18 days; (Setter)
 2nd compartment - eggs are kept for 3 days ( last 18th, 20th, 21st days) until
chicks are released at the outlet. (Hatcher)
 Differences Setter Hatcher
Egg turning Yes No

Egg container Egg tray with hole seats Baskets

Temperature ≈ 38°C ≈ 37°C

Cleanness Clean Dirty

Incubators can be single function or double function incubators

Single purpose incubators
 Has two separate components - Setter, Hatcher
 Suitable for large scale poultry productions to hatch very large No. of chickens
once
 More efficient in all respects, e.g., in terms of sanitary process.
Hatchery
 Facility where poultry eggs are hatched under artificial conditions
 Hatcher is equipped with special chick-holding trays, not needed in setters
 Hatchery area Should be a separate unit with its own entrance and exit,
 The hatchery should be 30 m away( at least) from poultry houses
Why 30 meters away? To prevent transmission of disease

Dual function (compo) incubators

 Has both compartments assembled together
 Performs setting and hatching with one incubator
Top - setting stage compartment; Bottom - hatching stage compartment
Hatchery Operations

Sequences (operations) in commercial hatcheries

1) Securing hatching eggs
2) Storage of hatching eggs
3) Warm eggs prior to setting
4) Loading of eggs - Traying hatch eggs
5) Fumigation of hatching eggs
6) Candling
7) Transfer of eggs
8) Pulling the hatch
9) Grading the chicks
10) Sexing the chicks
11) Vaccination
12) Chick delivery
13) Washing and cleaning
14) Disposal of waste
Securing hatching eggs - From own breeder flock, or From other hatcheries

Selection of hatching eggs

• Not cracked, dirty or misshapen eggs;
• Not Very small or very large eggs; Not thin (very porous) shell eggs
Loading of eggs (Traying hatch eggs) - It is placing of eggs in the setter
Fumigation of hatching eggs
• Fumigation will kill ~ 97.5 to 99.5% of organisms on the shells.
• Formaldehyde gas is an effective method of sanitizing hatching eggs
(Formalin with Potassium permanganate)
Candling
 To find out defects in eggshell, embryonic development etc.
 Done at 7 and 14 days
 Methods - Table (mass) Candler; Spot (individual) Candler
Transfer of eggs - Eggs is transferred from setter to hatcher at 19th day of incubation,
Washing and cleaning hatchery
 Every piece of equipment must be thoroughly scrubbed, disinfected & fumigated
(Exception - Setters & Setter room )
Disposal of waste
Hatchery wastes should be disposed in such a manner:
 Not to create problem to the neighbors and also
 Not to contaminate the hatchery premises
 Hatchery wastes include: Infertile and non-hatched eggs, Dead chicks
Storage of hatching eggs
 If hatching eggs are stored up to 1 week - egg holding room temp. 80C, RH 75%
 When storing eggs <10 days - store them with the large end up
 When storing eggs ≥ 10 days - Store them with small end up

5.4. Poultry Houses

Poultry housing system - Deep litter and Cage system.
Deep litter system Involves
 Rearing of chickens on a floor littered by 5-10 cm thickness litter
 Litter can be made from locally available material
 Dry hay, Teff straw, Sow dust, etc.
Cage system
 Intensive way of production and chicken is reared in one house on prepared
cages (nests)
 Chicken has access to feed and water.
 More appropriate for layers.
 Egg produced is used only for food - because there is No cock.
5.5. Poultry management
 Poultry management consists of Brooder management, Grower management,
Layer management and Broilers management

5.5.1. Brooding Management

Brooding
 Management of baby chicks till 4th weeks - in broilers
 Management of baby chicks ~6-8th weeks - in layers

Chick brooding
 Rearing of chicken using different methods.
 2 methods - Natural & artificial brooding
Natural chick brooding
 Involves using of a natural mother (hen).
 Naturally hatched chicks are reared & protected by broody hen
 Can be left undisturbed as long as their yard is protected from predators.
 The mother (hen) provides heat for her chicks
 She guides the chicks where the feed is available.
Disadvantage of natural brooding:
• Unable to rear large number of chicks at a time,
• It is not preferable to brood the pullets
• Relatively high mortality rate.

Artificial chick brooding method

 Uses different brooders (heaters) to brood the chicks.
 It is practiced in wide chicken production stations.
Advantage of artificial brooding
 Allows large number of chicken to rear at a time and
 Mortality of chicks is low.
Disadvantage of artificial brooding is
 Needs better input/feed, medication, chicken production equipment
(drinker, feeder, etc.).
Brooder house
 Should be draft-free, rain-proof and protected against predators.
 Should have windows with wire mesh for adequate ventilation.
 Good ventilation
 Provides a comfortable environment without draft.
 Too dusty environment irritates the respiratory tract of the chicks.
 Dust is one of the vehicles of transmission of diseases.
 Too much moisture causes ammonia fumes which irritate the respiratory tract and eyes.
Brooder - The device used for providing artificial heat during brooding.
Brooding temperature:
 Heating is essential to provide right temp. in brooder house.
 Too high or too low a temp. slows down growth and causes mortality.
How to adjust temperature in brooding house
 1st week the temperature should be 35°C ,
 Then reduced by 20C weekly till 21·10C.
 Brooder should be switched on for at least 24 hrs. during chicks arrive
 In hot weather, brooders not necessary after the chicks are about 3 weeks old.
Behavior of chicks provides better indication of whether they are getting the desired amount of heat.
When the temperature is less than required,
 Chicks try to get closer to the source of heat, and
 Huddle down under the brooder.
When the temperature is too high,
 Chicks will get away from the source of heat, and
 May even pant or gasp.
When temperature is right - Chicks will be found evenly scattered
TEMPERATURE TOO HIGH TEMPERATURE CORRECT
Chicks Chicks
 Make no noise  Evenly spread
 Pant  Noise level slightly
 Head and wings droop contentment
( happiness, satisfaction)

TEMPERATURE TOO LOW DRAFT

Chicks  This distribution requires
 Crowed to brooder investigation
 Noisy Influenced by:
 Distress calling  Draft,
 Uneven light distribution,
 External noise
Brooders (Heaters)
 Chicks need heat at start of brooding until they emerge their own feather.
 Brooder/heater is the heat sources for chicks.
What can be used as brooder (heaters)?
Kerosene lump, Charcoal heater, infra red bulb, Hay box, Hoveer

Charcoal Stove

Hoover brooder - Canopy Brooder- canopy type hover

Electric brooder - Bulb with 60-100 watt
(with brooder guard / chick guard)

Electrical ( Reflector) Brooder

Ordinary incandescent
bulb
Gas brooder - Natural gas, or Methane is connected to heating element

Infra-red Bulb Brooder - The bulb illuminates the brooding area ;

Hay box brooder
 An artificial brooder
 Can be made from timber, straw and wire mesh.
 The sizes of the timber differ according to the number of chicks to be reared.
 Hay box brooder has two parts - chick feeder and shelter box.

Heat maintenance box Chick feeder and shelter box

5.5.2. Grower Management

Grower management activities:

 Proper cleaning & disinfection of house before introduction of grower birds.
 Arrange feeder and waterers in the grower house.
 Provide sufficient floor space, feeding space and water space
 Spread litter material to a height of 10 cm in case of deep-litter system
 Follow good litter management to avoid diseases like Coccidiosis.
 Change the feeder and waterer according to the need.
 Only 12 hrs. lighting is sufficient in open-sided houses.
 No artificial light is needed.
 Strictly follow vaccination, medication and other management programs like
deworming, debeaking etc. for the growers.
5.5.3. Layer Management
Layers
 Start laying eggs from 18-19 weeks of age and
 Laying eggs will be continued till their 72-78 weeks of age.
 Produce 1kg of eggs by consuming 2.25 kg of food during egg laying period.

Proper layer care

 Proper housing, dry litter, feeding and watering,
 Disease prevention and Vaccination,
 Minimize stress as little as possible for 18 weeks.

For chicks up to 8th weeks old

 Higher protein (20%) feeds,
 Lower crude fibre (5%) feeds

For growers at 9-18th weeks.

 Lower protein (18%),
 Higher crude fibre (7.2 %) feeds
  Layers’ house should be 100 meters away from chicks and growers houses
 Light length until it reaches 16 -18 hours
 Layers’ rations must contain 3-4 % Ca
Why?
 For strong bones (Calcium Phosphate) to cope with the stresses and strains
of egg production and egg lay
 As a vital ingredient for production of the shell - Mostly of calcium carbonate
 Chickens are better adapted to keeping warm than keeping cool.
 Normal internal body temperature is 41.3ºC
 It is just a few ºC below the temp. at which enzyme inactivation and
tissue death begins
 The ideal environmental temperature for hens is 12.8ºC.

Birds
 Do not have sweat glands
 Rely on panting to dissipate heat.
 Causes excessive loss of CO2, needed to make Calcium Carbonate in uterus.
 Result is lower egg shell quality with soft shelled eggs
 Failure to maintain body temp. leads to a general fall in egg production.

.
5.5.4. Broiler Management

Broiler
 Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus) developed, raised (farm-reared) for
producing meat (meat production) in a short period of time.
 Most commercial broilers reach slaughter weight 4-6 weeks of age,
 Slower growing breeds reach slaughter weight at approx. 14th weeks of age.
 Broilers are expected to be slaughtered at
 6th weeks if raised in cages (intensive),
 8th weeks free-range and
 12th weeks organic (pastured).
 Water management - water quality, drinkers hygiene, water distribution
 Chick drinkers
 Must be washed and disinfected daily.
 Chlorine has to be used to control disease-causing organisms
 Never allow the drinkers to go dry
 Distributed evenly throughout the whole house,
 Alternating them with the feeders to be easily accessible to all birds.
 Distance between waterer (drinker) should be 1.5 meters.
 Water deprivation may lead to coccidiosis.
 Supplemental feeding tray (Feeder tray)

 Restricted feeding can be adopted during growing period

 Types of restricted feeding - Quantitative and Qualitative
 Quantitative feed restriction
 Amount of feed is reduced below the normal requirement of birds.
 48g day 1 to 21(Starter); 96 g day 21 – 35; 143 g last 7days (Finisher)

 can be on Day-to-day basis, or Skip-a-day programme, or Skip-two days in a

week programme
 Automatic feeder
Chick
Oval hole
tray
feeder

Tube
Hanging feeder
feeder

Tube
feeder
Hanging tube feeders
Linear feeder for chicks

Circular (hanging) feeder

 Bell drinker
(it is automatic)

Waterer

Drinker

Pan and jar type

Nipple drinker
 Electric beak-trimmer

Poultry electric beak trimmer

 Temperature – 650 - 750°C

 The blade is hot enough when the center is cherry-red hot.

7-10 days immediately after trimming

Appropriate trimming after 18 weeks

Chapter 6. Apiculture
Apiculture is the keeping of bees
Bee keeping
 The art and science of managing bees for production of honey, wax and
other bee products
Apiary/Bee yard - A place where a number of bee colonies are kept.

Important advantages of beekeeping:

 Can be started with limited capital
 Can be done in harmony with other agricultural activities
 Can be done as part-time and full time business
 Can be practiced by all members of the society
 Avails employment opportunity for many people
 Benefit peoples like Tej makers, candle producers, beeswax collectors and
packers, exporters of honey and beeswax, etc.
 Can be done in rural areas, in towns, cities.
 Can be used in areas not suitable for crop growing and forage development.
 Bee’s products are non-perishable
 Honey & beeswax can be stored for several years maintaining their
properties of standard quality.
Organization of bee colony
Honeybees as the social insects live harmoniously together in hive.
Group members of honeybee colony are:
 One queen bee,
 Several thousands of worker bees
 Several hundreds of drone bees.

The queen Bee

 Only 1 queen is one beehive.
 In rare cases 2 two queen bees in one bee colony during the reproductive
swarming period

The queen bee is

 Fully fertile female and largest in size.
 Has extended abdomen, good looking color, short wings, long legs.
 Developed from fertilized egg.
 Mainly lays eggs: workers eggs(fertilized) or drone eggs (unfertilized).
Worker Bees
 Bees developed from fertilized eggs
 Females - Hatched after 21 days.
 Smallest in size
(body size is short with slightly extended wings).

After mating the male will die.

The mating organ will be thorn out and remain in females organ
Drone Bees
 Male bees living in a hive with female bees.
 Heavier and larger than workers.
 Have no stings
 Main function is to mate with the queen.
 Hatched after 24 days.
 Lacks the complete apparatus setup in its body
 This induced it to work limited nest activities in the hive
 Has big circular eyes and very large wings.
 During dearth period, it could be possible to see no drone bees in the hive.

Swarming - movement of bees from one place to other looking for new hive
Migration - The process of bees leaving hives they had colonized over sometime,
Absconding - Sudden departure of bees from their hive.
Dearth period - When honey production is at minimum when plants stop flowering.
Beekeeping System in Ethiopia

The types of beekeeping - hives

 Traditional
 Transitional / intermediate
 Frame (modern) hives

Honey hunting
 Hunters invade nests, kill bees for honey.
 That is why it is called honey hunting or bee killing.

Bee keeping system in Ethiopia

1)Traditional beekeeping
 Forest ;
 Backyard
2) Transitional (intermediate) beekeeping

3) Modern beekeeping
Traditional beekeeping
a) Traditional forest beekeeping
b) Traditional backyard beekeeping
 Hives type used in traditional bee keeping
 Local hives made will be used in this system

Merits of traditional hives

 Require low cost of production and minimal skill while making.
 Need simple mechanisms while harvesting honey and beeswax,
 Possibility of using such hives to trap swarming colony,
 Using traditional hive to swarm trapping is easier than other hives.
 Can be transported with bees from one place to another.
Demerits of traditional hives
 Unfavorable to undertake proper inspection,
 Not possible to determine whether honey is ripe or not
 Quality and good honey con not be harvested.

Average annual crude honey production per

 Traditional bee hive not exceed 6 kg ( 6-8 kg)
 Modern hive - 20 kg

Transitional (intermediate) beekeeping

 One of improved methods of beekeeping practices.

Hives type used in transitional bee keeping

 An intermediate hive.
 Slightly better than traditional hive by shape & internal mode of operation
 Can be constructed from timber, mud or locally available materials.
 Each hive has 27 to 30 top bars on which honeybees attach their combs
Kenyan top bar hive (Trapezoid) Tanzanian top bar hive (Rectangle)
Modern beekeeping
 Frame hives are modern hives
 Made from wooden planks.
Hives type used in modern bee keeping
 Zander - most commonly used hive type in Ethiopia
 Langstroth is common
Famous frame hives – Langstrogth(USA), Dadant (USA); Zander (Europe)

Hive products
Honey bee products are Honey, Beeswax, Bee brood, Bee venom
Casting mould

Frame wire
Embedder Transformer
Queen excluder

Queen cage
Bee brush

Smoker
Protective clothes
Bee hive chisel

Water sprayer
Feeder

Hive fasting belt

Honey Extractor

Honey Presser
 Uncapping fork and knife

Honey strainer
Honey Containers