ABSTRACT

The study examines the implications of workplace discrimination on employee commitment in

Nigeria shipper’s council, Apapa, Lagos State. The study investigated the following specific
objectives, to assess the implications of ethnic discrimination on employee commitment in
Nigeria shippers council, to appraise the impacts of religion discrimination on employee
commitment in Nigeria shippers council, to determine the implications of gender
discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria shippers council, to examine the impacts
of marriage and civil partnership discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria shippers
council. During this study, two theories were examined, human capital theory and social
exchange theory. The study made use of both primary and secondary data, the primary data
was the use of structured questionnaire, and the secondary data was gotten from journals,
articles, texts, discussion papers, online posts and publications related to the study. Survey
research design was adopted for this study. A total of 150 copies of structured questionnaire
were administered to respondents in different departments of Nigeria shipper’s council, Apapa,
Lagos state, however, 145 copies of the questionnaire were retrieved from the respondents
which constitute 94 percent of the administered questionnaire. The major findings were that
there is a significant relationship between ethnic discrimination and employee commitment., it
was also revealed that there is a significant relationship between gender discrimination and
employee commitment, it was also ascertained that there is a significant relationship between
religion discrimination and employee commitment, also, it was revealed that there is significant
relationship between marriage and civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment.
It was recommended that managers in general and specifically human resource managers
should devise strategies and develop management interventions to mitigate the negative
organizational and personal consequences of discrimination in the workplace, human resource
department in Nigeria Shipper Council should focus on gender mainstreaming with the
objective of ensuring women participation and representation in decision making in the
organisation. Further studies can be conducted with focus on other forms of workplace
discrimination in order to establish any significant patterns or difference, also, further studies
should be conducted in other similar shipping and governmental organisations so as to confirm
the applicability of the result. It is also suggested that further studies should be conducted on
a larger scale in order to allow for more generalization of the findings.
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

All organisations are expected to achieve certain goals. These goals can only be achieved if

the employees in the organisation are committed. It is important to know that employees play

important roles in harnessing every other resource towards the realisation of organisational

goals. Olajide (2014), made it clear that it is vital for employers to understand the ways in

which the level of employees’ commitment can be strengthened overtime due to their

relevant nature.

Moreover, Irefin and Mohamed (2014), made it clear that Organisations value

commitment among their employees because it is typically assumed to reduce withdrawal

behaviour, such as lateness, absenteeism and turnover. Hence, there is no doubt that these

values appear to have potentially serious consequences for overall organizational

performance. The study of employee commitment is important because employees with sense

of commitment are less likely to engage in withdrawal behaviour and more willing to accept

change. Hence, there is no doubt that these values appear to have potentially serious

consequences for a central of committed individuals who are the source of organizational life.

Secondly, workers who become less committed to an organization, will route their

commitment in other directions, therefore, it is important to know how to develop the right

type and level of employee commitment to ensure that better employees are retained. Third,

1
employees who develop a high level of employee commitment tend to be highly satisfied and

are fulfilled by their jobs. Also, In the current global economic scenario, organizational

change is a continuous process that requires support of all employees in the hierarchical

structure.

To achieve employee’s commitment, there should be a huge concern on discrimination

in the workplace at all levels. Nigeria is a liberal democratic society, a free market economy

and a secular state hence, Nigeria is highly vulnerable to workplace discrimination. In view of

this, Kola and Sola (2011), made it clear that discrimination in the workplace in Nigeria has

assumed a complex nature, untangling such complex discriminatory practices in the workplace

is a difficult task which has no predetermined solution. Even in the presence of various legal

frameworks, the problem of workplace discrimination continues to eat deep into the fabric of

the various organisations and institutions in Nigeria. Many studies have shown the negative

impacts of discrimination on employees’ commitment. Massarra (2014), studied the effect of

discrimination on company loyalty and concluded that both variables correlate significantly.

Likewise, in their study of the impacts of workplace discrimination and employee commitment,

Olori and Dan-Jumbo (2017), concluded that work place discrimination is inversely related to

employee’s commitment. Therefore, a higher level of discrimination will give rise to lower

level of employee’s commitment.

Employment discrimination occurs when an employee or a job applicant is treated

poorly based on some protected characteristics. Alison (2018), described employment

discrimination as the unfavourable treatment of an employee or category of employee because

2
of his or her race, skin-color, national origin, gender, disability, religion or age.

Haralambos and Holborn (2008), described employment discrimination as the

unfavourable treatment of all persons socially assigned to a category in the workplace. In one

of the ILO reports, discrimination was described as a violation of human right that entails a

waste of human talent with detrimental effects on productivity and economic growth and

generate socio-economic inequalities that undermines social cohesion and solidarity and act as

break on the reduction of poverty. ILO (2007). In the above expressed views, it is obvious

that employment discrimination entails treating someone or a group of persons unjustly when

it comes to recruitment, placement, job assignment, training, development, promotion,

compensation, and dismissal.

Discrimination In the workplace comes in different guises. At times discrimination may

be in subtle form and at times, it comes in direct forms. Justyna (2014), explained the

distinction between direct discrimination and indirect discrimination. She argued that in the

context of direct discrimination a causation is a decisive element whereas indirect

discrimination is an effect related concept. This research work will critically examine the

problem of workplace discrimination and analyse the implications on the employee

commitment. Suggestions will be made on how to address the problem of workplace

discrimination with a view of enhancing employee commitment.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The problems in the workplace arising from discrimination is glaring to everyone.

Unfortunately, suitable methods of eliminating discrimination in the workplace have not been
3
identified hence, the problem has attained a complex status. Kola and Sola (2011), noted that

discrimination in the workplace has assumed a complex nature, untangling such complex

discriminatory practices in the workplace is a difficult task which has no predetermined

solution. Even in the presence of various legal frameworks, the problem of workplace

discrimination continues to impede employee’s commitment in various organisations and

institutions in Nigeria.

There have been serious discriminatory activities which appear in the form of hiring only

women even in roles that men could rightly fit in, employing on tribal basis, a situation in

which majority of firms in a state possess a strong inclination to employ individual from the

same state rather than more qualified individuals which they liken to trust and security.

Tendency to pay more attention to unmarried women during and after recruitment based on the

assumption that married a woman’s career can be easily truncated by marriage, pregnancy and

childbirth. The strong inclination to treat everyone unequally on the basic of religion

differences. Management usually discriminate towards promotion based on perception and are

more likely to put certain set of individuals below their actual pay grade because of

discrimination. Omoh et. al, (2015).

Moreover, Channar [Link] (2011) stated that discrimination in the workplace can be seen when

individuals feel they have been wrongly treated because of their group membership, these

individuals often feel alienated and angry which can be translated to negative workplace

behaviour and ultimately resulting in or impacting on their affective, normative and continual

commitment. Similarly, A study conducted by Adenuji (2014), has shown that discrimination

4
against women and men based on their ethnic, religious and marital status (marriage and civil

partnership) can have an adverse effect on the affective, normative and continual commitment

of employees. Perceived discrimination in the workplace is also related to more extreme work

withdrawal behaviour, it is largely identified that discrimination weakens the employee

commitment both at the affective, normative and continual level. simple peace-loving

employee transform into paranoid and suspicious, fearful and angry individuals. Eliminating

employee discrimination is crucial for consolidating the employee commitment.

Okoha, Osah and Alagah (2017), pointed out that some individuals harbour unfair prejudice

against people of different cultures, ethnicity, or religion other than their own. There is always

the problem of gender discrimination which represent one of the oldest and most common

diversity issues in the workplace, the “men vs women” topic. Patterson (2015).

There have been discriminatory practices in Nigeria Shippers Council. The problem of

recruiting, selecting, staffing, promoting and dismissing along ethnic, religion, gender and

marriage and civil partnership lines are serious discriminatory problems. Workplace

discrimination breeds low employee commitment and low commitment results in poor

performance, low productivity, psychological distress, low employee involvement, lack of

loyalty of employee. Low commitment of employee negatively affects both the individual and

the organisation at large.

In view of these problems, this research work examines how discrimination in the workplace

relates to the affective, normative and continuance measures of employee commitment in the

Nigeria shipper’s council in Apapa, Lagos state.

5
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

I: What implications does gender discrimination have on the commitment of employees in

Nigeria Shippers council?

ii: How does ethnic discrimination impact on employee’s commitment in Nigeria Shippers

council?

iii: How does religion discrimination influence employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers

council?

iv: in what ways has marriage and civil partnership discrimination impacted on employee’s

commitment in Nigeria shippers council?

v: what relationship exist between workplace discrimination and continual commitment of

employee in Nigeria Shippers council?

vi: what relationship exist between gender discrimination and normative commitment of

employees in Nigeria Shippers council?

vii: what is the correlation between ethnic discrimination and the affective commitment of

employees in Nigeria Shippers council?

1.4 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY/STUDY OBJECTIVES

The general objective of this study examines the implications of workplace discrimination on

employee commitment in Nigeria shipper’s council, Apapa, Lagos State. The study also

examines the following specific objectives.

6
i: To assess the implications of ethnic discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria

shippers council.

ii: To appraise the impacts of religion discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria

shippers council.

iii: To determine the implications of gender discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria

shippers council.

iv: To examine the impacts of marriage and civil partnership discrimination on employee

commitment in Nigeria shippers council.

1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS

Ho1: There is no significant correlation between ethnic discrimination and employee

commitment in Nigeria shippers council.

Ho2: There is no significant relationship between religion discrimination and employee

performance in Nigeria shippers council.

Ho3: There is no significant relationship between gender discrimination and employee

commitment in Nigeria shippers council.

Ho4: There is no significant correlation between marriage and civil partnership and employee

commitment in Nigeria shippers council.

. 1.6 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS

This study is concerned with the implications of workplace discrimination on employee

7
performance in Nigeria Shippers council. The scope of the study covers the entire offices of

the Nigeria Shippers council in Nigeria. The study is delimited to both the permanent

employees of the Nigeria Shippers council in Apapa, Lagos state who are the officially

recognised employees of Nigeria shippers council Apapa, Lagos state and the temporal or

contract employees.

1.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Theoretically, the findings of this research is significant because it helps in providing empirical

data in identifying and explaining the impacts of workplace discrimination on employee job

commitment. This research work provides human resource experts with appropriate

information on workplace discrimination and how they enhance the employees job

commitment. The findings of this research is equally valuable to the organisation (Nigeria

shippers council) in which the research is carried out. The study also provides useful

information on how best to boost the employee job commitment.

1.8 OPERATIONALISATION OF CONCEPTS

Discrimination.

Discrimination is the treatment of anybody or group of persons less favorably because they

possess certain characteristics. According to Yolanda (2018), discrimination is the act of

treating someone differently or unjustly based upon some characteristics. In its most literal

sense, discrimination means something different. Issa (2014) defined discrimination as any

action or practice that exclude, disadvantage, or merely differentiates between individuals or

groups of individuals based on some ascribed or perceived traits. The underlying fact about

8
discrimination is that it involves exclusion and unfair treatment on a targeted group.

Workplace discrimination

Workplace discrimination is when an employer takes an adverse action against a person who

is an employee or prospective employee because of the following attributes of the person:

Race Color, Sex, Sexual orientation, Age, Marital status, Pregnancy, Religion, Political opinion,

National origin. According to Alison (2018), workplace discrimination occur when an

individual is adversely discriminated due to a number of factors which include; race, age, sex,

national origin, religion etc. in addition to the factors listed above, employees and job

applicants can be discriminated against on the ground of disabilities, genetic information,

pregnancy.

In the view of (Osah, Ukoha and Alagah 2017), workplace discrimination refers to

discrimination in hiring, promotion, job assignment, termination and compensation. It must be

noted that many jurisdictions prohibit some types of workplace discrimination, often by

forbidding discrimination based on certain traits (Dwomoh & Owusu, 2012). Employment

discrimination (or workplace discrimination) is discrimination in hiring, promotion, job

assignment, termination, and compensation. It includes various types of harassment

(Devah,2009). Many jurisdictions prohibit some types of employment discrimination, often by

forbidding discrimination based on certain traits

Gender Discrimination.

Gender discrimination is the type discrimination-based of the gender of the person. Gender

discrimination occurs when an individual or a group of persons are treated less favorably

9
because of the gender. According to National Association of Japanese Canadians (2018),

gender discrimination means discrimination based on a person’s gender or sex, which much

often affects girls and women.

Ethnic Discrimination.

Ethnic discrimination is an unequal treatment of people because they belong to a certain ethnic

or national group. Ethnic discrimination is when someone is treated less favorably based on

him being a member of a certain ethnic group. According to Liberty law (2018), ethnic

discrimination is treating some one less fairly simply because he or she is a member of a distinct

ethnic group.

Religion discrimination

Religion discrimination is treating individuals differently in their employment because of their

religion, their religious beliefs and the practices, according to workplace fairness (2018),

religious discrimination is treating individual differently in their employment because of their

religion, their religious belief and/or their request for accommodation of their religious belief

and practices. Religious discrimination involves treating individuals differently in their

employment because of their lack of religious belief or practices.

Marriage and civil partnership

Marriage and civil partnership discrimination is when an individual or a group of persons are

treated less favorably because they are married or because of their civil partnership. According

to equity and human right commission (2018), marriage and civil partnership discrimination is

when you are treated differently at work because you are married or in civil partnership.

10
Commitment.

Commitment is a stabilizing or binding force which direct behaviour. It defined as the bond

which an employee has with his or her employer. Commitment in regards to job show the

probability that an employer continues to work in a job and feel psychologically bound to it

Broadly speaking, an employee who is committed to the organisation generally feel a

connection with the organisation.

According to Joseje (2016), commitment identified the three dimensions of commitment and

these are: Affective commitment. Normative commitment and Continuance commitment.

She explained that affective commitment is concerned with the personal identification of an

employee with the organisational goals, and a feeling of satisfaction with their work. The

Normative commitment relate to how much an employee feel he or she should stay at the

organisation. Normatively committed employees feel that leaving the organisation would have

disastrous consequence and feel a sense of guilt about the possibility of leaving. Continuance

commitment relate stay how much an employer feel to stay in the organisation. The employee

in this regard stays with the organisation because the consequence of leaving the organisation

is greater than staying.

Employee Commitment.

According to Akintayo (2010) employee commitment can be defined as the degree to which

the employee feels devoted to their organization. Employee commitment as an effective

response to the whole organization and the degree of attachment or loyalty employees feel

towards the organization. Zheng, Sharan and Wie (2010) describes employee commitment
11
as simply employees’ attitude to organization. This definition of employee commitment is

broad in the sense that employees’ attitude encompasses various components.

1.9 PLAN OF THE STUDY

This study will be presented in five chapters. The first chapter is the introduction. It starts by

presenting the background to the study and continues by providing a statement of the problem

which warrant the study. Further, it highlights the objectives of the study, research questions,

research hypotheses, scope and delimitation of the study, significance of the study and a brief

operationalisation of key concepts used in the study.

The second Chapter presents the literature review and theoretical framework of the study. It

contains the review of relevant and existing literature starting with a preamble, which gives a

brief introduction, and adopts an integrative approach which covers a conceptual review of the

literature, an empirical review of the literature and provides a synthesis of the literature

reviewed. Furthermore, the theoretical framework which discussed the theoretical positioning

of the study is presented.

The third Chapter presents the research methods and procedures used in the study. It includes

the following: research design, rationale for the choice of research design, the study area, the

study population, the target population, the sampling frame, sample size determination,

sampling procedures, the research instruments, the validity of the research instrument, the

reliability of the research instrument, ethical consideration, methods of data collection, the field

experience, the problems encountered in the study, resolutions of the problems encountered in

the study, methods of data analyses, limitations of the study, and the strengths of the study.

12
The fourth Chapter involve the analysis and interpretation of data based on the objectives of

the study. It presents the findings on the implications of workplace discrimination and

employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers council. The data is interpreted in a bid to answer

the research questions and test the research hypotheses raised in the study. The implications of

the findings are also presented accordingly.

The last chapter which is chapter five, presents the summary, conclusion and recommendations

of the study. It includes a summary of the research findings, discusses the implication of the

findings to key stakeholders and provides a conclusion to this study. Recommendations are

made to proffer solutions to the problems raised in the study, the study’s contribution to

knowledge is highlighted, and directions for further research on the subject of the study are

also provided.

13
 REFERENCES

Akintayo, D. I. (2010). Work-family role conflict and organizational commitment among

industrial workers in Nigeria. Journal of Psychology and Counselling. 2(1), 1–8.

National Association of Japanese Canadians. (2018). Gender discrimination in Canada

retrieved from [Link]/human /right/gender/discrimination.

Alison, D. (2018). Types of discrimination with examples. Retrieved from [Link]

[Link].

Alison, D. (2018). Types of discrimination with examples. Retrieved from [Link]

[Link].

Alison, D. (2018). Types of workplace discrimination. Retrieved from [Link]

[Link].

Bowley, A. L. (1926). Measurements of precision attained in sampling. Bulleting of the

International Statistics Institute, Amsterdam, 22(1), 1–62.

Ethridge, D. E. (2004). Research methodology in applied economics. Bradford: John Wiley &

Sons.

Fox, W., & Bayat, M. S. (2007). A guide to managing research. New York: Juta Publications.

Holborn, M. J. & Holborn, M. (2008). Sociology themes and perspectives. London: Harper

Collins publishers.

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Issa, K. H. (2014). Discrimination. Retrieved from. [Link]

[Link]

Josje, H. (2016). Organisational commitment. Retrieved from [Link]

Justyna, M. N. (2014). Direct and indirect discrimination in the European union law-how to

drive a dividing line? International Journal of Social Sciences, 3(1).

Justyna, M. N. (2014). Direct and indirect discrimination in the European union law-how to

drive a dividing line? International Journal of Social Sciences 3(1).

Kumar, R. (2011). Research methodology: A step by step guide for social scientists. London:

Sage.

Nageswara, N. (2018). Descriptive research design: Definition, examples & types - video &

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Olajide, O. T (2014). Employees attitudes and efficiency of human resource management

practices: Evidence from Nigeria. European Journal of Business and Management,

6(31), 68–72.

Olori, W. O., Dan-Jumbo, C. T. (2017). Workplace discrimination and employee

commitment in Rivers state civil services. European Journal of Business Management,

9(8), 51–57.

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Omoh, G. D., Owosu, E. E., & Mendah, A. F. (2015). Workplace discrimination and its

influence in employee performance. International Journal of Information, Business

and Management. 7(3), 226–231.

Osah, D. I., Ukoha, O., & Alagah, A. D. (2017). Workplace discrimination and employee

performance in Nigeria food and beverage sector. International Journal of Advanced

Academic Research, 3(11), 61–81

Patterson, G, (2015). Discrimination in international trade. The policy issue. Princeton:

University press.

Peace, I. & Mohamed A. M. (2014). Effects or employees commitment on organisation

performance in coca cola Nigeria limited Maiduguru, Borno State. IOSR Journal of

Humanities and Social Science 19(3), 33–41.

Peace, I., & Mohamed A. M. (2014). Effects of employees commitment on organisation

performance in coca cola Nigeria limited Maiduguru, Borno State. IOSR Journal of

Humanities and Social Science, 19(3), 33–41.

Tala, E. (2017). Employment discrimination. Retrieved from [Link].

Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis. New York: Harper and Row.

Yolanda, W. (2018). What is discrimination? Definition and examples. Retrieved from

[Link].

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critical review (1960-2009). African Journal of Business Management. 4(1), 12–20.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 PREAMBLE
This chapter is concerned with the review of literature and theoretical frameworks of the study
on workplace discrimination and employee commitment. Based on the statement of problem
and research objectives stated in Chapter one, an integrative approach was adopted in the
review of literature so as to ensure a clear and cohesive presentation. This involved a conceptual
review of literature, empirical review of literature, synthesis review of literature and theoretical
framework.

2.2 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

There are some concepts which are central and very important to this study. These concepts
include discrimination, gender discrimination, ethnic discrimination, religion discrimination,
marriage and civil partnership discrimination, employee commitment, normative measure of
commitment, affective measure of commitment and continuance measure of commitment
among others. The subsequent section probes these concepts drawing from existing literatures.

2.2.1 THE CONCEPT OF DISCRIMINATION

The term ‘discriminate’ appeared in the early 17th century in the English language. It is from
the Latin discriminat- 'distinguished between. So, discrimination in its root meaning is not at
all wrong. It simply refers to the act of distinguishing one object from another. Today, this term
(discrimination) refers to "wrongful discrimination," or distinguishing policies, or procedures
which are at least partially based on illegitimate forms of discrimination that benefit or harm
certain groups of people.

According to Gentisa, Sonela & Zaka (2016), discrimination in employment involves three
basic elements. First, it must be a decision not based on individual merit. Second, the decision

17
must derive from racial or sexual prejudice. Third, the decision must have a harmful impact on
the interest of employees.

Unfair Discrimination involves treating someone or a group of persons less favourably because
of who they are. According to EOC (2019), Discrimination means treating a person unfairly
because of who they are or because they possess certain characteristics. When someone is being
discriminated against, it means they are being treated badly or unfairly based on a personal
characteristic.

In the view of American Psychological Association (2019), Discrimination is the unfair or

prejudicial treatment of people and groups based on characteristics such as race, gender, age or
sexual orientation. Moreover, Legalnaija (2018) made it clear that discrimination involves the
unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the
grounds of race, age, or sex. It also includes discrimination due to disabilities, discrimination
against the girl child and on the basis of the circumstances of one’s birth.

For many people, discrimination is an everyday reality. The 2015 APA Stress in America
Survey found that most people feel they have experienced some type of discrimination. People
from racial or ethnic minorities were most likely to report experiences of day-to-day
discrimination. But others feel they have been targeted because of factors such as age, gender,
education, income or weight.

The Equality Act 2010 highlights 9 protected characteristics:

i. Age

ii. Gender

iii. Race

iv. Disability

v. Religion
18
vi. Pregnancy and maternity

vii. Sexual orientation

viii. Gender reassignment

ix. Marriage and civil partnership

Discrimination that occurs because of one or more of the above characteristics is unlawful
under the Equality Act. Considering every person has at least some of these characteristics such
as age, race or gender, the Act protects every person from being discriminated against.

In the view of Katie (2018), discrimination at work may occur between colleagues, employee
and employer, or between an employee and a third party. Specifically, it is the unfair treatment
of an employee or candidate based on the class or category to which they belong, rather than
on individual merit.

Moreover, Legalnaija, (2018) made it clear that discrimination involves the unjust or
prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the grounds of
race, age, or sex. It also includes discrimination due to disabilities, discrimination against the
girl child and on the basis of the circumstances of one’s birth.

According to Gentisa, Sonela and Zake (2016), discriminatory acts themselves can be
categorized according to the extent to which they are intentional and institutionalized. An act
may be part of the isolated behaviour of a single individual who: Intentionally discriminates
based on personal prejudice. An act may be part of the routine, institutionalized behaviour of a
group. The act must intentionally discriminate out of personal prejudice.

Similarly, Rospenda, et al. (2009) noted that discrimination in an organization, exists when a
disproportionate number of a certain group members hold less desirable positions despite their
preferences and abilities. Usually, there are three types of comparisons to provide if an
organization is discriminatory: comparisons of average benefits given to various groups,
comparisons of the proportion of a group found in the lowest levels of the organizations,

19
comparisons of the proportion of a group found in the most advantageous positions in the
organization Rospenda, et al. (2009).

Job discrimination is when institutional decisions, policies, or procedures are at least partially
based on illegitimate forms of discrimination that benefit or harm certain groups of people or
among people on the basis of prejudice instead of individual merit. Job discrimination is when
institutional decisions. Workplace discrimination refers to actions of institutions and/or
individuals within them, setting unfair terms and conditions that systematically impair the
ability of members of a group to work (Rospenda, et al. 2009). Often, it is motivated by beliefs
of inferiority of a disadvantaged outgroup compared to a dominant group.

2.2.1a TYPES OF DISCRIMINATION

Discrimination can occur in the following forms:

2.2.1b Direct Discrimination

Direct discrimination occurs when someone or a group of persons are treated unfairly or less
favorably because of the characteristics they possess. According to EOC (2019), when a person
with a protected characteristic is treated less favorably than others, it is direct discrimination.

2.2.1c Indirect Discrimination

According to EOC (2019), indirect discrimination exists if there is a rule or policy in the
workplace that puts you at a disadvantage as compared to others, it may be considered indirect
discrimination. Acas (2018) also noted that Indirect discrimination occurs when an
organisation's practices, policies or procedures have the effect of disadvantaging people who
share certain protected characteristics. Indirect discrimination may not be unlawful if an
employer can show that there is an ' objective justification ' for it. This involves demonstrating
a ' proportionate means of achieving a legitimate aim.

According to Andrew (2018), Indirect discrimination happens when a person discriminates

against another, or when a provision, criterion, or practice that disadvantages a certain group

20
of people who share a relevant protected characteristic who has that characteristic, suffers less
favourable treatment because of this.

So, indirect discrimination is when you treat someone the same as everyone else, but your
treatment of the person has a negative effect on them because of their protected characteristic.

2.2.1d Workplace Discrimination

workplace discrimination involves treating people differently in hiring, promoting down yo

firing of employees in the workplace. According to Alison (2018), workplace discrimination
happens when an employee or job applicant is treated unfavourably because of his or her race,
skin color, national origin, gender, disability, religion, or age. Sarah (2018), explained that
Discrimination in the workplace is based on certain prejudices and occurs when an employee
is treated unfavourably because of gender, sexuality, race, religion, pregnancy and maternity
or disability.

If you treat someone differently because they possess different characteristics to other members
of staff you could be acting unlawfully. Direct discrimination occurs when someone is treated
less favourably than other employees. For example, the employee has the qualifications to do
the job but you turn them down because you think they might want to start a family soon.

Katie (2018) noted that Discrimination occurs during the recruitment process. The wording in
job advertisements may discriminate against certain individuals or groups to dissuade them
from applying at all. For example, a company seeking “men for construction work” might be
exhibiting gender discrimination. How interviews are conducted, the questions asked and the
predetermined “right” answers are sometimes used as a way to discriminate against certain
candidates.

Katie (2018) also made it clear that discrimination equally take place during Hiring process.
For example, she noted that a potential employee may be given an employment contract with
different terms and conditions than someone else would have received.

21
2.2.1e Differential Assignment to Hazardous Duties

In many organisations in Nigeria and world over, workplace discrimination has been
perpetuated by assuring differentials has ethnic, religious and political lines when assigning
duties to employees. Even when workers are in the same occupational position, some workers
are directly exposed to more occupational hazards through assignment of the most hazardous
duties to socially and economically disadvantaged populations, thus increasing their risk for
work-related injury or illness (Delp, et al. 2009, Shannon, et al. 2009).

However, the social forces behind disproportionate exposures of minority worker groups to
occupational hazards may be complex. An analysis of illnesses and injury rates over a 10-year
period showed that disparities were dynamic and sometimes disappear when researchers
control for job characteristics such as work schedule, union representation, health insurance
and job hours (Berdahl 2008).

A study of a unionized, multi-ethnic working-class sample found that 85% of workers reported
high exposure to at least one occupational hazard (Quinn, et al. 2008). A similar proportion of
this same group of workers was exposed to one of three workplace injustices (bullying, sexual
harassment, or racial discrimination). Analyses of the same sample showed that exposure to
occupational hazards was unevenly distributed based on race and gender: Being a minority in
any way increased workers’ chances of being exposed to hazards (Krieger, et al. 2008, Krieger,
et al. 2010). differential enforcement of occupational health and safety regulations or policies
in industries and occupations where minority workers predominate may be another source of
discrimination.

2.2.1f Legal Demands.

The (1999) constitution of Nigeria prohibits discrimination on the grounds of place of origin,
sex, religion, marital status, ethnic, civil partnership, marital status, political opinion or
linguistic association or ties. According to Wage Indicator (2018), it is the duty of the state
to promote national integration by providing adequate facilities, equal opportunities and rights

22
to all the citizens without discrimination. Citizens of Nigeria must not be subject to any
disability or deprivation on discriminatory grounds.

There is no specific legal provision regarding discriminatory behavior while hiring an

employee. However, according to the Constitution, it is the duty of the state to ensure equal
opportunity for securing adequate means of livelihood as well as adequate opportunity to secure
suitable employment, for all the citizens without any discrimination. Also, the state must ensure
equal wage for equal amount of work without gender discrimination or discrimination on any
other ground.

Furthermore, the Labour Act (2004) expressly prohibits employers from discriminating against
employees by virtue of their union membership. Labour Act prohibits an employer to cause the
dismissal or otherwise prejudice a worker by reason of trade union membership; because of
trade union activities outside working hours (or with the consent of employer during the
working hours); or because he has lost the trade union membership or has refused to or is
unable to become a member of trade union. Discrimination against pregnant women is also
expressly prohibited in the Labour Act.

Under the Nigerian with disabilities Decree 1993, employers are required to reserve 10% quota
for disabled persons. Law gives 15% tax deduction to those private sector employers who
employ disabled persons in above quota. Employers are further prohibited from discriminating
against disabled persons.

If a worker believes he/she has been discriminated against on any of the above referred grounds,
he/she can bring a case a before the National Industrial Court which can award compensation
if discrimination is proven.

2.2.2 THE CONCEPT OF GENDER.

Gender is defined by FAO as the relations between men and women, both perceptual and
material. Gender is not determined biologically, as a result of sexual characteristics of either
women or men but is constructed socially. It is a central organizing principle of societies, and

23
often governs the processes of production and reproduction, consumption and distribution’
(FAO, 1997). Despite this definition, gender is often misunderstood as being the promotion of
women only. However, as we see from the FAO definition, gender issues focus on women and
on the relationship between men and women, their roles, access to and control over resources,
division of labour, interests and needs. Gender relations affect household security, family well-
being, planning, production and many other aspects of life (Guinand & Lemessa, 2008).

The term 'gender' refers to the social construction of female and male identity. It can be defined
as 'more than biological differences between men and women. It includes the ways in which
those differences, whether real or perceived, have been valued, used and relied upon to classify
women and men and to assign roles and expectations to them. The significance of this is that
the lives and experiences of women and men, including their experience of the legal system,
occur within complex sets of differing social and cultural expectations' (Ministry of Women's
Affairs, 2008).

In the view of Ministry of Women's Affairs, New Zealand (2008), Gender analysis recognises
that: women's and men's lives and therefore experiences, needs, issues and priorities are
different women's lives are not all the same; the interests that women have in common may be
determined as much by their social position or their ethnic identity as by the fact they are
women women's life experiences, needs, issues and priorities are different for different ethnic
groups the life experiences, needs, issues, and priorities vary for different groups of women
(dependent on age, ethnicity, disability, income levels, employment status, marital status,
sexual orientation and whether they have dependants).

Different strategies may be necessary to achieve equitable outcomes for women and men and
different groups of women Gender analysis aims to achieve equity, rather than equality.

Gender equality is based on the premise that women and men should be treated in the same
way. This fails to recognise that equal treatment will not produce equitable results, because
women and men have different life experiences. Gender equity takes into consideration the

24
differences in women's and men's lives and recognises that different approaches may be needed
to produce outcomes that are equitable.

Gender analysis provides a basis for robust analysis of the differences between women's and
men's lives, and this removes the possibility of analysis being based on incorrect assumptions.

2.2.3 THE CONCEPT OF GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Literally, the meaning of discrimination is an unfavourable treatment to anyone based on sex,

race and so on. It is considered as an obstacle for the achievement of the objectives of equality,
development and peace. Discrimination is recognized as a form of inequality and issue for
women around the world. It affects the capacity of women to participate freely and fully in
society and in turn brings psychological harmful consequences. As expressed by Pokharel
(2008), half of the population of the world consists of women, whose large portion is still
discriminated in different phase of life directly or indirectly, though there are some differences
in each country, religion, society or ethnicity. Gender discrimination in the world can be seen
in different religions, countries and communities.

2.2.3a LEGAL FRAME WORK ON GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN

EMPLOYMENT

Gender equality is essential for the achievement of human rights. However, there are still
discriminatory laws against women persisting in every part of the world and new
discriminatory laws are enacted Hassuaina (2016). There are two major sources of women’s
right in Nigeria, the international and domestic sources. International sources include
international declarations, treaties, conventions and protocols signed and ratified by Nigeria,
while at the domestic level it is the constitution and other promulgated laws to prohibits gender-
based discrimination. There exists nexus between human rights and employment opportunities;
such as right to life, movement, peaceful assembly and association; privacy, and human dignity,
liberty, property and other classes of human rights which will only be functional per excellence
when a person’s source of livelihood is unhindered (Bamidele 2015).

25
Chapter 11 of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, (as amended) provides
for equality of sexes and the prohibition of discrimination of all forms. The Constitution
provided that, a citizen of Nigeria of a particular community, ethnic group, marriages, place of
origin, sex religion, or political union shall not, by reason only that he is such a person, be
subjected either expressly by or in practical application of any law in force in Nigeria or any
executive or administrative action of the government, to disabilities or restrictions to which
citizens of Nigeria of other ethnic groups, places of origin, sex, religion or political opinions.

The existence of this male dominated model results in women either rejecting politics
altogether or rejecting male-style politics. held by women, surpassing even the proportion in
the Nordic countries.

Chapter ll of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, (as amended) provides
for equality of sexes and the prohibition of discrimination of all forms. The Constitution
provided that, a citizen of Nigeria of a particular community, ethnic group, and place of origin,
sex religion, or political union shall not, by reason only that he is such a person, be subjected
either expressly by or in practical application of any law in force in Nigeria or any executive
or administrative action of the government, to disabilities or restrictions to which citizens of
Nigeria of other ethnic groups, places of origin, sex, religion or political opinions, are not made
subject; or privilege or advantage that is not accorded to citizens of Nigeria or other
communities, ethnic groups, places of origin, sex, religion or political opinion.

The Section Constitution provides that, the economic system will not be operated in such a
manner as to permit the concentration of wealth or means of production and exchange in the
hands of few individuals or of a group.

The Constitution further provides that, the state social order is founded on ideals of freedom,
equality and justice. Subsection (3) of the same section provides that the state shall direct its
policy towards, ensuring that all citizens without discrimination on any group whatever, have
the opportunity for securing adequate means of livelihood as well as adequate opportunity for
securing suitable employment very vital to these provisions is Section 17 (3) (e), which

26
provides that there is equal pay for equal work without discrimination on account of sex or no
any other ground whatsoever.

The Nigerian Constitution 1999, provides that any person who alleges that any of the provisions
of chapter IV has being or is likely to be contravened in any state in relation to him may apply
to a High court or the Federal High Court depending on the nature of the claim in that state for
redress.66 It is clear that sections 15, 16 and 17 cited fall under chapter II of the Nigerian
Constitution which is classified by virtue of section 6(6)(c) of the same constitution as non-
justiciable rights.

Thus, the provision of section 42 under chapter IV is enough to cover all these anti
discriminatory provisions. The question of infraction of a fundamental right can be canvassed
at any stage of the proceedings before a court of law, even where previously not pleaded by the
party seeking to raise it.

The instrument for enforcement of one’s fundamental rights in Nigeria is the Enforcement of
Fundamental Rights Rule 1979. The preamble to this enforcement instruments cover
international instruments or treaties that have been ratified and domesticated.

Many countries have subscribed to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) adopted by the United Nations General Assembly
in 1979.70 Article 15,71 explicitly provides that states who have ratified the Convention shall
accord to women equality with men, and article 2 commits States who have ratified the
Convention to take all appropriate measures including legislation, to modify or abolish existing
laws, regulations, customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women.

In 2011 almost all countries had ratified the CEDAW Agreement-187; out of the 193 countries
that have ratified Nigeria is included. Despite CEDAW requiring some state that have ratified
the Convention to eliminate discrimination against women by all appropriate means and
without delay, too many States still pervasively retain their discriminatory laws which indicates
that the pace of reform is too slow for women.

27
Consequently, at the 12th session of the Human Rights Council, a resolution titled Elimination
of discrimination against women was adopted requesting the Office of the High Commissioner
for Human Rights to prepare a thematic study on discrimination against women in law and
practice on how the issue is addressed through the UN, in consultation with all relevant
stakeholders, in particular, the Commission on the status of Women. The Universal Declaration
on Human Rights of 1948 offers protection against discrimination on Human Rights globally.

The International Labour Organisations (ILO)77 conventions recognize broader notions of

citizenship at work particularly those dealing with termination of employment, equal pay, fair
remuneration, and the right of employed women to maternity and other forms of protection,
which is similar to the provisions of the African Charter that prohibits discrimination. Suffice
to say that discrimination is anti-development, and anti-social in all ramifications. It has been
noted that apart from slavery, discrimination is the most comprehensive systematic and severe
deprivation of human rights.

The drive for civil rights in employment and other aspects of life became a national movement
in the early 1960s. Rising public concern provided support for the first Federal Employment
Discrimination Statute in 1963, and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Other laws are the Pregnancy
Discrimination Acts and the Civil Rights Act. Some of the laws include the laws that prohibit
wage discrimination based on sex, discrimination in workplace, including hiring, firing,
workforce reduction, benefits and sexually harassing conduct, or pregnancy. It is significant to
note that the Senate on the 16 day of March 2016 rejected the bill to domesticate gender and
equal opportunity law in Nigeria.

2.2.4 FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN

2.2.4a Marriage

Women lack equal rights and responsibilities in marriage with men. CEDAW (1994) noted that
irrespective of form of family or the religion, custom, tradition or legal system under which it
is established. This sought of discrimination involves a lot of issues which include among
others their civil status, ability to enter into marriage of their choice, legal capacity to own and
28
administer property, right to inherit, right to maintain or change nationality, and rights and
responsibility in regards to their children CEDAW General Recommendation No. 21, (1994).
Women should be given the right to be free and have full consent to enter into marriage
CEDAW General Recommendation No, 29 (2013) Equal status had to be maintained between
parties in de facto marriage, customary and non-formal marriages CEDAW General
Recommendation Nos.21, (1994).

2.2.4b Nationality

There is no full equality for women in marriage; there is the need to ensure the freedom of a
woman widow for movement, to choose her residence, as well as equality with men in terms
of citizen family

The rights of women and widows to citizenship has been an issue around the world, for
example Kenyans constitution specifies that citizenship is not lost through marriage or
dissolution of a marriage (The Constitution of the Republic of Kenyan 2010).

This is not so under the Nigerian constitution (Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria
1999). In A.G of Republic of Botswana-V-Unity Dow, the plaintiff a female citizen of
Botswana successfully challenged the legitimacy of Bostwanas citizenship Act on the
constitutional ground that the Act unlawfully discriminated against her on the basis of her
gender. Under Bostwana citizenship law, citizenship was denied to the children of a female
citizen married to a foreigner.

The court held that the citizenship Act in this respect unconstitutionally discriminated against
women. The United State recently amended a law that had a negative impact on the immigrant
spouses of US citizens. Before the law was amended, immigrant spouses of US citizens could
be deported from the United States upon the death of their citizen spouses.

Also, the term nationality was defined in case of Espinoza-V- Farah Manufacturing that the
term Nationality, state of origin or place of birth, refers to the country where a person is born
or the country from which his or her ancestors came. It is interested to note that this will often

29
affect the employment chances of non-indigene women in a country. During the Nigerian
Military Regime, one Dr. Patrick Wilmot a South African Academic and also an extra talented
intellectual was deported, accusing him of spying for South Africa.

The most common employment discrimination based on origin concept has to do with ones
State of Origin or tribe Akin (2008). However, the spirit of the constitution envisaged uniform
opportunities for all under the Federal Character principles enshrined under the Chapter II of
the Nigerian Constitution.

2.2.4c Religion

Nigeria is a diverse society with very heterogeneous population with respect to culture,
language, ethnic, religion and class (Etannibi and Febr15). The Constitution restrains the state
from establishing state religion, this would imply that the state should not discriminate, favour,
promote, patronize or disfavor a person from any religion. The Constitution of the federal
republic of Nigeria (1999), defined the term religion broadly as All that is required is a sincere
and meaningful belief occupying in the life of its possessor a place parallel to that filled by
God of those religions generally recognized.

Religion is another aspect of fundamental right which has generated a lot of discourse in the
court. Lord Dinning MR held that there was nothing in article 9 of the European Convention
on Human Rights which guarantees the right to freedom of religion that gives the applicant the
right to manifest his religion on Friday afternoon in derogation of his contract of employment
and not full pay. (Hammam and Yahaya 2016). The truth of the matter is that, most forms
filled by applicants when seeking jobs must have indicated in a column where the applicant
fills-in his/her religion. Most employees who have fundamentalists approach to issues may not
invite such applicant for an interview let alone giving him/her a job.

2.2.4d Education

Despite efforts made by the Government to provide equal educational opportunities for all
citizens, the level of women participation in education is still low CEDAW General

30
Recommendation No, 3 (1987). The gap between the number of boys and girls completing
primary schools globally has nearly closed, barriers remain in advancing girls secondary school.
less than a third of girls in sub-Saharan Africa are enrolled in secondary school. Education is a
way in which people learn skills, gain employment, gain knowledge and understand about the
world and themselves Okafor (2010). This implies the process of equipping an individual
irrespective of sex with a vital society key with which to open or lock many doors of life.

Fathers are deliberately not allowing their daughters to go to school because they consider
investment in female education as unprofitable, CEDAW General Resolution No, 19, (1992).
since the girls are likely to end up in another man’s home. From one Nigerian culture to another,
there are several unedifying examples of these acts of discrimination and marginalization of
women which are responsible for high rate of illiteracy among them Okafor (2010).

2.2.4e Political Rights

Women have the right to participate to vote and be voted for, to hold and express political
opinion in public and private. Shvedova (2008) noted that Men dominate the political arena;
men formulate the rules of the political game; and men define the standards for evaluation.

The existence of this male dominated model results in women either rejecting politics
altogether or rejecting male-style politics. In theory, the right to stand for election, to become
a candidate and to get elected is based on the right to vote (Matland, 2008). The reality is,
however, that women’s right to vote remains restricted, principally because the candidates are
mostly male.

This is true not only for partial and developing democracies, but for established democracies
as well. The low level of women’s representation in some parliaments should be considered a
violation of women’s fundamental democratic right and, as such, a violation of their basic
human rights. This unequal rate of representation in legislative bodies signifies that women’s
representation, rather than being a consequence of democratization, is more a reflection of a
status quo.

31
 Among all national parliaments, Rwanda is now closest to reaching equal numbers of men
and women: 48.8 percent of seats are held by women, surpassing even the proportion in the
Nordic countries Shvedova (2008). This is largely because of a constitutional quota which
reserves 24 of the 80 seats in the lower house for women. Women in the Rwandan upper house
are also guaranteed 30 percent of the seats.

2.2.5 THE CONCEPT OF ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION.

The term ethnicity refers to ethnic traits, backgrounds, allegiances or associations. Usually,
ethnicity refers to a certain group of people that have racial, linguistic, religious and other traits
in common. A person’s ethnicity refers to the national, cultural or religious group(s) to which
they belong or are perceived to belong. A person’s ethnicity can be shown visually,
linguistically, or it can be difficult to detect. A person’s ethnicity is associated with their
cultural identity, and it can change over time. In contrast, a person’s race is generally seen as
an unchangeable part of their biological makeup.

According to John (2014), the term ' ethnic discrimination' shall mean any distinction,
exclusion, restriction or preference based on descent or national or ethnic origin, which has the
purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal
footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural
or any other field of public life.

Ethnic discrimination occurs when ethnic minorities are accorded inferior treatment in the
labour market or in the workplace relative to the majority, even when comparably qualified in
terms of education, experience or other relevant criteria. Its effect is to deprive people of the
opportunities they deserve through the application of criteria which are irrelevant and morally
indefensible.

Liberty law (2018) noted that, some people have negative feelings about members of certain
ethnic groups based on stereotypes, prejudices or negative interactions they may have had with
members of that ethnic group. Ethnic discrimination occurs when an employee is treated
different than his or her colleagues based on their ethnicity in a
32
Many Nigerians owe their allegiance first and foremost to their ethnic/religious group than to
an entity called Nigeria. Mamman and Baydoun (2009). Nigeria’s peoples belong to 250 - 400
different ethno-linguistic groups, with three major groups accounting for almost 70 per cent of
the population, and several minority groups, some numbering more than 10 million. There have
been arguments that this level of ethnic diversity has been an obstacle to economic
development in Nigeria and other countries in sub-Saharan Africa with similar levels of
heterogeneous populations.

Recently, Franck and Rainer (2012), drawing on longitudinal data from 18 African countries
(including Nigeria) over a 50-year period, demonstrated that the effects of ethnic favouritism
are large and widespread as primary education and infant mortality of ethnic groups were
affected by changes in the ethnicity of their countries political leaders. The acute scarcity of
economic resources in the region leads to a rivalry for domination among various ethnic groups,
often with fatal consequences. From the first military coup in 1966, through the Civil War of
1967 - 1970, to the ongoing terrorist attacks by militant Islamist group, Boko Haram, on
government and Christian targets, ‚aggressive ethnicity and religious strife have become a
regular feature of everyday life in Nigeria (Mustapha, 2009).

These persisting tensions date back to the colonial era and are exacerbated by the intersection
of ethnicity and religion. Islam is more dominant in the northern areas among the Hausa-Fulani,
following the conquest of this region over five centuries ago by Jihadists, while the southern
regions became predominantly Christian in the wake of British colonization in the nineteenth
century (Sowell, 2004: 97).

Since the amalgamation of both regions in 1914, there has been a cultural divide of sorts, as
the southerners are markedly more receptive of Western culture and education compared to the
northerners. One area where this has manifested most is in educational achievements between
the regions; adult literacy rate is around 30% in many northern states, compared to about 60%
in most southern states (NBS, 2010). Several economic and social indices show a similar
pattern of horizontal inequalities among the regions and states within Nigeria, as highlighted
earlier.
33
To manage these inequalities, the federal government over the last three decades has pursued
‚affirmative action‛ programmes aimed at states designated as educationally or economically
disadvantaged.

2.2.5a THE FEDERAL CHARACTER PRINCIPLE

Unlike many (Western) countries with one dominant ethnic group or race, and ethnic minorities
who are often immigrants, or descendants thereof, Nigeria is a conglomeration of three
territorially separated and politically polarized ethnic groups. Nigeria comprises the Hausa-
Fulani ethnic group in the northern regions (29% of the country’s population), the Igbo in the
southeast (18%), the Yoruba in the southwest (21%), and hundreds of smaller ‚ethnic
minorities‛, some with up to 10 million people, making up the remaining one-third of the
country. Thus, Nigeria is a nation of myriad peoples, cultures and groups. In the view of
Adigun(1995), this domestic multiculturalism, has posed a serious challenge for policymakers
and organizations over the decades.

Since the civil war of the late 1960s, several attempts have been made to promote the spirit of
unity in diversity‛, culminating in the establishment of the Federal Character Principle. The
principle was embodied in the 1979 constitution and was inscribed into the 1999 constitution
which prescribed that a Federal Character Commission be established to monitor and enforce
compliance to the principle (Overseas Development Institute, 2006: 3).

The composition of the Government of the Federation or any of its agencies and the conduct
of its affairs shall be carried out in such a manner as to reflect the Federal Character of Nigeria
and the need to promote national unity, and also to command national loyalty, thereby ensuring
that there shall be no predominance of persons from a few states or from a few ethnic or other
sectional groups in that government or any of its agencies. One of the key functions of the
Federal Character Commission (FCC) is to work out an ‚equitable formula‛ for the distribution
of jobs in the federal public service and security agencies.

The FCC has interpreted this mandate literarily, with a strict quota to ensure that the indigenes
of each of the 36 states constitute a minimum of 2.5% and a maximum of 3% of the total
34
positions available. For the broader regions comprising six geopolitical zones, the FCC
mandates that indigenes of each zone constitute between 15% and 18% of the senior level
positions in federal establishments.

More specifically, the Federal Character Commission (Establishment, Etc) Act, 2004 has
further empowered the FCC to ensure that all ministries and extra-ministerial departments,
agencies and other bodies affected by this Act have clear criteria indicating the conditions to
be fulfilled and comprehensive guidelines on the procedure for determining eligibility for
employment in the public and private sectors of the economy. Furthermore, the legislation
guards against the appointment of under-qualified persons under the guise of the federal
character principle, emphasizing that ‚under no circumstances shall an unqualified candidate
be shortlisted purportedly on the basis of federal character considerations‛ (FCC, 2008).

The prescribed penalty for neglecting or wilfully obstructing the application of the Federal
Character Principle is N50,000 fine (about $312.50) or imprisonment for a term of six months,
or both, for individuals; and a N100,000 fine for organizations. In extreme cases of persistent
breach, a fine of N10,000 per day is prescribed for individuals or organizations, and an
imprisonment for a term of two years without an option of a fine (Obe, 2012).

The extent to which these penalties act as deterrents remains an open question. These strict
quotas are often difficult to adhere to in situations requiring highly-skilled professionals, due
to the dearth of suitably qualified candidates in several ‚educationally disadvantaged‛ states. In
such cases, a candidate within the same zone is often sought to maintain the zonal balance.

Additionally, the FCC appears to rely more on a compliance-based approach to enforcement,

as it is yet to prosecute any cases, despite clear disregard for their quota requirements. This has
partially attributed to the practical challenges of one government agency charging and
prosecuting another (Overseas Development Institute, 2006).

35
2.2.6 THE CONCEPT OF RELIGION DISCRIMINATION

In every introduction to religious studies the innumerable attempts to define religion are
discussed, which are mostly differentiated into essentialist and functionalist approaches.
Alongside this, there is a broad consensus in the research field that the classical definitions of
the past are not able to provide a basis today for the determination of the disciplines subject
matter (Fitzgerald 2007), regardless of sporadic, new proposals that repeatedly move in this
direction (e.g. Riesebrodt 2007; Cox 2010).

Polythetic Definitions of Religion, in view of this unsatisfactory situation, increasingly in

modern times, there have been attempts at definitions of religion whose central features seek
to avoid being tied to normative theories, but rather move back to a formal nominalism. Here,
a new form of an essentialist definition of religion is to be found, which avoids both the former
philosophical-metaphysical foundations and most of the connected religious implications of
the classic definitions.

An especially successful variant of this attempt to define anew is the polythetic definition
(Kleine 2010). To date, the most comprehensive discussions of the research history and
conceptual elaboration of this approach have been provided by Benson Saler (Saler 2008).

Saler presents fifteen features of religion, in an additive approach, that consists of all the
features that our cumulative scholarship induces us to attribute to religion (Saler 2008). A key
point is that not all fifteen elements need apply to a phenomenon in order for it to be defined
by this designation of religion. Furthermore, the list is open, so that further elements could be
added from research, if so wished. The more elements that are applicable, the more typical they
are of this model of identified religion.

For Saler, then, religion is a graded category. Just as in a group of tall people there are
individuals of different size, or in a group of rich people there can be found individuals of
varying wealth, so there can be more or less of religion (Saler, 2010).

36
An example of such a polythetic definition is found in the biological praxis of taxonomy, even
though Wittgensteins talk of family resemblances, somewhat mistakenly, is named as the origin.
The application of this as an established formal method of classification in the natural sciences
is beyond question, though the criticism continually arises that casts doubts as to if such an
open definition can be helpful for concrete religious’ studies research. Indeed, to my knowledge,
there exists hardly any social-scientific or historical research material in religion that attempts
to productively make use of a polythetic approach. A central problem is the lack of a clear
demarcation of what is not religion, because a graded category approach cannot provide this.

In the view of Ebhomienlen & Ukpebor (2013), Religion is a complex phenomenon. Over the
year’s scholars have attempted to fashion a suitable definition of religion but none has been
acclaimed to be universally acceptable. All attempts happened to fall short of one issue or
another. We do not intend to involve in the definitional maze in this study as such we explore
the etymology of religion from three Latin words vis-à-vis Ligare meaning to bind, Relegere
meaning to unite or link, and Religion meaning relationship.

From this exploration, religion is a relationship that exists between human beings and Divine
beings. Bouquet articulated it as “a fixed relationship between the human self and some non-
human entity, the sacred, the supernatural, the self-existent, the absolute or simply, God
(Ebhomienlen & Ukpebor, 2013). However, we consider religion in this study as human
activities manifesting through beliefs and ritual practices in response to the Supersensible
Being.

Religious discrimination is treating individuals differently in their employment because of their

religion, their religious beliefs and practices, and/or their request for accommodation (a change
in a workplace rule or policy) of their religious beliefs and practices. It also includes treating
individuals differently in their employment because of their lack of religious belief or practice.

According to workplace fairness (2018), The law protects not only people who belong to
traditional organized religions such as the Christian, Muslim, Jewish, or other faiths, but all
people who have sincerely held religious, ethical, or moral beliefs. If you have been rejected

37
for employment, fired, harassed or otherwise harmed in your employment because of your
religion, your religious beliefs and practices, and/or your request for accommodation of your
religious beliefs and practices, you may have suffered unlawful religious discrimination.

2.2.6b THE LEGAL ISSUES IN RELIGION DISCRIMINATION

The constitution bars the federal and state governments from adopting a state religion, prohibits
religious discrimination, and provides for individual’s freedom to choose, practice, propagate,
or change their religion.

As clearly expressed by International Religious Freedom Report for (2014), the federal
government was ineffective in preventing or quelling violence, often expressed along religious
lines, in the north eastern and central regions of the country of Nigeria. The federal government
only occasionally investigated, prosecuted, or punished those responsible for abusing religious
freedom, and sometimes responded to violence with heavy-handed tactics. Some state and local
government laws discriminated against members of the minority religions in their regions.

Non-Muslims complained sharia courts and sharia enforcement bodies in 12 northern states
sometimes negatively affected their rights. Christian groups said they faced difficulty obtaining
government employment or permits to construct churches in those states. Muslims reported
discrimination, including mass arrests of northern Muslims in some southern areas, related to
security concerns.

The U.S. government estimates the total population at 177.2 million (July 2014 estimate). Most
observers estimate approximately 50 percent of the population is Muslim and 50 percent
Christian. A small number adheres solely to indigenous religious beliefs, and many individuals
combine indigenous beliefs with Muslim or Christian beliefs and practices.

The predominant Islamic group is Sunni, divided among Sufi groups, including Tijaniyah and
Qadiriyyah. Growing Shia and Izala (Salafist) minorities exist. There are also a small number
of Ahmadi Muslims. Christian groups include evangelicals, Roman Catholics, Anglicans,
Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

38
(Mormons), and Jehovah’s Witnesses. Non-Christians include Jews, Bahais, and individuals
who do not follow any religion International Religious Freedom Report for (2014).

The Hausa-Fulani and Kanuri ethnic groups dominate the predominantly Muslim northern
states. Significant numbers of Christians also reside in the north, and Christians and Muslims
reside in about equal numbers in central Nigeria, the Federal Capital Territory, and the
southwestern states, where the Yoruba ethnic group predominates. While most Yorubas are
either Christian or Muslim, some also adhere to traditional Yoruba religious beliefs
(International Religious Freedom Report 2014).

In the southeastern states, where the Igbo ethnic group is dominant, Catholics, Anglicans, and
Methodists constitute the majority, although many Igbos combine traditional practices with
Christianity. In the Niger Delta region, where the Ogoni and Ijaw ethnic groups predominate,
Christians form a substantial majority, and an estimated 1 percent of the population is Muslim.
Evangelical denominations are growing rapidly in the central and southern regions. Ahmadi
Muslims maintain a small presence in the cities of Lagos and Abuja.

2.2.6c EFFECTS OF RELIGION DISCRIMINATION IN WORKPLACE.

Several resume field experiments have shown that individuals who signal their identity as a
Muslim or as an atheist on a resume are less likely to receive further interest from a potential
employer (Wallace, Wright, and Hyde 2013; Wallace, Wright, and Hyde 2014). Evangelical
Protestants and Jews, however, were rarely discriminated against in these resume experiments.

Highlighting the potential moderating effects of context, Acquisti and Fong (2014) found that
a hypothetical Muslim job candidate is less likely than a Christian candidate to receive a call
from a potential employer in areas with higher proportions of Republican voters.

Although not examining religion explicitly, Widner and Chicoine (2011) found that applicants
with an Arab sounding name are less likely to receive a call-back, which could connect to
assumptions about individuals religious affiliation. That Muslims and atheists would
experience and perceive discrimination in the workplace at higher rates corresponds with

39
previous research showing relatively negative attitudes towards Muslims and atheists in the
U.S.

Putnam and Campbell (2010) summarized survey data showing that all most everyone likes
mainline Protestants and Jews. All most everyone likes Catholics and all most everyone
dislikes Muslim.

Similarly, Edgell, Gerteis and Hartmanns (2006) analysis of survey data led them to conclude
that atheists are at the top of the list of groups that Americans find problematic in both public
and private life, and the gap between acceptance of atheists and acceptance of other racial and
religious minorities is large and persistent.

2.2.7 MARRIAGE AND CIVIL PARTNERSHIP.

Marital status refers to whether someone is, or is not, single, married, divorced, widowed,
separated or with a domestic partner. The term domestic partner covers all couples, irrespective
of their sex and sexual orientation. Employees are protected from discrimination at all stages
of employment including recruitment workplace terms and conditions and dismissal. The
Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission (2018).

Moreover, Tribunal Claim (2018) explained that Under the Equality Act 2010 an individual is
protected from discrimination because they are married or a civil partner. The law covers
current employees and job applicants.

The Equality Act 2010 makes it unlawful to discriminate against or treat someone unfairly
because they are married or in a civil partnership. ACAS (2017) noted that, neither marriage
nor civil partnership are defined in the Act , but the legislation is taken to broadly cover people
who are married in a legally-recognised union or in a legally-recognised and registered civil
partnership .

40
2.2.7a FORM OF MARRIAGE AND CIVIL PARTNERSHIP DISCRIMINATION.

Tribunal Claim (2018) explained that under the Equality Act 2010 a workers right not to be
discriminated against on the basis of marriage and civil partnership includes direct and indirect
discrimination as well as victimisation.

2.2.7b DIRECT DISCRIMINATION.

This is when someone encounters less favourable treatment because they are married or in a
civil partnership. For example, a married worker is not promoted because the new role requires
a lot of time in the office and so the organisation that they work for feels that this would best
suit a single person Tribunal Claim (2018).

2.2.7c INDIRECT DISCRIMINATION.

Acas (2017), explained that Indirect discrimination can occur where a workplace rule, practice
or procedure is applied to all workers, but disadvantages people who are in a civil partnership
or marriage.

Similarly, Tribunal Claims (2018), supported the view of ACAS when he noted that indirect
discrimination is when a provision, criterion or practice is put in place and applies to to all
workers but would put people who are married or in civil partnerships at a disadvantage. A
rather extreme example would be if the employer has a ban on recruiting employees who have
children. This would put those who are married or in civil partnerships at a disadvantage
because they are statistically more likely to have children than unmarried people.

2.2.7d VICTIMISATION

Tribunal Claim (2018), argued that victimization is when a worker receives less favourable
treatment because they have complained about discrimination in the workplace. This protects
people who have made a complaint about marriage or civil partnership discrimination (or have
supported another employee in a complaint) so that they do not then go on to suffer ill treatment
from co-workers or managers because of it.

41
Moreover, Acas (2017), noted that victimisation occurs when an employee suffers what the
law terms a ' detriment ' - something that causes disadvantage, damage, harm or loss - because ,
for example , they have made or supported a complaint about marriage or civil partnership
discrimination.

2.2.8 EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT

Commitment is the bond employees have with their organisation, it is a stabilising or binding
force (mind-set), which directs behaviour. When they are committed, they feel like they fit in
and know (and align with) the values of the organization. Zafar Gul (2015), argued thst
Commitment is considered to be psychological immersion of an individual with his institute
through sense of belonging, ownership of organizational goals and being ready to accept
challenges. In the view of Brownyn (2018), Commitment is the bond employees experience
with their organisation. Similarly, Serena (2013), explained that commitment is the strength of
an individual’s identification and involvement in a particular organisation.

Draxit (2012) explained that commitment is the process by which the goals of the organization
and those of the individual become increasingly integrated or congruent. Commitment is a state
of being in which an individual become bound by his action and through these action to beliefs
that sustain the activities of his own involvement. Commitment is the strength of an
individual’s identity and his involvement within an organization in which he is working

Committed employees are an asset to an organization and add value in more ways than one.
They are supportive and more productive than non-committed employees (Dan, 2018). These
employees don’t easily utilize their sick days and are more prone to adopting the vision of the
organization if it is not already aligned with their own value system.

Brownyn (2018), made it clear that employees who are committed to their organisation
generally feel a connection with their organisation, feel that they fit in and, feel they understand
the goals of the organisation. The added value of such employees is that they tend to be more
determined in their work, show relatively high productivity and are more proactive in offering
their support.
42
 Similarly, Chung-Chieh and Chih-Jen (2013), noted that employee commitment is relative to
the workers attachment to or participation in the organizations in which they employed.
Employee commitment is significant since it determines whether employees are likely to leave
their jobs or improve performance.

2.2.9 MEASURES OF EMPLOYEE COMMITMENT.

John Meyer and Natalie Allen developed the Three Component Model of Commitment and
published it in the 1991 "Human Resource Management Review." The model defines the three
types of commitment as follows:

i. Affection for your job (affective commitment).

ii. Fear of loss (continuance commitment).

iii. Sense of obligation to stay (normative commitment).

2.29a Affective Commitment

Affective commitment is referred to as the individual’s emotional attachment to and

involvement and identification with the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). It refers to the
employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization
(Meyer and Elyse, 2010).

Affective commitment refers to the employee's emotional attachment to, identification with,
and involvement in the organization. In traditional, ongoing employment relationships, a high
level of affective commitment has been found to be related to low employee turnover, low
absenteeism and improved job performance hence employees with a strong affective
commitment continue employment with the organization because they want to do so (Wang,
2010).

According to Alex and Mayer (1990), Affective commitment takes into account three main
aspects namely: (a) the development of psychological affinity to a firm; (b) association with
the organization; and (c) the wish to remain.
43
According to Noraazian and Khalil (2016), affective commitment is identified with desirable
workplace behaviours, such as lower absenteeism rate, job satisfaction, increased productivity,
personnel stability and organizational citizenship behaviour. There are certain variables that
precede affective commitment.

2.2.9b Continuance Commitment

The second construct of employees commitment propounded by Meyer and Allen (1990), is
continuance commitment. Continuance commitment describes an individual’s need to remain
with the organization resulting from her/his recognition of the costs (tenure, pay, benefits,
vesting of pensions and family commitment associated with leaving the organization.

According to Naraazian and Khalil (2016), when an individual works for several years in an
organization, he tends to accumulate investments in the form of time, job effort and
organization specific skills which are too costly to lose Continuance commitment describes an
individual’s need to remain with the organization resulting from her/his recognition of the costs
such as tenure, pay, benefits, vesting of pensions and family commitment associated with
leaving the organization.

It may also refer to an awareness of the costs associated with leaving the organization.
Employees whose primary link to the organization is based on continuance commitment remain
because they need to do so (Loi and Foley, 2008).

2.2.9c Normative Commitment

Normative commitment reflects an individual’s feeling of obligation to maintain organizational

membership because he/she believes it is morally right to be loyal to, and stay in, the
organization (Coyle-Shapiro, 2006).

Normative commitment reflects an individual’s feeling of obligation to maintain organizational

membership because he/she believes it is morally right to be loyal to, and stay in, the
organization. Normative commitment exists when the employee feels obligated towards the
firm which has invested in them (Randall & Cote, 1991).
44
According to Randal and Cote (1991), employees feel that when an organization has invested
a lot of time and money in training and developing them, they have a moral obligation to
continue to provide their services to the company. Although Normative commitment is widely
recognized as a salient dimension of employee commitment, it has been found to be
substantially inter-related with affective commitment (Coyle-Shapiro, 2008).

2.3 EMPIRICAL REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This section features a review of relevant empirical studies on workplace discrimination and
its impact on employee commitment. It also provides review of empirical studies on Gender
discrimination ethnic discrimination, discrimination based on religious belief and marriage and
civil partnership based discriminations and the impact of these on employee’s commitment.
Research journals are appraised here to present the methods and findings of extant studies on
the subject matter of this research. Therefore, in this section the most selected and related
empirical finding of related literatures were present in relation to the questions posed by this
study.

2.3.1 GENDER DISCRIMATION AND EMPLOYEES COMMITMENT

Dan and Comfort (2017) conducted a study which investigated the nexus between workplace
discrimination and employee commitment in the Rivers State Civil Service. A sample of 349
was determined from a population of 3791 Civil Servants in the Rivers State Civil Service.
Data for the study was obtained through the utilization of a questionnaire. The Spearman’s
Rank Order Correlation Coefficient was used in analysing the data with the aid of SPSS. The
results indicated a significant but negative correlation among the dimensions of workplace
discrimination and measures of employee commitment. This means that, to improve the level
of commitment among employees, all forms of discrimination must be discouraged. It was
therefore recommended, that the Civil Service Commission should formulate and implement
policies that will foster peaceful co-existence among workers, and also ensure that
discrimination is reduced to the barest minimum.

45
Daniel, Adewal, Anthonia and Olumuyiwa (2014), conducted a study which focused on
discrimination against women on the basis of gender and performance in government
universities in Lagos State, Nigeria. The model used for this study was developed and tested in
which one hundred and eight seven copies of the questionnaire that were administered to
respondents as completed by the academic staff of government universities in Lagos State were
retrieved. Pearson correlation and regression were utilized for the analysis of the study, and the
result showed that managerial roles based on gender discrimination against women in
government universities in Lagos State have affected employee job performance negatively.
The study concludes that for as long as gender discrimination rather than merit remains the
basis for staff employment into positions of authority in Nigerian Universities, enhanced
performance is more likely to elude employees and the educational sector in general

The study conducted by Osah, Ukoha and Alagan (2017), empirically tested the relationship
which exists between workplace discrimination and employee performance in the Nigerian
Food and Beverage sector in Rivers state. It further examines the extent to which discrimination
in workplace correlates with the efficiency of employees. The purposive sampling technique
was used in the selection of five (5) firms which are members of the Manufacturing Association
of Nigeria. A total sample size of one hundred and eighty-six respondents were selected with
the use of the Taro Yamane Formula.

Using the Spearman rank order correlation coefficient, it was found that there is a significant
relationship between workplace discrimination and employee performance. However, Gender
discrimination, Religion discrimination and Ethnic discrimination were negatively correlated
with quality of work and employee efficiency. Also, the variables were significantly moderated
by organization culture. Drawing from the findings, we recommended that managers in the
food and beverage firms should properly manage diversity in organization by organizing
seminars for workers in order to enable them see the benefits of diversity and thereby eliminate
discrimination in the workplace.

The primary discrimination issue discussed in the study conducted by Gökha and Mehmet
(2017), was the perceived fairness of decisions involving pay and promotions. Fairness is
46
examined in terms of the consistent application of standards across individuals in the firm’s
decision-making. To explore these issues, a survey was distributed to 600 members of
accounting profession operating in various districts of Turkey selected randomly. The authors’
analysis resulting from 240 accountants suggest that i) perceived discrimination positively
affects accountants’ turnover intentions ii) perceived discrimination negatively affects
accountants job satisfaction and iii) accountants job satisfaction negatively affects their
turnover intentions.

2.3.2 ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION AND EMPLOYEES COMMITMENT

Dan-Jumbo, Comfort and Edwinah (2018) conducted a study which seeks to establish the
influence of ethnic-based discrimination on employee work attitudes in the Nigeria Civil
Service. Data was collected from Civil Servants working with the Rivers State Civil Service
and tested using Kendall_tau Correlation Coefficient. The results indicated that ethnic based
discrimination leads to increase in employee incivility and a decrease in employee involvement.
Among the recommendations was that recruitment and selection into the Civil Service be based
on competence and capability, not on ethnic background. Also, promotion in the civil service
should be based on individual’s contribution and performance not ethnic jingoism so as to
encourage positive attitude.

2.3.3 RELIGION DISCRIMINATION AND EMPLOYEES COMMITMENT.

A study investigated the perceptual effects of perceived religious discrimination on employee

work-related behaviors, mainly commitment and engagement. The study surveyed 548
employees working in religiously diverse organizations. The findings suggested that when
workers perceive religious discrimination in their organization, their commitment and
engagement are affected. It is recommended that managers in general and specifically human
resource managers devise strategies and develop management interventions to mitigate the
negative organizational and personal consequences of religious discrimination in the workplace.
Further studies should assess the effects of employees perceived religious discrimination on
other behavioral outcomes.

47
A research work was undertaken to empirically test the relationship which exists between
workplace discrimination and employee performance in the Nigerian Food and Beverage sector
in Rivers state. It further examines the extent to which discrimination in workplace correlates
with the efficiency of employees. The purposive sampling technique was used in the selection
of five (5) firms which are members of the Manufacturing Association of Nigeria. A total
sample size of one hundred and eighty-six respondents were selected with the use of the Taro
Yamane Formula.

Using the Spearman rank order correlation coefficient, it was found that there is a significant
relationship between workplace discrimination and employee performance. However, Gender
discrimination, Religion discrimination and Ethnic discrimination were negatively correlated
with quality of work and employee efficiency. Also, the variables were significantly moderated
by organization culture. Drawing from the findings, it was recommended that managers in the
food and beverage firms should properly manage religious diversity in organization by
organizing seminars for workers in order to enable them see the benefits of diversity and
thereby eliminate discrimination in the workplace.

2.4 THEORETICAL REVIEW

Asika (2008) defined theory as a statement of invariant relationship among measurable

phenomenon with the purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomenon. The broad aim of
this section is to provide theoretical explanation this study is situated in. This study utilizes
both Human Capital Theory and Social Exchange Theory. These theories have been analyzed
below.

SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY

Several theoretical approaches from social psychology and organizational behaviour provide
useful perspectives from which to understand the phenomenon of perceived discrimination.
One of these theoretical approaches is called the social identity theory. The social identify
theory championed by Alderfer in 1980 maintains that individuals categorize themselves and
others into distinct groups based on shared salient characteristics, such as personal demography
48
(Tajfel and Turner, 1985). Perceived discrimination is an individual’s perception that he or she
is treated differently or unfairly because of his or her group membership (Mirage, 1994;
Sanchez and Brock, 1996).

Furthermore, when individuals feel they are mistreated because of their group membership,
they often feel alienated and angry, which can result in negative work-related behaviours.
Social identity theory is a useful framework for defining perceived discrimination, but it is
important to recognize that an individual’s identification with a particular group is not limited
to demography and does not occur in isolation. Additional aspects of group membership and
the environmental context (that is, the organization) must be considered as well.

Intergroup theory (Alderfer, Alderfer, Tucker, and Tucker, 1980) the Intergroup theory
championed by Alderfer and Tucker in 1980 suggests that two types of groups exist in
organizations: identity groups and organizational groups. For example, one’s identity group
may include individuals with similar demographic characteristics, such as race, gender, or age,
whereas one’s organizational group may include individuals who share similar tasks,
hierarchical status, or function. According to this perspective, individuals are constantly trying
to balance the competing demands and expectations based on membership in their identity and
organizational groups.

Intergroup theory, and more specifically embedded intergroup theory, suggests that it is
important to consider a constellation of organizational relationships, such as individuals and
their relationship with their co-workers, their supervisors, and the organization itself, in
assessing the impact of perceived discrimination.

Cox (1993) presents a human resource development model that builds on the concept of
embedded groups (Alderfer and Smith, 1982) and interactional research (O’Reilly, Chapman,
and Caldwell, 1991). He suggests that the impact of diversity involves interaction between
individuals and their environment.

This conceptual model, the Interactional Model of Cultural Diversity (IMCD), is based on the
idea that an employee’s group affiliations, such as gender or race, can be analyzed on three
49
levels—individual group, intergroup and organizational—which are consistent with the units
of analysis suggested by embedded intergroup theory. Taken together, these factors form the
diversity climate of an organization.

2.4.1 THE HUMAN CAPITAL MODEL

Gender differences in qualifications have been analysed within the human capital model, which
basic idea is that every person has some form of human capital. Human capital can be
determined as the abilities and skills people have and taken through education, training and
experience. These skills are the basis for the earnings they receive.

According Mincer and Polachek (1974), women choose occupations in order to minimize
looses associated with their more intermittent attachment to the labour force. Given the
traditional division of labour by gender in the family, women tend to accumulate less labour
market experience than men. Further, because women anticipate shorter and more
discontinuous work live, they have lower incentives to invest in labour market, oriented formal
education and on the job training, and resulting smaller human capital investments will lower
their earnings relative to those of men.

The longer hours that women spend on housework may also decrease the effort put into their
market jobs compared to men, controlling for hours worked, and hence also reduce their
productivity and wages. Supposing that women choose occupations for which on-the-job
training less important, gender difference in occupations would also be expected.

Women may especially avoid jobs requiring large investments in skills that are unique to a
particular enterprise, because the returns to such investments are reaped only as long as one
remain with that employer. At the same time, employers may be reluctant to hire women for
such jobs because the firm bears some of the costs of such firm, specific training and fears not
getting a full return on that investment.

Decision to hire one individual rather than another for jobs in which specific training is
provided depends on the likelihood that training cost will be recovered and if individual will

50
permanently separate from a firm it negatively affect this likelihood. The human capital model
implies an important role for wage structure in explaining the gender wages gap. If, as human
capital model propose, women have less experience than men, on average, the higher the return
to experience received by workers, regardless of sex, the larger will be the gender gap in pay
( Blau, Francine, Kahn and Lawrence, 2000) .

Gender Economist, Gary [Link], who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics (1992) for
his contribution to the theory of human capital, also noted an importance of human capital
theory to explanation of gender gap in earnings. As he said, traditionally, women have been far
more likely than men to work part-time and intermittently partly because they usually withdrew
from the labour market for a while after having children. As a result, they had fewer incentives
to invest in education and training that improved earnings and job skills (Becker, 1985).

However, he noticed that situation has changed, decline in family size, the growth in divorce
rates, and the rapid expansion of the service sector where most women were employed, the
continuing economic development raised the earnings of women along with men. Women
greater labour force participation also leads to greater investment in market oriented skills
(Becker, 1993).

Although most studies suggest that human capital factors, particularly women’s lesser labour
market experience, are important in explaining the gender pay gap, there are different views
said that human capital theory is based on broad assumption and fails to take into account the
fact that all decisions are made in a normative context where there are set ideas about what
women and men ought to do. Human capital model critics claim that women and men cannot
be studied as autonomous individuals and the different conditions they face in their working
life must be put in material and social context (Government Office countries, 2000).

Moreover, human capital differences may not explain the entire wage gap. Only a limited part
of the wage gaps can be explained by included factors such as education, work experience. As
seen in Lithuania data - women are actually better educated than men on average, but they work
more often in low wages areas. Work experience is not important here because Lithuanian

51
women have on average at least as long experience and tenure as men. The identical situation
is observed in most European countries (Department of Statistics to the Government of the
Republic of Lithuania, 2005).

2.5 SYNTHESES REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In the last decade, business environment has become highly complex and dynamic and every
organisation is striving to survive and gain competitive advantage. By maintaining an excellent
work environment, organisations achieve the resilience that is needed to survive in an
increasingly turbulent business environment.

Organisations have identified that discrimination is detrimental to any organisation and

eliminating discrimination in the workplace can help organisation to achieve its stated goals
and objectives.

After an extensive research in management and academic literatures, it was obvious that there
is a disparity in the definition of discrimination. Discrimination can be defined as treating
Someone or a group of persons less favorably because they possess some contracted
characteristics. The term 'discriminate' appeared in the early 17th century in the English
language. It is from the the Latin discriminate- distinguished between. So, discriminate in its
own root is not a wrong [Link] simply refers to the act of distinguishing one object from another.
Today, the term discrimination, refers to wrongful discrimination.

According to Gentisa, Sonela, and Zaka (2016), discriminatory acts themselves can be
categorized according to the extent in which they are intentional or institutionalised. The act
may be part of an isolated behavior of a single person who: intentionally discriminate based on
personal prejudice. An act may be part of the routine, institutionalised behavior if a group.
Thus, act must intentionally discriminate out of personal prejudice.

In the view of Respoinda, et'al (2009), workplace discrimination refers to actions of institutions
and or individuals within them, setting unfair terms and conditions that systematically impair

52
the ability of members of a group to work. Discrimination in the workplace can exist in
different guises; gender, ethnic, religious and marriage and civil partnership.

The term Gender discrimination according to FAO (1997), is the relations between men and
women, both perceptual and material. Gender is not determined biologically as a result of
sexual characteristics of either women or men, but it is socially constructed. In the view of
Pokharal (2008), gender discrimination occurs when someone or group of persons are treated
less favourably or unjustly because they belong to a particular gender.

Another form of discriminate which is highly noticeable in the workplace is discrimination

based on ethnic affiliation. John (2014), explained that ethnic discrimination means any
distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on descent or national origin which has
the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise on an
equal footing, of human right and fundamental freedom to political, economic, social or any
other field of public life.

Employees can also be discriminated on based on their marriage and civil partnership. Marital
status refers to whether someone is or is not single, married, divorced, widowed, separated or
with a domestic partner. According to the Victoria Equal Opportunity and Human Right
Commission (2to8), it has been explained that the term domestic partner covers all couples
irrespective of their sex and sexual orientations. Employees are protected against
discrimination at all stages of employment including recruitment, workplace terms and
conditions of dismissal.

For any organisation to achieve its stated goals and objectives, the commitment of the
employees towards the organisation is of Paramount concern to the management. Commitment
refers to the bond with employees have with their organisation. It is the binding force which
direct behavior. According to Zadar (2015), commitment is the psychological immersion of an
individual with his institute through sense of belonging, ownership of organisation, goals and
readiness to accept challenges. Brownyn (2018), noted that commitment is the bond employees
experience with their organisation.

53
John Meyer and Natalie Allen developed the Three Component Model of Commitment and
published it in the 1991 "Human Resource Management Review." The model defines the three
types of commitment as follows;

i Affection for your job (affective commitment).

ii. Fear of loss (continuance commitment).

iii. Sense of obligation to stay (normative commitment).

2.5.1 Affective Commitment

Affective commitment is referred to as the individual’s emotional attachment to and

involvement and identification with the organization (Allen & Meyer, 1990). It refers to the
employee's emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization.

The second construct of employee’s commitment propounded by Meyer and Allen (1990), is
continuance commitment. Continuance commitment describes an individual’s need to remain
with the organization resulting from her/his recognition of the costs (tenure, pay, benefits,
vesting of pensions and family commitment associated with leaving the organization.
According to Naraazian and Khalil (2016), when an individual works for several years in an
organization, he tends to accumulate investments in the form of time, job effort and
organization specific skills which are too costly to lose Continuance commitment describes an
individual’s need to remain with the organization resulting from her/his recognition of the costs
such as tenure, pay, benefits, vesting of pensions and family commitment associated with
leaving the organization.

Normative commitment reflects an individual’s feeling of obligation to maintain organizational

membership because he/she believes it is morally right to be loyal to, and stay in, the
organization (Coyle-Shapiro, 2006). Normative commitment reflects an individual’s feeling of
obligation to maintain organizational membership because he/she believes it is morally right
to be loyal to, and stay in, the organization. Normative commitment exists when the employee
feels obligated towards the firm which has invested in them.
54
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63
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODS

3.1 PREAMBLE

This chapter presents the research methods and the procedures adopted for the study. This

chapter focused mainly on the following areas: research design, rationale for the choice of

research design, the study area, the study population, the target population, the sampling frame,

sample size determination, sampling procedures, the research instruments, the validity of the

research instrument, the reliability of the research instrument, ethical consideration, methods

of data collection, the field experience, the problems encountered in the study, resolutions of

the problems encountered in the study, methods of data analyses, limitations of the study.

3.2.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation in a study. It comprises the

outline and the methods adopted for data collection in a study. It is an action plan that allows a

researcher to provide solution to the problem of who to study, what to study, when to study,

where to study and how to generate and analyses data or information in the research situation.

This study is quantitative in nature and it adopts a survey research design. A survey research

which is used to collect information without changing or manipulating the environment

(Nageswara, 2014). It is used to obtain information regarding a defined social phenomenon,

usually with the use of a structured questionnaire. A survey collects data from a sample of the

study population which is considered to be representative of the entire group.

3.2.2 RATIONALE FOR THE CHOICE OF THE RESEARCH DESIGN

The study examines the impact of workplace discrimination on employee commitment in

64
Nigeria shipper’s council, it assess the impacts of ethnic discrimination on employees

commitment in Nigeria shipper’s council. It also appraises the impacts of religion

discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria Shipper’s council. Also, it determines the

implications of gender discrimination on employee commitment. It also examines the effects

of discrimination based on marriage and civil partnership on employee commitment in Nigeria

Shipper’s council.

Thus, the survey research design was adopted to provide the required information needed to

meet the objectives of this study. This research also involved the use of a structured

questionnaire to obtain information from a representative sample of the target population

within a short period of time.

Descriptive study is simply the attempt to determine, describe or identify what is, while

analytical research attempts to establish why it is that way or how it came to be (Ethridge,

2004). Descriptive research is aimed at casting light on current issues or problems through a

process of data collection that enables a researcher in describing the situation more completely

(Fox & Bayat, 2007). However, descriptive research design is used to describe various aspects

of the phenomenon. In its popular format, descriptive research is used to describe the

characteristics and/or behaviour of sample population.

3.3.1 THE STUDY AREA

The study area refers to the geographical location or case study where data is obtained in a

study. Study area is the region where the study was conducted. The location of this study

covered the head office of Nigeria Shipper’s council in Apapa, Lagos State. Lagos state is

usually regarded as the economic heart of Nigeria as it handles about 80 percent of Nigeria’s
65
imports. Lagos state is a centre of attraction for people from other states and from other

countries. The situation is attributable to its sound economic base, strategic maritime location

and socio-political importance which induced a high rate of migration to the State (Lagos State

Government, 2017).

The Nigeria shipper’s council was established in 1978 by decree number 13 NSC Act capN133

LFN 2004. The Nigeria Shipper’s council is vested with the responsibility of protecting the

interest of Nigeria shippers i.e. importer and exporters.

3.3.2 THE STUDY POPULATION

Population is defined by Welman and Kruger (2001) as the study object, which may be

individuals, groups, organisations, human products and events or the conditions to which they

are exposed. This is a group of potential participants to whom one wants to generalize the study

results, and it is only when results can be generalized from a sample to a population, that they

have meaning beyond the limited setting in which they were obtained. In relation to this, the

study population cut across the entire council. In Nigeria shippers, there are six Zonal

coordinating offices one in each of the 6 geopolitical zone and a liaison office in Abuja. In

addition, the council has 15 Area offices spread across the 6 geopolitical Zones of the country.

The study population comprises mainly of both full time and non-full-time employees of

Nigeria Shippers Council.

3.3.3 TARGET POPULATION

According to Haralambos and Holborn, (2008), The target population refers to all the relevant

sampling units in a study. This research investigated the relationship between workplace

discrimination and employee commitment in Nigeria Shipper’s council. Given that Nigeria
66
shippers council has a wide network of offices in Nigeria and due to logistical and time

constraint, the researcher used the organisation Head office located at Apapa, Lagos State as

the research target population. The target population was a total of about 150 employees

consisting of both full time and non-full-time employees of the organizations’ head office in

Lagos state.

3.4.1 SAMPLING FRAME

For this study, the sample frame consist of all the staff at Nigeria shipper’s council head office

in Apapa, Lagos state. This study focused on the different departments in Nigeria shipper’s

council Apapa, Lagos state. This different department included the inland transport services

department, commercial shipping services department, consumer affairs department, corporate

planning and research department, legal services department, account and finance and human

resource/sadministrative department.

Table 1: Employees of Nigeria Shippers Council, Apapa Lagos State.

S/N Departments Within Nigeria shippers Full Time Non Full Number Of
council Employees Time Employees
Employees
1 35 5
inland transport services department 40

2 30 6
Commercial shipping services 36

department

3 27 5
Consumer affairs department 32

4 25 5
Corporate planning and research 30

department

5 35 4
Logistics 39
67
 6 15 0
Legal services department 21

7 16 6
Account and finance and department. 22

8 22 8
Human resource and admin department 30

Source: Survey, 2019. 250

3.4.2 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

A sample is a subset of a population selected to participate in a study, it is a fraction of the

whole, selected to participate in the research project. It is a set of data collected from a given

population by a defined procedure. The main determinants of sample size are, the purpose of

the study, population size etc. Sample sizes are predetermined in quantitative research to ensure

that the sample is representative of the study population (Kumar, 2011). The sample size for

this study was determined using Yamane (1967) formula:

n= __ N_____

1+N(e)2

Where: n = Sample size,

N= Population of the study

e = Precision estimate

Confidence level is the precision estimate. The precision estimate used is 0.05
n= __ 250____
1+250(0.05)2

n= 250
1+ 250(0.0025)

68
n= 250
1.625
n= 154.
The next phase was to ensure that the sample represents the appropriate department according

to their population size. Therefore, the study adopted the stratified proportional allocation

formula by Bowley (1926) to distribute the sample into different strata for the basis of data

collection. The Bowley (1926) proportional allocation formula and table is given as:

nh = n x Nh

Where: nh = Number of units allocated to each stratum

n = Total sample size

Nh = Number of items in each stratum in the population

N = Total population

Based on the above result, the sample size for this research work is 103 respondents. The next

phase was to ensure that the sample represents the appropriate department according to their

population size. Therefore, the study adopted the stratified proportional allocation formula by

Bowley (1926) to distribute the sample into different strata for the basis of data collection. The

Bowley (1926) proportional allocation formula and table is given as:

nh = n x Nh

Where: nh = Number of units allocated to each stratum

n = Total sample size

Nh = Number of items in each stratum in the population

69
 N = Total population

Table 2: Proportional Allocation of the Sample size

S/N Allocated proportions according to the Bowley Calculation Total

departments in Nigeria Shippers
Council.
1 150*40 24
Inland transport services department
250
2 Commercial shipping services 150*36 22
department 250
3 Consumer affairs department 150*32 19
250
4 Corporate planning and research 150*30 18
department 250
5 Logistics 150*39 23
250
6 Legal service department 150*21 13
250
7 Account and Finance department 150*22 13
250
8 Human resource/admin depertment 150*30 18

250
Source: Survey, 2019. 150

3.4.3 SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Sampling techniques is divided into two; probability sampling and non-probability sampling

Sekaran & Bougie (2010). In probability sampling, each element has a possibility of being

chosen. In non-probability sampling, there is belief that an even distribution of attributes is

found within the population. In this research, the researcher used a non-probability sampling

for this study. Convenience sampling is a method of non-probability sampling technique that

depends on information gathering from target population who are conveniently accessible to
70
take part in the study. In this research, convenience sampling was used, and the research

instrument was administered to the respondents wherever the researcher discovered them and

regularly wherever they are convenient to participate.

3.5.1 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The research instrument adopted in this study was structured questionnaire which was aligns

with the features of survey research. The questionnaire was chosen as the research instrument

to ensure that all questions was consistently phrased, and for ease of administration. Other data

that was used in this research work included secondary data from published works such as

textbooks, journals, online articles, amongst others. The questionnaires served the purpose for

the research by generating responses which was accurately used for the analysis. The questions

was drafted in consideration of the research objectives and research questions.

The questionnaire was structured into four sections: A, B, C, D and E. Section A covered

questions to collect the respondents’ socio-demographic characteristics; Section B coverd

questions on religion discrimination in the organisation; Section C dealt with information on

gender discrimination in the organisation; Section D involved question on ethnic

discrimination and Section E considered information on marriage and civil partnership based

discrimination in Nigeria shippers council. These items were scored using a three-point scale

of agree (3), not sure (2) and disagree (1).

3.5.2 VALIDITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Greener (2008) identified three different kinds of validity like construct validity, face validity

and internal validity. For this study, data collection instrument was subjected to content and

face validity. Odetunde (2011) asserted that the face validity relates to whether the questions
71
or items on the instrument appear to measure on the surface what it is designed to measure

while the content validity according to Odetunde (2011) involves determining whether the

questions on the scale cover a wide range or domain of the activities which constitute the

construct being measured.

In the validation process of this study, copies of the questionnaire and copies of the research

questions was given to project supervisor, professionals, lecturers, and doctoral degree students.

These experts went through the research questions and the questionnaire carefully to

ascertain the appropriateness and adequacy of the instrument and all corrections were taken

into consideration after due and careful deliberation. The relevant corrections that was made

by experts and that of the study supervisor formed the basis for testing validity of the research

instrument.

3.5.3 RELIABILITY OF THE RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The test of reliability measures how consistent a research instrument is. It has been noted that

a scale or test is reliable to the extent that repeated measurements made by it under constant

conditions will give the same results. Kumar (2011) noted that wording of questions in a

research instrument can affect the respondents’ interpretation of the questions, thus yielding

different interpretations that may affect the reliability of the research instrument.

The various types of reliability test include multiple form reliability, split-half technique, test-

re-test reliability, and Cronbach’s alpha test. Among these, Cronbach's alpha has remained the

most widely recognized measure of reliability. In this research work, the Cronbach alpha test

was applied in establishing the validity of the research instrument. Cronbach’s alpha test
72
proceeds by associating each measurement item with every other measurement item and

obtaining the average inter-correlation for all the paired associations.

3.6.1 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION

This study adopted some ethical principles. First is the principle of informed consent.

Informed consent means that the subjects are made adequately aware of what type of

information the researcher wants, why the information is being sought, what purpose it will be

put to, how they are expected to participate in the study, and how it will directly or indirectly

affect them (Kumar, 2011). This involves the participants voluntarily agreeing to participate in

research having substantially understood what the research involves (Haralambos & Holborn,

2008).

Another ethical consideration was, aligning the study with the principle of objectivity. This

refers to ensuring that the information obtained through this study follows an objective,

scientific and systematic process in order to avoid bias or distortions in the information. In this

study, effort was made to abide by a scientific research process, using appropriate methods,

presenting the research in a systematic way, and correctly reporting the findings of the study.

3.6.2 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Data collection is the process of collecting information from the respondent of a target

population. Primary and secondary data will be collected for this study. Primary data was

collected through the use of a structured questionnaire to obtain relevant information from

respondents on the impacts of workplace discrimination on employee commitment. Secondary

data was sourced from journals, articles, texts, discussion papers, online posts and publications

related to the study. These provided information on the existing state of knowledge on the
73
effects of workplace discrimination on employee commitment. It also identified the existing

gaps in studies and uphold the findings of the study.

3.6.3 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS

The data collected from the field was statistically analysed and was presented using tables,

simple percentages and frequencies. Hypotheses was tested using the Pearson Correlation as

the main statistical tool that explained the relationship between variables under parametric test.

The Pearson Correlation measures the degree of relationship between two variables which are

both measured in either the interval or ratio scale. Its value ranges from -1.0 to +1.0 with bigger

absolute values indicating stronger relationship; and the sign denotes the direction of

association. A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other also

increases. On the contrary, a negative correlation shows that as one variable increases, the other

decreases.

3.7.1 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The scope of this study was limited to workplace discrimination and employee commitment in

Nigeria Shipper’s council. The study was conducted in Nigeria Shippers council. The major

limitation of this study is that the study did not conduct a comparison of findings with other

organisations. In addition, the nature of the workload and busy schedule of employees in the

Nigeria Shippers council, caused a delay in the filling of the questionnaire by the respondents

and this increased the time frame scheduled for gathering the relevant data.

3.7.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Theoretically, the findings of this research is significant because it helps in providing empirical

data in identifying and explaining the impacts of workplace discrimination on employee job
74
commitment. This research work provides human resource experts with appropriate

information on workplace discrimination and how they enhance the employees job

commitment. The findings of this research equally is valuable to the organisation (Nigeria

shippers council) in which the research was carried out. The study provided useful

information on how best to boost the employee job commitment.

75
 REFERENCES

Bowley, A. L. (1926). Measurements of precision attained in sampling. Bulleting of the

International Statistics Institute, Amsterdam, 22(1), 1–62.

Ethridge, D. E. (2004). Research methodology in applied economics. Bradford: John Wiley &
Sons.
Fox, W., & Bayat, M. S. (2007). A guide to managing research. New York: Juta Publications.

Haralambos, M. & Holborn, M. (2008).Sociology: Themes and perspectives. London: Collins

Education.

Kumar, R. (2011). Research methodology: A step by step guide for social scientists. London:

Sage.

Nageswara, N. (2018). Descriptive research design: Definition, examples & types - video &

lesson transcript. Retrieved from: [Link]

[Link]

Odetunde, O. J. (2011). Introduction to social scientific research. Ibadan: Lad-Od Prints &
Publishing Co.

Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis. New York: Harper and Row.

76
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the data obtained from the questionnaire administered to the respondents.

For easy analyses and interpretation, the responses were tabulated. Hence, the analysis was

centered on workplace discrimination and employee’s commitment in Nigeria Shippers

Council. However, in this study the researcher aim is to achieve four objectives such as; (i) to

examine the impacts of ethnic discrimination on employee’s commitment (ii) to assess the

effects of gender discrimination on employee commitment (iii) to investigate the implications

of religion discrimination on employee’s commitment (iv) to assess the impacts of marriage

and civil partnership on employee commitment.

However, this chapter further describes in detail the socio-demographic background of the

respondents which were shown in a tabular form with the use of frequencies and percentages.

A total of 150 copies of structured questionnaire were administered to employees of Nigeria

Shippers Council Head office in Lagos state. However, 145 copies of the questionnaire were

retrieved from the respondents which constitute 94 percent of the administered questionnaire.

77
 4.2. SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESPONDENTS

Table 4.1 Sex Distribution of Respondents

Valid Frequency (n = 145) Percent (100%)

Male 82 57

Female 63 43

Total 145 100

From the above Table 4.1, the sex distributions of respondents revealed that 57 percent of

respondents were Male, while 43 percent of the total respondents were Female. This

distribution established that there was no much gap between female to male.

The implication of this is that males responded more to the filling of the questionnaire. This

also means that Nigeria Shippers Council recognizes the right of both n male and female but

the disparity in the ratio of male to female might have to do with the attitude of male who were

more amiable in responding to questionnaire.

78
Table 4.2 Marital Status of Respondents

Marital Status Frequency (n = Percent (100%)

145)

Married 84 57.9

Single 57 39.3

Divorced/Separated 4 2.8

Total 145 100

The marital distributions of respondents revealed that 57.9 percent were married while 39.3

percent of the respondents were single respectively while 2.8 percent of the total respondents

claimed divorced/separated respectively. The implication of this is that Nigeria Shippers

Council give preference to Advanced and Married persons so as to enrich its labour force.

Table 4.3 Length of Working Experience

Working Experience (years): Frequency (n = 145) Percent (100%)

Less than 5 27 18.6
5-9 48 33.1
10-14 45 31.1
15 and above 25 17.2
Total 145 100
Table 4.3 showed that 27 (18.16%) of the respondents fell below 5 years working

experience, 48(33.1%) respondents fell within 5-9 yrs. working experience, 45(31.1%)

respondents had been working for 10-14 yrs., 25(17.2%) respondent fell within 15 years and

above working experience. Therefore, majority of the respondents fell within 5 to 9 years

working experience. The implication to this is that Nigeria Shippers Council which has come

79
to stay in the Shipping Sector in Nigeria has gained the employees and customers’ confidence,

making it one of the prides of the employees’ satisfaction as a good place to work.

Table 4.4 Highest Educational Qualification of Respondents

Highest Educational Frequency (n = 145) Percent (100%)

Qualification
OND/NCE/Diploma 29 20
Bachelors’ Degree/HND 65 44.8
Master’s Degree 40 27.6
Others 11 7.6
Total 145 100
Table 4.4 showed that 29(20.%) were OND/NCE holders, 63(44.8%) had HND/ [Link], while

40(27.6%) were [Link]/MBA holders. Others were 11 (7.6).

The implication to this is that most of those interviewed were degree holders. The means that

most of the workers in Nigeria Shippers Council possess the relevant qualifications to be where

they are and performing the right function at the right place. And also, right qualification is the

main sustainable development for any Shipping firm that wants to succeed in this era of

globalisation.

Table 4.5: Departments of Respondents.

Departments Within Nigeria Frequency Percentage
shipper’s council
Inland transport services 24 16.5
Commercial shipping service 22 15.1
Consumer Affairs 19 13.1
Corporate planning and 18 12.4
research
Logistics 23 15.8
Finance and Account 13 8.9
Legal Service 13 8.9
Human Resource and Admin 18 12.4
Total 145 100

80
Tables 4.5 above showed that 24(16.5%) respondents were in inland transport services

department, 22 (15.1%) respondent are Commercial shipping services department, 19(13.1%)

respondents are in Consumer affairs department, 18(12.4%) respondent are in Corporate

planning and research department. 23(15.8%) respondents are in Logistics 13(8.9%)

respondents were in Legal services department, and 13(8.9%) respondents were in Account

and finance and department. 18(12.4%) respondent are in Human resource and admin

department. Therefore, majority of the respondents were in inland transport services

department.

Table 4.6 Income Distribution of Respondents

Estimate of Income per Month: Frequency (n = 145) Percent (100%)

N81,000-N100,000 20 13.7

N100,000-N150,000 34 23.4

N150,000-N200,000 45 31.7

N200,000 and above 46 31.7

Total 145 100

81
 TABLE 5: RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON ETHNIC DISCRIMINATION

Respondents’ views on ethnic discrimination A DS NS

F % F % F %

The organization has a clear policy on ethnic discrimination. 130 90.7 5 3.1 10 6.2

The organisation has a fair and equal training opportunities g 49 34 16 11.3 79 54.7

Some employees are less committed because they have been denied opportunities 87 59.8 25 17.5 33 22.7

for decision making in the organization due to ethnic origin

Some employees in the organization are less committed to their job because they 126 86.6 13 9.3 6 4.1

have been denied decision making opportunities because of their ethnic origin

The organization has some policies that put some employees in the organization at 122 84.5 15 10.3 8 5.2

disadvantage because of their ethnic origin.

Some employees are less committed to their job because they have been unequally 145 100 0 0 0 0

rewarded because of their ethnic origin

82
Good performances are recognized by the organisation 97 100 0 0 0 0

Source: Survey, 2019

Based on the responses obtained from the respondents, Table 5 showed that 90.7 percent agreed

that the organisation has a clear policy on ethnic discrimination, 3.1 percent disagreed that the

organisation has a clear policy on ethnic discrimination while 6.2 percent of the respondents

were not sure if the organisation has a clear policy on ethnic discrimination. Based on the

question addressing if training in the organization is fair and equal, 34 percent of the

respondents agreed that the organisation has equal and fair opportunities for training; 11.3

percent disagreed with the assertion that the organisation has equal and fair opportunities for

training while the majority of the respondents which is 54.7 percent were not sure if the

organisation has equal and fair opportunities for training. Table 5 also showed that 59.8 percent

of the respondents agreed that the some employees are less committed to their job because

they have been denied promotion because of their ethnic origin, 17.5 percent disagreed with

the assertion that some employees are less committed to their job because they have been

denied promotion because of their ethnic origin while the remaining 22.7 percent were not sure

if some employees are less committed to their job because they have been denied promotion

because of their ethnic origin. The findings in Table 5 shows that all the respondents were in

agreement with the assertion that the organization has some policies which put some of the

employees at disadvantages due to their ethnic origin. Also Table 5 shows that 86.6 percent of

the respondents agreed that some employees in the organization are not committed to their job

because they have been denied opportunities for decision making due to their ethnic origin,
83
while 9.3 percent disagreed and 4.1 percent were not sure. 84.5 percent of the respondents

agree that some employees are less committed to their job in the organization because they are

unequally rewarded because of their ethnic origin, while 10.3. percent disagreed 5.2 percent

where not sure on this.

Based on these data, it can be inferred that respondents’ responds positively on the question

raised by the researcher based on ethnic discrimination.

TABLE 6: RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON GENDER DISCRIMINATION

AGREED DISAGREE NOT SURE TOTAL

Respondents’ views on gender discrimination D

F % F % F %

The organization has a clear policy on gender discrimination 127 87.6 0 0 18 12.4 145

Promotion in the organization is based on gender lines 91 63 42 28.8 12 8.1 145

Some employees are less committed to their jobs because they 140 96.9 5 3.2 0 0 145

have been unequally remunerated because of their gender

Some employees have been denied training in the organization 103 71.3 42 28.7 0 0 145

because of their gender

Recruitment in the organization is based on gender 105 72.7 18 12.4 14 9.8 145

The organization has some policies which put some employees 145 100 0 0 0 0 145

at disadvantage because of their gender

Source: Survey, 2019.

84
With regards to the responses of the respondents, Table 6 showed that 87.6 percent agreed that

the organization has a clear and fair policy on gender discrimination while the remaining 12.4

percent were not sure if there is a clear policy on gender discrimination in the organisation.

None of the respondents disagreed. Results obtained from Table 6, revealed that 63 percent of

the respondents agreed that promotion in the organization is based on gender lines while 28.8

percent disagree with the assertion and 3.8 percent of the respondents were not sure if

promotion in the organization is based on gender line.

Table 6 showed that 96.9 percent agreed that some employees are less committed to their job

because they have been unequally paid because of their gender while 3.1 disagreed that some

employees are less committed to their job because they have been unequally paid because of

their gender. Table 6 showed that 71.3 percent of the respondents’ agreed with the assertion

that some employees have been denied training because of their gender while 28.7 percent

disagreed with the assertion that some employees have been denied training because of their

gender. From Table 5, 72.7 percent of the respondents’ agreed that recruitment in the

organization is based on gender line while 12.4 percent disagreed that recruitment in the

organization is based on gender line and 9.8 percent of the respondents were not sure if

recruitment in the organization is based on gender line Finally on Table 6, it was revealed that

55.7 percent of the respondents agreed that the organisation has some policies which put

some employees at disadvantage because of their gender. while 44.3 percent of the total

respondents disagreed with the assertion that the organisation has some policies that put some

employees at disadvantage.

TABLE 7: RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON RELIGION DISCRIMINATION

85
 A DS NS

Respondents’ views on religion discrimination

F % F % F %

The organisation has a clear policy on religion discrimination 145 100 0 0 0 0

Recruitment into the organisation is based on gender 145 100 0 0 0 0

Some employees in the organisation have been denied promotion because of their religion 133 91.8 3 2.1 9 6.1

Some employees are less committed in the organisation because they have been denied 140 96.9 5 3.1 0 0

training because of their religion

The organisation has some policies that put some employees at disadvantage 87 59.8 58 40. 0 0

Some employees in the organisation are less committed to their job because they have 142 97.9 3 2.1 0 0

been unfairly remunerated because of their religion.

Source: Survey, 2019.

TABLE 8: RESPONDENTS’ VIEWS ON MARRIAGE AND CIVIL

PARTNERSHIP DISCRIMINATION

A DS NS

Respondents’ views on marriage and civil partnership F % F % F %

The organisation has a clear policy on marriage and civil partnership 103 71.7 29 19.8 12 8.5

discrimination

86
 Employees in the organisation are promoted based on their marital 145 100 0 0 0 0

status

Some employees are less motivated in the organisation because they 63 43.2 76 52.7 6 4.1

have been denied training opportunities because of their marital

status.

Some employees are less committed in the organisation because they 130 89.7 15 10.3 0 0

have been unfairly remunerated because of their marital status.

There are some policies in the organisation that put some of the 75 51.5 70 48.5 0 0

employees at disadvantage because of their marital status

Source: Survey, 2019.

From the result of the responses of the respondent Table 8 revealed that 71.7 percent of the

respondents agreed with the assertion that the organisation has a clear policy on Marriage and

Civil Partnership discrimination while 19.8 percent of the respondents’ disagreed with the

assertion that the organisation has a clear policy on Marriage and Civil Partnership

discrimination. Also, Table 8 showed that all the respondents agreed that the employees in the

organisation are promoted based on their marital status. With regards to the responses of the

respondents, Table 8 showed that 58.5 percent of the respondents agreed that some employees

in the organisation are less motivated because they have been denied training opportunities as

a result of their marital status, 18.9 percent of the respondents disagreed that some employees

in the organisation are less motivated because they have been denied training opportunities as

a result of their marital status, while others which represent 22.6 percent of the total respondent
87
were not sure if some employees in the organisation are less motivated because they have been

denied training opportunities as a result of their marital status, Table 8 showed that 89.7 percent

agreed that with the notion that some employees are less committed to their job because they

have been unfairly remunerated because of their marital status while the remaining 10.3 percent

disagreed that some employees are less committed to their job because they have been unfairly

remunerated because of their marital status. Furthermore, Table 8 revealed that 51.5 percent of

the respondents agreed that the organisation has some policies which put some of the

employees at disadvantage because of their marital status while 48.5 percent of the respondents’

disagreed that the organisation has some policies which put some of the employees at

disadvantage because of their marital status.

4.4. TEST OF HYPOTHESES

This section is concerned with examining the relationship between the data collected and the

hypotheses earlier stated in chapter one. In testing the hypotheses, Pearson Product Moment

Correlation coefficient is used to determine the degree of relationship between variables with

the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The result of the analysis will

determine the acceptance or rejection of stated hypotheses.

4.4.1. HYPOTHESIS ONE

H01: There is a no significant relationship between ethnic discrimination and employee

commitment.

88
TABLE 9: Pearson Correlation Coefficient Showing the Relationship between ethnic

discrimination and employees’ commitment.

Variables Ethnic discrimination Employees’ commitment

Pearson Correlation 1 .893**

Ethnic discrimination Sig. (2- tailed) .000

N 145 145

Pearson Correlation .893** 1

Employees’ commitment Sig. (2-tailed) .000

N 145 145

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Source: Survey, 2019

Table 9 showed the result of hypothesis one. To test the hypothesis, the Pearson correlation

coefficient was utilized to show the relationship between ethnic discrimination and employee

commitment.

Decision Rule

The correlation result shows that ethnic discrimination has a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.893

with employee commitment. Also, the two tailed test conducted to check for the significance

level of the value of correlation coefficient yields a value of 0.000 which was significant at

0.01 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant relationship

between ethnic discrimination and employee commitment will be rejected.

The implication of rejecting the null hypothesis is that the alternate hypothesis will be accepted

89
therefore, it will be agreed that there is a significant relationship between ethnic discrimination

and employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council. When employees are discriminated

against on the basis of ethnic affiliations, their level of commitment will be negatively affected.

4.4.2. HYPOTHESIS TWO

H02: there is no significant relationship between gender discrimination and employee

commitment.

TABLE 10: Pearson Correlation Coefficient Showing the Relationship between gender

discrimination and employee commitment

Variables Gender Discrimination Employees’ Commitment

Gender discrimination Pearson Correlation 1 .980**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 145 145

Pearson Correlation . 980** 1

Employees’ Commitment Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 145 145

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Source: Survey, 2019

Table 10 shows the result of hypothesis two. To test the hypothesis, the Pearson correlation

coefficient was utilized to show the relationship between gender discrimination and employees’

commitment.

90
Decision Rule

The correlation result shows that gender discrimination has a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.980

with employee commitment. Also, the two tailed tests conducted to check for the significance

level of the value of correlation coefficient yields a value of 0.001 which was significant at

0.01 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis that states that there is no significant relationship

between gender discrimination and employee commitment will be rejected. This establishes

that the prevalence of gender discrimination influence employee commitment.

The implication of rejecting the null hypothesis is that the alternate hypotheses will be accepted

therefore, we will agree that the there is a significant relationship between gender

discrimination and employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council. This establishes that

the prevalence of gender discrimination influence employee commitment.

4.4.3. HYPOTHESIS THREE

H03: There is a no significant relationship between religion discrimination and employee

commitment.

91
Pearson Correlation Coefficient Showing the Relationship between Religion

Discrimination and Employee Commitment

Variables Gender Discrimination Employees’ Commitment

Gender Discrimination Pearson Correlation 1 .607**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 145 145

Pearson Correlation . 607** 1

Employees’ Commitment Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 145 145

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Source: Survey, 2019

Table 11 above showed the result of hypothesis three . To test the hypothesis, the Pearson

correlation coefficient was utilized to show the relationship between marriage and civil

partnership discrimination and employee commitment.

Decision Rule

The correlation result shows that marriage and civil partnership discrimination have a

correlation coefficient (r) of 0.607 with employee commitment. However, the two tailed test

conducted to check for the significance level of the value of correlation coefficient yields a

value of 0.001 which was significant at 0.01 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis that states

that marriage and civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment is to be rejected.

This indicates that employee will be less committed in an organisation where marriage and

92
civil partnership discrimination is prevalent.

The implication of rejecting the null hypothesis is that the alternate hypothesis will be

accepted hence, we will conclude that there is a significant relationship between religion

discrimination and employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council.

4.4.4. HYPOTHESIS FOUR

H04there is no significant relationship between marriage and civil partnership discrimination

and employee commitment

TABLE 12: Pearson Correlation Coefficient to Test the Relationship between marriage

and civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment

Variables Marriage and Civil Employees’

Partnership Commitment

Marriage and Civil Partnership Pearson Correlation 1 .657**

Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 145 145

Pearson Correlation . 657** 1

Employees’ Commitment Sig. (2-tailed) .001

N 145 145

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

Source: Survey, 2019

Table 12 showed the result of hypothesis four. To test the hypothesis, the Pearson correlation

coefficient was utilized to show the relationship between marriage and civil partnership

93
discrimination and employee commitment.

Decision Rule

The correlation result shows that marriage and civil partnership discrimination have a

correlation coefficient (r) of 0.657 with employee commitment. However, the two tailed test

conducted to check for the significance level of the value of correlation coefficient yields a

value of 0.001 which was significant at 0.01 level. Therefore, the null hypothesis that states

that marriage and civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment is to be rejected.

This indicates that employee will be less committed in an organisation where marriage and

civil partnership discrimination is prevalent.

The implication of rejecting the null hypothesis is that the alternate hypothesis will be

accepted therefore, we will accept the alternate hypothesis which state that there is a significant

relationship between marriage and civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment.

This indicates that employee will be less committed in an organisation where marriage and

civil partnership discrimination is prevalent.

4.5 DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS

In this section, the major findings of the study will be discussed. The study was carried out to

examine the impact workplace discrimination and employee’s commitment in Nigeria Shippers

Council. In relation to the test of hypotheses, the findings of hypothesis one on the correlation

test between ethnic discrimination and employee commitment revealed that there is a

significant relationship between ethnic discrimination and employee commitment. This result

concurs with the finding by Olori, Dan-Jumbo, Comfort (2017) The results of this research

indicated a significant but negative correlation among the dimensions of workplace

94
discrimination and measures of employee commitment. This means that, to improve the level

of commitment among employees, all forms of discrimination must be discouraged.

For hypothesis two, the correlation test between gender discrimination and employee

commitment shows that there is a significant relationship between gender discrimination and

employee commitment. This finding is corroborated by the research findings of Qaisar Abdul

and Aamer (2011) which focused on three dimensions of gender discrimination including

gender discrimination in, promotion and facilities. The findings of the research show that

Gender discrimination in promotion and facilities are more responsible for the level of

employee commitment. Similarly, the result of the study conducted by Zahid, Zareem and

Imran (2011), on the impact of gender discrimination on satisfaction & motivation,

commitment & enthusiasm. The results show that gender discrimination decreases satisfaction

& motivation and commitment & enthusiasm level of employees, and increases the stress level

in the employees

This practical evidence provides guidelines for the Human Resource researchers and

Managers for controlling discriminatory practices which affect employee performance,

commitment and productivity level.

The correlation test for hypothesis three relating to religion discrimination and employee

commitment shows that there is a significant relationship between religion discrimination and

employee commitment. This is in conformity with the findings of Leila (2014) whose studies

suggested that when workers perceive religious discrimination in their organization, their

commitment and engagement are affected. It is recommended that managers in general and

specifically human resource managers devise strategies and develop management interventions
95
to mitigate the negative organizational and personal consequences of religious discrimination

in the workplace.

The testing of hypothesis four, relating to marriage and civil partnership discrimination and

employee commitment shows that there is a significant relationship between marriage and civil

partnership discrimination and employee commitment. This finding is in conformity with the

findings of Olori, Dan-jumbo, comfort (2017) The results of this research indicated a

significant but negative correlations among the dimensions of workplace discrimination and

measures of employee commitment. This means that, to improve the level of commitment

among employees, all forms of discrimination must be discouraged.

96
 CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 PREAMBLE

This chapter presents the summary, conclusions, recommendations, contributions to knowledge,

and suggestion for further studies. It includes a summary of the research findings, discusses the

implication of the findings to key stakeholders and provides a conclusion to the study.

Recommendations are provided to spell out solutions to the problems raised in the study, the

study’s contribution to knowledge is highlighted, and directions for further research on the

subject of the study are also provided.

5.2. SUMMARY

This study made an attempt to examine workplace discrimination and employee’s commitment.

However, in carrying out this research work, the researcher studied Nigeria Shippers Council.

The result presented in the preceding chapter of this study established a strong relationship

between workplace discrimination and employee commitment, a positive relationship between

ethnic discrimination and employee commitment, a positive relationship between gender

discrimination and employee commitment and a significant relationship between religion

discrimination and employee commitment and a positive relationship between marriage and

civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment. The research adopted a descriptive

survey design which made use of structured questionnaire in facilitating data collection.

97
Structured questionnaire was distributed to the employees of Nigeria Shippers Council at its

head office in Lagos state. The data were statistically analyzed using simple percentages for

research questions and the hypotheses were tested using Pearson Product Moment Correlation

Coefficient on the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Four main research objectives,

four research questions and four hypotheses were posited for this study. The summary of the

study is therefore discussed in relation to the objectives of the study.

The first objective was to examine the impact of ethnic discrimination on employee

commitment. In view of this, the study affirmed that there is a significant relationship between

ethnic discrimination and employee commitment in Nigeria Shipper Council, this could very

well be accounted for based on the majority of respondents that agreed that the availability of

several discriminatory activities in the various organizational departments and organizational

activities and functions such as recruitment， promotion， remuneration， training，has

impacted on the commitment of the employees.

The second objective of the study was to determine the implications of gender discrimination

on employee commitment. Statistical result demonstrates that gender discrimination has a

significant impact on employee commitment. This also aligns with several existing studies like

Adeniji and Osibanjo (2012); Kirk, Downey, Duckett and Woody (2000); Armstrong

(2009).These studies asserted that the availability of gender discrimination impedes or hinder

employee commitment

The third objective was to appraise the impacts of religion discrimination on employee

commitment. It was discovered statistically that there is a significant relationship between

98
religion discrimination and employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council. Majority of

the study respondents agreed that the prevalence of several discriminatory policies in areas

such as recruitment， training， promotion，renumeration， has negatively impacted on

employees commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council。

The fourth objective of the study was to assess the impact of marriage and civil partnership

discrimination on employee’s commitment in Nigeria Shippers council. Statistical results

demonstrated that the existence of marriage and civil partnership discrimination has impacted

on employee’s commitment.

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

The research study dwelt on workplace discrimination in Nigeria Shippers Council and the

impact on employee’s commitment. Olori and Dan- Junmbo （2017） noted in their study of

the effects of Workplace Discrimination and Employee Commitment in Rivers State Civil

Service, Nigeria，that There is a significant correlation among the dimensions of workplace

discrimination and measures of employee commitment. This means that, to improve the level

of commitment among employees, all forms of discrimination must be discouraged. However,

when an organisation fails to implement and make available non-discriminatory policies，

Employees commitment will be hindered.

The first objective which examines the impact of ethnic discrimination and employee

commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council, based on the research findings it can be ascertain

that there is a significant relationship between ethnic discrimination and employee commitment.

A study done by James，Ni and Wilson （2009） revealed that employee commitment was
99
significantly correlated with perceived discrimination and absenteeism, and correlated with

intent to remain. Employee commitment significantly differ by race/ethnicity status. This

therefore implies that talented employees will be less committed to the organization if there is

perceived ethnic discrimination.

On the second objective of the study which examined the effect of gender discrimination on

employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council. Conclusions on this objective based on

the summary of research findings ascertain that that there is a significant relationship between

gender discrimination and employee commitment. This implies that the provision of non-

discriminatory gender policies in areas such as training and development, recruitment ，

remuneration will help in enhancing the employee’s commitment.

On the third objective which is to investigate the effect of religion discrimination and employee

commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council, it can be concluded based on the research findings

that there is a significant relationship between religion discrimination and employee

commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council. This aligns with Liela (2014). The findings

suggested that when workers perceive religious discrimination in their organization, their

commitment and engagement are affected. Liela (2014). The findings suggested that when

workers perceive religious discrimination in their organization, their commitment and

engagement are affected. It is recommended that managers in general and specifically human

resource managers devise strategies and develop management interventions to mitigate the

negative organizational and personal consequences of religious discrimination in the workplace.

The last objective which is the fourth objective of the study, examine the relationship between
100
marriage and civil partnership discrimination and employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers

Council. Conclusion on this objective based on the summary of research findings is that there

is a significant relationship between marriage and civil partnership discrimination and

employee commitment。 This is in conformity with the findings of Olori and Dan- Junmbo

（2017） who examined the effects of Workplace Discrimination and Employee Commitment

in Rivers State Civil Service, Nigeria。The results indicated a significant correlations among

the dimensions of workplace discrimination and measures of employee commitment. This

means that, to improve the level of commitment among employees, all forms of discrimination

must be discouraged. It can also be concluded that employees will likely stay in an organisation

that makes provision for the growth and development of their career, as current employees are

not only about the job but also about ways they can develop and grow on the job.

5.4 CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE

The study provides information on the impact of workplace discrimination on employee

commitment。 it also examined the effect of ethnic discrimination no employee commitment;

the effect of gender discrimination on employee commitment, the impact of religion

discrimination on employee commitment and the implications of marriage and civil partnership

discrimination on employee commitment in Nigeria Shippers Council. Therefore, the study

contributions to knowledge are:

i. The study established a significant relationship between workplace discrimination and

employee commitment.

ii. The study exposed the need for non-discriminatory policies and shows that further efforts
101
by organizations and its managers in promoting and implementing non-discriminatory policies

and programs within the organisation will bring about enhancement of employees’ commitment

and also a decrease in employee turnovers.

iii. The study established a positive relationship between ethnic discrimination and employee

commitment.

iv. The study established a correlation between gender discrimination and employee

commitment

v. The study provided that by eliminating discriminatory policies in the workplace,

employee’s commitment will be enhanced.

vi. the study established a positive relationship between religion discrimination and

employee commitment.

5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are offered:

Firstly, managers in general and specifically human resource managers should devise

strategies and develop management interventions to mitigate the negative organizational and

personal consequences of discrimination in the workplace.

Secondly, the human resource department in Nigeria Shipper Council should focus on gender

mainstreaming with the objective of ensuring women participation and representation in

decision making in the organisation. This will allow employees of both genders to remain

committed to the organisation.

102
thirdly, in the areas of pay, training, promotion, and recruitment, the human resource

department in Nigeria Shippers Council should develop and implement policies and strategies

that will uphold equity and discourage any form of discrimination because this is one way

employees will feel satisfied and remain more committed to the organization.

Lastly, during the recruitment process, the human resource department in Nigeria Shippers

Council should focus on valuable skills, knowledge and competences and not on the religion,

ethnic affiliation, marital status or the gender of the applicants.

5.6 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES

The present study sought to examine workplace discrimination and employee commitment in

Nigeria Shippers Council. The study focused on the relationship between several forms of

workplace discrimination such as ethnic discrimination, gender discrimination, religion

discrimination and marriage and civil partnership discrimination. It is therefore suggested that

further studies can be conducted with focus on other forms of workplace discrimination in order

to establish any significant patterns or difference.

Also, further studies should be conducted in other similar Shipping and Governmental

organisations so as to confirm the applicability of the result. It is also suggested that further

studies should be conducted on a larger scale in order to allow for more generalization of the

findings. Further research is also recommended to examine the implications of workplace

discrimination on other areas such as organizational productivity, retention, attraction and

organizational performance.

103
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