REVIEWER Degenerates if pregnancy does not
occur.
In Phases of the Menstrual Cycle
Science 10 1. Menstrual Phase – shedding of
Role of mRNA the functional layer of the
Carries genetic information out of endometrium.
the nucleus to the ribosome. 2. Proliferative Phase – rebuilding
2. Steps in Protein Synthesis of the uterine lining.
1. Transcription – DNA → mRNA (in 3. Ovulation – release of a mature
the nucleus). egg (usually day 14 in a 28-day
2. Translation – mRNA → protein (in cycle).
the ribosome). 4. Luteal Phase – preparation of the
Fertilization uterus for pregnancy.
Usual site of fertilization: Oviduct Hormonal Regulation
(Fallopian tube). FSH – stimulates follicle
Male Reproductive Glands development.
Seminal Vesicles – produce most LH surge – occurs around days
of the semen. 14–16; triggers ovulation.
Prostate Gland – adds fluid to Estrogen – rebuilds endometrium.
semen. Progesterone – maintains uterine
Bulbourethral Gland – secretes lining.
mucus for lubrication. Feedback Mechanism
Reflex Action Menstruation is regulated by
A fast, automatic response to a negative and positive
stimulus (e.g., pulling away from a feedback.
pin prick). Example of positive feedback:
Neuron Parts blood clotting.
Dendrite – receives incoming Other Important Hormones
signals from other neurons. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone
Axon – transmits nerve impulses (FSH) – stimulates growth of
away from the cell body. ovarian follicles.
Myelin Sheath – insulates the Luteinizing Hormone (LH) –
axon and speeds up electrical triggers ovulation and formation of
impulses. corpus luteum.
Synaptic Terminal – releases Female Reproductive Hormones
neurotransmitters to the next Estrogen – primary female
neuron. hormone; responsible for
Autonomic Nervous System secondary sex characteristics.
Sympathetic NS – prepares the Progesterone – maintains
body for emergencies (fight or pregnancy and prepares the
flight). uterus.
Parasympathetic NS – calms the Oxytocin – stimulates uterine
body and conserves energy. contractions during childbirth.
Corpus Luteum Male Reproductive Hormones
Testosterone – responsible for Some mutations change one amino
male secondary sex characteristics. acid.
Inhibin – produced in seminiferous Some mutations stop protein
tubules; indicates sperm count. synthesis (e.g., UAG = stop codon).
Central Nervous System (CNS) Transcription
Composed of the brain and spinal DNA is copied into mRNA in the
cord. nucleus.
Functions: gathers information, Translation
makes decisions, and maintains mRNA is read by ribosomes to form
homeostasis. proteins.
Brain Parts and Functions RNA Base Pairing
Cerebrum – receives and analyzes DNA → RNA: A–U, T–A, C–G, G–C.
sensory signals; responsible for Example: DNA: CGA TTA CAG →
thinking. RNA: GCU AAU GUC
Cerebellum – controls balance and Fossils
muscle coordination. Preserved remains or traces of
Brainstem / Midbrain – relays organisms from the past.
sensory impulses and controls Examples: wasp in amber, frozen
involuntary muscle movement. organisms, preserved animals.
Hypothalamus – regulates Fossil Record
hormones, body temperature, and Shows that organisms have
homeostas changed over time.
Chromosomal Abnormalities Fossils near the surface are usually
Down’s syndrome – caused by an younger.
extra chromosome 21 (Trisomy 21). Lamarck’s Theory
Edward’s syndrome – extra Use and disuse of organs.
chromosome 18. Acquired traits are inherited.
Turner’s syndrome – missing one Example: giraffes stretched necks.
X chromosome (XO). Darwin’s Theory
Patau’s syndrome – extra Natural selection.
chromosome 13. Favorable traits survive and are
**2. DNA and RNA **- DNA contains passed on.
genetic information; RNA helps make Variation exists within populations.
proteins. Natural Selection
Base substitution – a type of Survival of the fittest means
mutation where one base is individuals with favorable traits
replaced by another. survive and reproduce.
Codons and Amino Acids Results in inherited changes over
Each codon (3 bases) codes for one time.
amino acid. Leads to adaptation and evolution.
Example: GCA UUA CAU GGC GGA Comparative Anatomy
= 5 codons → 5 amino acids. Homologous Structures
Effects of Mutation Same origin, different functions.
Example: horse leg and human
arm.
Analogous Structures
Different origin, same function.
Example: bird wing and butterfly
wing.
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
Trophic Levels
A trophic level is a feeding position
in a food chain.
Example: Rice → Grasshopper →
Frog → Snake → Eagle = 5 trophic
levels.
Biodiversity and Stability
High biodiversity increases
ecosystem stability.
Adaptations
Bald eagle’s hooked beak is for
tearing flesh.
Darwin’s finches adapted different
beak shapes.
Environmental Responses and
Sustainability
Estivation
Frogs bury in mud during summer
to survive dry conditions.
Sustainability
Planting trees helps sustainability
most.
Human Population Growth
Rapid growth is due to incomplete
demographic transition.