CHAPTER 10 – ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system is a vital communication network in the body that uses
hormones to regulate essential functions like growth, metabolism, mood, and reproduction.
Unlike the nervous system, which sends rapid electrical signals, the endocrine system works
more slowly but has long-lasting effects. It’s made up of glands such as the pituitary, thyroid,
and adrenal glands, each releasing specific hormones into the bloodstream to maintain
balance and support overall health. In short, the endocrine system helps keep our body in
harmony—quietly but powerfully.

10.1 PRINCIPLE OF CHEMICAL COMMUNICATONS

Learning Outcomes. By the end of this section, the students will be able to:

A. Describe the four classes of chemical messengers.

B. Define hormone and target tissue.

C. Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands.

Characteristics of the Endocrine System

The endocrine system is composed of endocrine glands and

specialized endocrine cells located throughout the body.
Endocrine glands and cells secrete very small amounts of
chemical messengers called hormones into the extracellular fluid.

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 A

 A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands that travels

through the bloodstream to reach target tissues, where it elicits a specific response.
  Target tissue refers to the specific cells, tissues, or organs that have receptors for a
particular hormone, enabling them to respond to its signal.

Endocrine glands are not to be confused with exocrine glands. Exocrine glands have ducts
that carry their secretions to the outside of the body, or into a hollow organ, such as the
stomach or intestines. The study of the endocrine system, known as endocrinology, is the
topic of this chapter.

Classes of Chemical Messenger

Despite having to manage around 40 trillion cells, your body stays balanced—regulating
temperature, water, and energy—by using chemical messengers from the nervous and
endocrine systems that help cells communicate and control vital functions like heartbeat,
digestion, growth, and mood.

Most chemical messengers are made by specific cells or glands, which release them through a
process called secretion. These messengers are grouped into four main classes based on
where they come from and how they travel in the body. However, some messengers—like
prostaglandins—have multiple roles and can belong to more than one category. So, when
studying the endocrine system, it's important to understand these overlapping functions.

1. Autocrine chemical messengers. An autocrine chemical messenger stimulates the

cell that originally secreted it, and sometimes nearby cells of the same type. Good
examples of autocrine chemical messengers are those secreted by white blood cells
during an infection. Several types of white blood cells can stimulate their own
replication so that the total number of white blood cells increases rapidly.

2. Paracrine chemical messengers. Paracrine chemical messengers act locally on

nearby cells. These chemical messengers are secreted by one cell type into the
extracellular fluid and affect surrounding cells of a different type. An example of a
paracrine chemical messenger is histamine, released by certain white blood cells
during allergic reactions. Histamine stimulates vasodilation in nearby blood vessels.

3. Neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers secreted by neurons

that activate an adjacent cell, whether it is another neuron, a muscle cell, or a
glandular cell. Neurotransmitters are secreted into a synaptic cleft, rather than into the
 bloodstream. Therefore, in the strictest sense neurotransmitters are paracrine
messengers, but for our purposes it is most appropriate to consider them as a separate
category.

4. Endocrine chemical messengers. Endocrine chemical messengers are secreted into

the bloodstream by certain glands and cells, which together constitute the endocrine
system. These chemical messengers affect cells that are distant from their source.

10.2 FUNCTIONS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes. By the end of this section, the students will be able to:

A. Explain the types of information that are necessary to understand endocrine function.

B. Describe the ten regulatory functions of the endocrine system.

The endocrine system is one of the body’s two main control systems—the other is the
nervous system. It uses hormones to keep the body in balance (homeostasis), responding to
signals from the body, nerves, or other hormones. To understand how it works, you need to
know the glands, the hormones they produce, and how those hormones affect the body. Many
health problems happen when too much or too little hormone is made.

The main regulatory functions of the endocrine system are the following:

1. Regulation of metabolism. Controls the rate of nutrients utilization and energy

production.
2. Control of food intake and digestion. Regulates the level of station (fullness) and
breakdown of food into individual nutrients.
3. Modulation of tissue development. Influences the development of tissues, such as those
of the nervous system.
4. Regulation of ion levels. Helps monitor blood pH as well as Na, K, Ca concentrations
in the blood.

5. Control of water balance. Regulates water balance by controlling the solute

concentration of the blood as well as controlling membrane permeability.
 6. Regulation of cardiovascular functions. Helps to regulate the heart rate and blood
pressure and prepare the body for physical activity.
7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients. Regulates the levels of glucose and other
nutrients in the blood.
8. Control of reproductive functions. Controls the development and functions of the
reproductive systems in males and females.
9. Stimulation of uterine contractions and milk release. Regulates uterine contractions
during delivery and stimulates milk release from breasts in lactating females.
10. Modulation of immune system function. Helps control the production of immune
system cells.

10.3 HORMONES

Learning Outcomes. By the end of this section, the students will be able to:
A. Describe the common characteristics of all hormones.
B. List and describe the two chemical categories of hormones
C. Explain the influence of the chemical nature of a hormone on its transport in the blood, its
removal from the blood, and its life span.
D. Describe the three main patterns of hormone secretion.

The word hormone is derived from the Greek word hormone, which means to “set into
motion.” Hormones are very powerful molecules.

Chemical Nature of Hormones

Hormones fit into one of two chemical categories: lipid-soluble hormones and water-soluble
hormones, a distinction based on their chemical composition, which influences their chemical
behaviour. Recall that the plasma membrane is a selectively permeable phospholipid bilayer
that excludes most water-soluble molecules but allows lipid-soluble molecules to pass
through. Therefore, the entire basis of a hormone’s metabolism—its trans-port in the blood,
its
interaction with its target, and its removal from the body—is dependent on the hormone’s
chemical nature.

Within the two chemical categories, hormones can be sub-divided into groups based on their
chemical structures. Steroid hormones are those derived from cholesterol, thyroid hormones
are derived from the amino acid tyrosine, and other hormones are categorized as amino acid
derivatives, peptides, or proteins.

 Lipid-Soluble Hormones - are nonpolar, and include steroid hormones, thyroid

hormones, and fatty acid derivative hormones, such as certain eicosanoids.
 Transport of Lipid-Soluble Hormones - because of their small size and low
solubility in aqueous fluids, lipid-soluble hormones travel in the bloodstream attached
to binding proteins, proteins that transport the hormones. As a result, the rate at which
lipid-soluble hormones are degraded or eliminated from the circulation is greatly
reduced and their lifespans range from a few days to as long as several weeks.
 Without the binding proteins, the lipid-soluble hormones would quickly diffuse out of
capillaries and be degraded by enzymes of the liver and lungs or be removed from the
body by the kidneys. Circulating hydrolytic enzymes can also metabolize free lipid-
soluble hormones. The breakdown products are then excreted in the urine or the bile.

 Water-Soluble Hormones - are polar molecules; they include protein hormones,

peptide hormones, and most amino acid derivative hormones.

 Transport of Water-Soluble Hormones - such as peptide and protein hormones, can

easily dissolve in the blood. Most of them travel freely through the bloodstream
without needing to attach to a carrier or binding protein. This allows them to reach
their target tissues efficiently.
 However, because many water-soluble hormones are relatively large molecules, they
don’t pass quickly through all types of capillary walls. Instead, they move more
slowly into surrounding tissues. To help with this, the capillaries in organs that
respond to these
 hormones are often fenestrated, meaning they have small pores that allow larger
molecules to pass through more easily.

 These hormones also have short half-lives, which means they don’t stay active in the
body for long. Enzymes called proteases in the blood quickly break them down. After
that, the kidneys help remove the broken-down hormone parts from the bloodstream.
When water-soluble hormones reach their target cells, the cells may take them in
through a process called endocytosis. Inside the cell, the hormone is broken down,
and the amino acids from the hormone are recycled. The cell can then use those
amino acids to build new proteins that it needs.

However, some water-soluble hormones are more stable in the blood than others. There are
many modifications made to hormone molecules that help protect them from being destroyed.
Three important modifications include:

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1.
Having carbohydrates attached to them.
2. Having terminal end protected from protease activity.
3. Having binding proteins. Bound hormones circulate in the plasma longer than free
water-soluble hormones do.
10.4 CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION

Learning Outcomes. By the end of this section, the students will be able to:

A. List and describe the three stimulatory influences on hormone secretion and give
examples.
B. List and describe the three inhibitory influences on hormone secretion and give
examples.
C. Describe the major mechanisms that maintain blood hormone levels.

Three types of stimuli regulate hormone release: humoral, neural, and hormonal. No matter
what stimulus releases the hormone, however, the blood level of most hormones fluctuates
within a homeostatic range through negative-feedback mechanisms. In a few instances,
positive-feedback systems also regulate blood hormone levels.

 Stimulation of Hormone Release

 Control by Humoral Stimuli

Molecules and ions in the bloodstream can directly stimulate the release of some hormones.
These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli because they circulate in the blood, and
the word humoral refers to body fluids, including blood. These hormones are sensitive to the
blood levels of a particular substance, such as glucose, calcium, or sodium. As another
example, if a runner has just finished a long race during hot weather, he may not produce
urine for up to 12 hours after the race because his elevated concentration of blood solutes
stimulates the release of a water-conservation hormone called antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
Similarly, elevated blood glucose levels directly stimulate insulin secretion by the pancreas,
and elevated blood potassium levels directly stimulate aldosterone release by the adrenal
cortex.

 Control by Neural Stimuli

The second type of hormone regulation involves neural stimuli of endocrine glands.

● Following action potentials, neurons release a neurotransmitter into the synapse

with the cells that produce the hormone.
 ● In some cases, the neurotransmitter stimulates the cells to increase hormone
secretion.

Some neurons secrete chemical messengers directly into the blood when they are stimulated,
making these chemical messengers’ hormones, which are called neuropeptides. Specialized
neuropeptides stimulate hormone secretion from other endocrine cells and are called
releasing hormones, a term usually reserved for hormones from the hypothalamus.

Control by Hormonal Stimuli

The third type of regulation uses hormonal stimuli. It occurs when a hormone is secreted
that, in turn, stimulates the secretion of other hormones. The most common examples are
hormones from the anterior pituitary gland, called tropic hormones. Many tropic hormones
are part of a complex process in which a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus
stimulates the release of a tropic hormone from the pituitary gland. The pituitary tropic
hormone then travels to a third endocrine gland and stimulates the release of a third hormone.
For example, hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary regulate the secretion of
thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland.

 Inhibition oh Hormone Release

Stimulating hormone secretion is important, but inhibiting hormone release is also important.
This process involves the same three types of stimuli: humoral, neural, and hormonal.

 Inhibition of Hormone Release by Humoral Stimuli

Often when a hormone’s release is sensitive to the presence of a humoral stimulus, there
exists a companion hormone whose release is inhibited by the same humoral stimulus.
Usually, the companion hormone’s effects oppose those of the secreted hormone and
counteract the secreted hormone’s action.

For example, to raise blood pressure, the adrenal cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone in
response to low blood pressure. However, if blood pressure goes up, the atria of the heart
secrete the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which lowers blood pressure. Therefore,
aldosterone and ANP work together to maintain homeostasis of blood pressure.
  Inhibition of Hormone Release by Neural Stimuli

Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate targets. If the neurotransmitter is
inhibitory, the target endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone.

 Inhibition of Hormone Release by Hormonal Stimuli

Some hormones prevent the secretion of other hormones, which is a common mode of
hormone regulation. For example, hormones from the hypothalamus that prevent the
secretion of tropic hormones from the pituitary gland are called inhibiting hormones. Thyroid
hormones can control their own blood levels by inhibiting their pituitary tropic hormone.
Without the original stimulus, less thyroid hormone is released.

 Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood

Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in the blood within a homeostatic range:
negative feedback and positive feedback.

1. Negative feedback. Most hormones are

regulated by a negative-feedback mechanism,
whereby the hormone’s secretion is inhibited
by the hormone itself once blood levels have
reached a certain point and there is adequate
hormone to activate the target cell. The
hormone may inhibit the action of other,
stimulatory hormones to prevent the
secretion of the hormone in question. Thus, it
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is a self-limiting system. For example, thyroid Hormone-Secretion_21854/
hormones inhibit the secretion of their
releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and their tropic hormone from the anterior
pituitary.

● The anterior pituitary gland secretes a tropic hormone, which travels in the blood to
the target endocrine cell.

● The hormone from the target endocrine cell travels to its target.
 ● The hormone from the target endocrine cells also has a negative feedback effect on
the anterior pituitary and hypothalamus, which decreases secretion of the tropic
hormone.

2. Positive feedback. Some hormones,

when stimulated by a tropic hormone,
promote the synthesis and secretion of the
tropic hormone in addition to stimulating
their target cell. In turn, this stimulates
further secretion of the original hormone.
Thus, it is a self-propagating system. For
example, prolonged estrogen stimulation
promotes a release of the anterior pituitary
[Link]
Hormone-Secretion_21854/ hormone responsible for stimulating
ovulation.

● The anterior pituitary gland secretes a tropic hormone, which travels in the blood to
the target endocrine cell.

● The hormone from the target endocrine cell travels to its target.

● The hormone from the target endocrine cell also has a positive feedback effect on the
anterior pituitary, which increases the secretion of the tropic hormone.

10.5 HORMONE RECEPTORS AND MECHANISMS OF ACTION

Learning Outcome: By the end of this section, the students will be able to:

A. Describe the general properties of a receptor.

B. Explain the mechanisms of action for the two types of receptor classes.
C. Define amplification, and explain how, despite small hormone concentration, water-
soluble hormones can cause rapid responses.
 Hormones exert their actions by binding to
proteins called receptors. A hormone can
stimulate only the cells that have the receptor
for that hormone.

 The portion of each receptor molecule where

a hormone bind is called a receptor site, and
the shape and chemical characteristics of
each receptor site allow only a specific [Link]
Receptors-and-Mechanisms-of-Action_21855/
type of hormone to bind to it.

 The tendency for each type of hormone to bind to one type of receptor, and not to
others, is called specificity. Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
“family” of receptors that are structurally similar. Because hormone receptors have a
high affinity for the hormones that bind to them, only a small concentration of a given
hormone is needed to activate a significant number of its receptors.

Classes of Receptors

Lipid-soluble and
water-soluble
hormones bind to
their own classes of
receptors.

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1. Lipid-soluble
hormones bind to nuclear receptors. Lipid-soluble hormones tend to be relatively
small and are all nonpolar. They diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to
 nuclear receptors, which are most often found in the cell nucleus. Nuclear
receptors can also be located in the cytoplasm, but then move to the nucleus when
activated. When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the hormone-receptor
complex interacts

2.

with DNA in the nucleus or with cellular enzymes to regulate the transcription of
particular genes in the target tissue, a process that takes several minutes to several
hours. Thyroid hormones and steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen,
progesterone, aldosterone, and cortisol) generally bind to nuclear receptors.

3. Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound receptors. Water-soluble

hormones are polar molecules and cannot pass through the plasma membrane.
Instead, they interact with membrane-bound receptors, which are proteins that
extend across the plasma membrane, with their hormone-binding sites exposed on
the plasma membrane’s outer surface.

 Action of nuclear receptor

After lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the plasma membrane and bind to their receptors,
the hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA to produce a response (figure 10.8).
 [Link]

The receptors that bind to DNA have finger like projections that recognize and bind to
specific nucleotide sequences in the DNA called hormone-response elements. The
combination of the hormone and its receptor forms a transcription factor because, when the
hormone-receptor complex binds to the hormone-response element, it regulates the
transcription of specific messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules. Newly formed
mRNA molecules move to the cytoplasm to be translated into specific proteins at the
ribosomes. The newly synthesized proteins produce the cell’s response to the hormone. For
example, testosterone stimulates the synthesis of proteins that are responsible for male
secondary sex characteristics, such as the formation of muscle mass and the typical male
body structure. The steroid hormone aldosterone affects its target cells in the kidneys by
stimulating the synthesis of proteins that increase the rate of Na+ and K+ transport. The result
is a reduction in the amount of Na+ and an increase in the amount of K+ lost in the urine.
Other hormones that produce responses through nuclear receptor mechanisms include thyroid
hormones and vitamin D.

Target cells that synthesize new protein molecules in response to hormonal stimuli normally
have a latent period of several hours between the time the hormones bind to their receptors
and the time responses are observed. During this latent period, mRNA and new proteins are
synthesized. Hormone-receptor complexes are eventually degraded within the cell, limiting
the length of time hormones influence the cells’ activities, and the cells slowly return to their
previous functional states.

 Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal Amplification

Membrane-bound receptors have peptide chains that are anchored in the phospholipid bilayer
of the plasma membrane. Membrane-bound receptors activate responses in two ways:

1) Some receptors alter the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the plasma
membrane;

2) Other receptors directly alter the activity of intracellular enzymes.

 These intracellular pathways elicit specific responses in cells, including the

production of second messengers.
 A second messenger is a chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone or another
chemical messenger binds to certain membrane-bound receptors. The second
messenger then activates specific cellular processes inside the cell in response to the
hormone. In some cases, this coordinated set of events is referred to as a second-
messenger system.
 For example, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) (the second messenger) is a
common second messenger produced when a ligand binds to its receptor. Rather than

the ligand (the first messenger) entering the cell to activate a cellular process, cAMP

(the second messenger) stimulates the cellular process.

 Membrane-Bound Receptors That Activate G Proteins

Many membrane-bound receptors produce responses through the action of G proteins. G

proteins consist of three subunits; from largest to smallest, they are called alpha (α), beta
(β), and gamma (γ) (step 1). The G proteins are so named because one of the subunits
binds to guanine nucleotides. In the inactive state, a guanine diphosphate (GDP) molecule
is bound to the α subunit of each G protein. In the active state, guanine triphosphate
(GTP) is bound to the α subunit.

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 G Proteins That Interact with Adenylate Cyclase

● Before the hormone binds to its receptor, the G protein freely floats in the cell
membrane.
● After a hormone binds to the receptor on the outside of a cell, the receptor changes
shape and as are result, the receptor binds to a G protein. Guanine triphosphate (GTP)
binds to a subunit, thereby activating it.

● The G protein separate from the receptor, and the activated a subunit separates from b
and y subunits. The activated subunits activate adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that
converts ATP to Camp
● Cyclic AMP functions as a second
messenger. For example, cAMP
binds to protein kinases and
activates them. Protein kinases are
enzymes that, in turn, regulate the
activity of other enzymes. Protein
kinases can either stimulate or
inhibit the activity of the other
enzyme.

● After a water-soluble hormone binds

to its receptor, the G protein is
activated.

● The activated a subunit, with GTP

bound to it, binds to and activates an
adenylate cyclase enzyme so
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that it converts ATP to cAMP. Action_21855/
 ● The cAMP can activate protein kinase enzymes, which phosphorylate specific
enzymes activating them. The chemical reactions catalyzed by the activated enzymes
produce the cell's response.

● Phosphodiesterase enzymes inactivate cAMP by converting cAMP to AMP

 Signal Amplification

Nuclear receptors work by activating protein synthesis, which

for some hormones can take several hours (see “Action of
Nuclear receptors” earlier). However, hormones that stimulate
the synthesis of second messengers can produce an almost
instantaneous response because the second messenger
influences existing enzymes. In other words, the response
proteins are already present. Additionally, each receptor
produces thousands of second messengers, leading to a cascade
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effect and ultimately amplification of the hormonal signal. Receptors-and-Mechanisms-of-Action_21855/

With amplification, a single hormone activates many second messengers, each of which
activates enzymes that produce an enormous amount of final product. The efficiency of this
second-messenger amplification is virtually unparalleled in the body and can be thought of as
an “army of molecules” launching an offensive.

Both nuclear receptor and membrane-bound receptor hormone systems are effective, but each
is more suited to one type of response than another.

10.6 ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR HORMONES

Learning Outcomes:

A. State the location of each of the endocrine glands in the body

B. Describe how the hypothalamus regulates hormone secretion from the pituitary.

C. Describe how the pituitary gland regulates the secretion of hormones from other endocrine
glands.

D. Choose a hormone and use it to explain how negative feedback results in homeostasis.

E. For each of the major hormones in the chapter, describe the endocrine gland from which it
is secreted, its target tissue, the response of the target tissue, and the means by which its
secretion is regulated.

F. List the effects of hyper and hyposecretion of the major hormones.

The endocrine system consists of ductless glands that secrete hormones into the interstitial
fluid. The hormones then enter the blood. Not surprisingly, the organs in the body with the
richest blood supply are endocrine glands, such as the adrenal gland and the thyroid gland.
Some gland of endocrine system performs functions in addition to hormone secretion.

 Pituitary and Hypothalamus

The pituitary (pituita, phlegm or thick mucus secretion) gland is also called
the hypophysis (hypo, under + physis, growth). It is a small gland about the size of a pea. It is
housed in a depression of the sphenoid bone inferior to the hypothalamus of the brain. The
pituitary gland lies posterior to the optic chiasm and is connected to the hypothalamus by a
stalk called the infundibulum (a funnel). The pituitary gland is divided into two parts:
The anterior pituitary is made up of epithelial cells derived from the embryonic oral cavity;
the posterior pituitary is an extension of the brain and is composed of nerve cells.

● There are four hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that control
the functions of other endocrine glands. These hormones include thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormones (LH). In addition, the
 anterior lobe secretes two more hormones that have direct effects on specific
organs. These hormones include growth hormone (GH) or somatotropic
hormone (STH) and prolactin.

● Regarding the posterior pituitary gland, two different hormones, namely

oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH), are stored there. These hormones
are secreted depending on the body’s need.

 Hypothalamic Control of the Anterior Pituitary

The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes hormones, whose secretion is under control of
the hypothalamus.

1. Neurons of the hypothalamus

produce neuropeptides and
secrete them into a capillary
bed in the hypothalamus.
Stimuli within the nervous
system regulate the secretion
of releasing hormones and
inhibiting hormones (red
circles) from neurons of the
[Link]
hypothalamus. hypothalamus---Endocrine-Glands-and-Their-

2. Releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones pass through the

hypothalamohypophysial portal system to the anterior pituitary.

3. Once the neuropeptides arrive at the anterior pituitary gland, they leave the
blood and bind to membrane bound receptors involved with regulating anterior
pituitary hormone secretion. The capillary beds and veins that transport the
releasing and inhibiting hormones are called the hypothalamic pituitary portal
system.
 4. In response to releasing hormones, anterior pituitary hormones (yellow
squares) travel in the blood to their target tissue (green arrow), which in some
cases, are other endocrine glands.

 Hypothalamic Control of the Posterior Glands

The posterior pituitary is a storage location for two hormones synthesized by special
neutrons in the hypothalamus.

1. Stimulation of neurons within the

hypothalamus controls the secretion
to the posterior pituitary hormones.

2. Action potentials are conducted by

axons of the hypothalamic neurons
through the hypotalamohypophysial
tract to the posterior pituitary. The
axon endings of neurons store
hormones in the posterior pituitary.

3. In the posterior pituitary gland,

action potentials cause the release of [Link]
hypothalamus---Endocrine-Glands-and-Their-
hormones from (blue circles) axon
terminals into the circulatory system.

4. The hormones pass through the circulatory system and influence the activity
of their target tissues.

 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

● Growth hormone (GH) stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other organs by
increasing gene expression. It also resists protein breakdown during periods of food
deprivation and favour lipid breakdown. Too little growth hormone secretion can
result from abnormal development of the pituitary gland. A young per-son suffering
from a deficiency of growth hormone remains small, although normally proportioned,
and is called a pituitary dwarf. If excess growth hormone is present before bones
finish growing in length, exaggerated bone growth occurs. The person becomes
abnormally tall, a condition called giantism. If excess hormone is secreted after
growth in bone length is complete, growth continues in bone diameter only. As a
result, the facial features and hands become abnormally large, a condition
called acromegaly. Part of the effect of growth hormone is influenced by a group of
protein hormones called insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), or somatomedins.
Growth hormone increases IGF secretion from tissues such as the liver, and the IGF
molecules bind to

receptors on the cells of tissues such as bone and cartilage, where they stimulate
growth. The IGFs are similar in structure to insulin and can bind, to some degree, to
insulin receptors. Also, insulin, at high concentrations, can bind to IGF receptors.

● Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells

of the thyroid gland and causes the cells to secrete thyroid hormone. When too much
TSH is secreted, the thyroid gland enlarges and secretes too much thyroid hormone.
When too little TSH is secreted, the thyroid gland decreases in size and secretes too
little thyroid hormone. The rate of TSH secretion is increased by a releasing hormone
from the hypothalamus.

● Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) binds to membrane-bound receptors on cells

in the cortex of the adrenal glands. ACTH increases the secretion of a hormone from
the adrenal cortex called cortisol, also called hydrocortisone. ACTH is required to
keep the adrenal cortex from degenerating. ACTH molecules also bind to melanocytes
in the skin and increase skin pigmentation. One symptom of too much ACTH
secretion is darkening of the skin. The rate of ACTH secretion is increased by a
releasing hormone from the hypothalamus.
● Gonadotropins are hormones that bind to membrane-bound receptors on the cells of
the gonads (ovaries and testes). They regulate the growth, development, and functions
of the gonads. In females, luteinizing hormone (LH) causes the ovulation of oocytes
and the secretion of the sex hormones estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries. In
males, LH stimulates interstitial cells of the testes to secrete the sex hormone
testosterone and thus is sometimes referred to as interstitial cell–stimulating hormone
(ICSH). Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) stimulates the development of follicles
in the ovaries and sperm cells in the testes.

● Prolactin binds to membrane-bound receptors in cells of the breast, where it helps

pro-mote development of the breast during pregnancy and stimulates the production
of milk following pregnancy. The regulation of prolactin secretion is complex and
may involve several substances released from the hypothalamus. There are two main
regulatory hormones; one increases prolactin secretion and one decreases it.

● Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) binds to membrane-bound receptors on

melanocytes and causes them to synthesize melanin. The structure of MSH is similar
to that of ACTH, and oversecretion of either hormone causes the skin to darken.
Regulation of MSH is not well understood, but there appear to be two regulatory
hormones from the hypothalamus— one that increases MSH secretion and one that
decreases it.

 Hormones of the Posterior Pituitary

● Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) binds to membrane-bound receptors and increases

water reabsorption by kidney tubules. This results in less water lost as urine. ADH can
also cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large amounts. Consequently, it
is sometimes also called vasopressin. Reduced ADH release from the posterior
pituitary results in large amounts of dilute urine.

● Oxytocin binds to membrane-bound receptors, and causes contraction of the smooth

muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk let down from the breasts in lactating
women. Commercial preparations of oxytocin, known as Pitocin, are given under
 certain conditions to assist in childbirth and to constrict uterine blood vessels
following childbirth.

Thyroid Gland

 The thyroid (shield-

shaped) gland is made up of two
lobes connected by a narrow
band called the isthmus. The
lobes are located on each side of
the trachea, just inferior to the
larynx. The thyroid gland is one
of the largest endocrine glands. It
appears redder than the
surrounding tissues because it is
highly vascular. It is surrounded

by a connective tissue capsule. Thyroid hormones are synthesized and stored within
the gland in numerous thyroid [Link]
Glands-and-Their-Hormones_21857/
follicles, which are small
spheres with walls composed of simple cuboidal epithelium. Each thyroid follicle is
filled with the protein thyroglobulin, to which thyroid hormones are attached.
Between the follicles is a network of loose connective tissue that contains capillaries
and scattered parafollicular cells, or C cells, which secrete the hormone calcitonin.

 Thyroid hormone secretion is

regulated by hormones from the
hypothalamus and pituitary. The
hypothalamus secretes TSH-
releasing hormone, also known
as TRH, which travels to the
anterior pituitary and stimulates
 the secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) (figure 10.16). In turn, TSH
stimulates the secretion of thyroid hormones from the thyroid gland. Small
fluctuations in blood TSH levels occur on a daily basis, with a small increase at night.
Increasing blood levels of TSH increase the synthesis and release of thyroid hormones
from thyroglobulin. Decreasing blood levels of TSH decrease the synthesis and
release of thyroid hormones.

 Decreasing thyroid hormone levels allow additional TSH-releasing hormone and TSH
to be secreted. Because of the negative-feedback effect, the thyroid hormones
fluctuate within a narrow concentration range in the blood. However, a loss of
negative feedback will result in excess TSH. This causes the thyroid gland to enlarge,
a condition called a goiter. As less thyroid hormone is synthesized and secreted,
TSH-releasing hormone and TSH secretion increase above normal levels and cause
dramatic enlargement of the thyroid gland.

⮚ A lack of thyroid hormones is called hypothyroidism. In infants, hypothyroidism can

result in cretinism, characterized by mental retardation, short stature, and abnormally
formed skeletal structures. In adults, the lack of thyroid hormones results in a
decreased metabolic rate, sluggishness, a reduced ability to perform routine tasks,
and myxedema, which is the accumulation of fluid and other molecules in the
subcutaneous tissue. An elevated rate of thyroid hormone secretion, known
as hyperthyroidism, causes an increased metabolic rate, extreme nervousness, and
chronic fatigue. Grave disease is a type of hyperthyroidism that results when the
immune system produces abnormal proteins that are similar in structure and function
to TSH. Grave disease is often accompanied by bulging of the eyes, a condition
called exophthalmia.

⮚ The thyroid gland requires iodine to synthesize thyroid hor-mones. Iodine is taken up
by the thyroid follicles. One thyroid hormone, called thyroxine (thı̄-rok′sin)
or tetraiodothyronine (tet′ră-ı̄′ō-d ō-th ı̄′rō-nēn), contains four iodine atoms and is
abbreviated T4. The other thyroid hormone, triiodothyronine (trı̄-ı̄′ō-dō-thı̄′rō-nēn),
contains three iodine atoms and is abbrevi-ated T3. If insufficient iodine is present,
production and secretion of the thyroid hormones decrease.
 ⮚ In addition to secreting thyroid hormones, the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland
secrete a hormone called calcitonin.
Calcitonin is secreted if the blood
concentration of Ca2+ becomes too
high, and it causes Ca2+ levels to
decrease to their normal range.
Calcitonin binds to membrane-bound
receptors of osteoclasts and reduces
the rate of Ca2+ resaborption
(breakdown) from bone by inhibiting
the osteoclasts. Calcitonin may prevent
blood Ca2+ levels from becoming
[Link]
overly elevated following a meal that Glands-and-Their-Hormones_21857/
contains a high concentration of Ca2+.

 Parathyroid Glands

Four tiny parathyroid glands are embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland. The
parathyroid glands secrete a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH), which is essential
for the regulation of blood calcium levels. In fact, PTH is more important than calcitonin in
regulating blood Ca2+ levels. PTH has many effects:

1. PTH increases active vitamin D formation through effects on membrane bound

receptors of renal tube cells in the kidneys. Vitamin D stimulates increased Ca2+
absorption by intestinal epithelial cells.

2. PTH secretion increases blood Ca2+ levels. PTH binds to receptors on osteoblasts. In
turn, osteoblasts secrete substances that stimulate osteoclasts to reabsorb bone.

3. PTH decreases loss of Ca2+ in the urine.

Decreasing blood Ca2+ levels stimulate an increase in PTH secretion (figure 10.17). For
example, if too little Ca2+ is consumed in the diet or if a person suffers from a prolonged
lack of vitamin D, blood Ca2+levels decrease, and PTH secretion increases. The increased
PTH increases the rate of bone reabsorption. Blood Ca2+ levels can be maintained within a
normal range, but prolonged reabsorption of bone results in reduced bone density, as
manifested by soft, flexible bones that are easily deformed in young people and porous,
fragile bones in older people.

An abnormally high rate of PTH secretion is

called hyperparathyroidism. One cause is a tumor in
a parathyroid gland. The elevated blood levels of PTH
increase bone reabsorption and elevate blood
Ca2+levels. As a result, bones can become soft,
deformed, and easily fractured. In addition, the
elevated blood Ca2+ levels make nerve and muscle
cells less excitable, resulting in fatigue and muscle
weakness. The excess Ca2+ can be deposited in soft [Link]

tissues of the

body, causing inflammation. In addition, kidney stones can result.

An abnormally low rate of PTH secretion, called hypoparathyroidism, can result from injury
to or the surgical removal of the thyroid and parathyroid glands. The low blood levels of PTH
lead to reductions in the rate of bone reabsorption and the formation of vitamin D. As a
result, blood Ca2+ levels decrease. In response to low blood Ca2+ levels, nerves and muscles
become excitable and produce spontaneous action potentials that cause frequent muscle
cramps or tetanus. Severe tetanus can affect the respiratory muscles; breathing stops,
resulting in death.

 Adrenal Glands

The adrenal (near or on the kidneys) glands are

two small glands located superior to each
kidney. Each adrenal gland has an inner part,
called the adrenal medulla (marrow, or middle),
and an outer part, called the adrenal

[Link]
Endocrine-Glands-and-Their-Hormones_21859/
cortex (bark, or outer). The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex function as separate
endocrine glands.

 Adrenal Medulla

The principal hormone released from the adrenal medulla is epinephrine, or adrenaline. Small
amounts
of norepinephrine are also
released. The adrenal
medulla releases
epinephrine and
norepinephrine in response
to stimulation by the
sympathetic nervous system,
which becomes most active
[Link]
when a person is excited or Hormones_21859/

physically active (see at the

picture). Epinephrine and norepinephrine are referred to as the fight-or-flight hormones
because of their

role in preparing the body for vigorous physical activity. The major effects of the hormones
released from the adrenal medulla are;

1. Increases in the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver, the release of the
glucose into the blood, and the release of fatty acids from adipose tissue. The glucose
and fatty acids serve as energy sources to maintain the body’s increased rate of
metabolism.

2. Increased heart rate, which causes blood pressure to rise.

3. Stimulation of smooth muscle in the walls of arteries supplying the internal organs
and the skin, but not those supplying skeletal muscle. Blood flow to internal
organs and the skin decreases, as do the functions of the internal organs. Blood flow
through skeletal muscles increases.
 4. Increased blood pressure due to smooth muscle contraction in the walls of blood
vessels in the internal organs and the skin.

5. Increased metabolic rate of several tissues, especially skeletal muscle, cardiac

muscle, and nervous tissue.

 Adrenal Cortex

The adrenal cortex secretes three classes of steroid hormones: min-eralocorticoids,

glucocorticoids, and androgens. The molecules of all three classes of steroid hormones enter
their target cells and bind to nuclear receptor molecules. The first class of hormones, secreted
by the outer layer of the adrenal cortex, the mineralocorticoids, helps regulate blood volume
and blood levels of K+ and Na+. Aldosterone is the major hormone of this class (figure
10.20). Aldosterone primarily binds to receptor molecules in the kidney, but it also affects the
intestine, sweat glands, and salivary glands. Aldosterone causes Na+ and water to be retained
in the body and increases the rate at which K+ is eliminated.

[Link]
Changes in blood pressure indirectly affect the rate of aldosterone secretion. Low blood
pressure causes the release of a protein molecule called renin (rē′ nin) from the kidney.
Renin, which acts as an enzyme, causes a blood protein called angiotensinogen (an′ j ē-ō-ten-
sin′ ō-jen) to be converted to angiotensin I (an-jē-ō-ten′ sin). Then, a protein
called angiotensin-converting enzyme causes angiotensin I to be converted to angiotensin II.

The second class of hormones, secreted by the middle layer of the adrenal cortex,
the glucocorticoids, helps regulate blood nutrient levels. The major glucocorticoid hormone
is cortisol, which increases the breakdown of proteins and lipids and increases their
conversion to forms of energy the body can use.

Cortisol reduces the inflammatory and immune

responses. A closely related
steroid, cortisone (kōr′ ti-sōn), or other similar
drugs are often given to reduce inflammation
caused by injuries. Cortisone can also reduce the
immune and inflammatory responses that result
[Link]
affects-blood-sugar-levels from allergic reactions or abnormal immune
responses, such as rheumatoid arthritis or asthma.

The third class of hormones, secreted by the inner layer of the adrenal cortex, is composed of
the adrenal androgens, which stimulate the development of male sexual characteristics.
Small amounts of androgens are secreted from the adrenal cortex in both males and females.
In adult males, most androgens are secreted by the testes. In adult females, the adrenal
androgens influence the female sex drive. If the secretion of sex hormones from the adrenal
cortex is abnormally high, exaggerated male characteristics develop in both males and
females. This condition is most apparent in females and in males before puberty, when the

effects are not masked by the secretion of androgens by the testes.

 Pancreas, Insulin, and Diabetes

The endocrine part of
the pancreas consists
of pancreatic islets (islets of
Langerhans), which are
dispersed through-out the
exocrine portion of the
pancreas. The islets secrete
three hormones—insulin,
glucagon, and somatostatin—
which help regulate the blood [Link]
Endocrine-Glands-and-Their-Hormones_21860/
levels of nutrients, especially
glucose. Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete insulin, and delta cells secrete
somatostatin.

It is very important to maintain blood glucose levels within a normal range (figure 10.23). A
below-normal blood glucose level causes the nervous system to malfunction because glucose
is the nervous system’s main source of energy. When blood glucose decreases, other tissues
rapidly break down lipids and proteins to provide an alternative energy source. As lipids are
broken down, the liver converts some of the fatty acids to acidic ketones, which are released
into the blood. When blood glucose levels are very low, the breakdown of lipids can cause
the release of enough fatty acids and ketones to reduce the pH of the body fluids below
normal, a

condition called acidosis. The amino acids of

proteins are broken down and used by the liver to
synthesize glucose.

The hormone insulin is released from the beta cells

primarily in response to the elevated blood glucose
levels and increased parasympathetic stimulation
associated with digestion of a meal. Increased blood
levels of certain amino acids also stimulate insulin
secretion. Decreased insulin levels allow blood
[Link]
Pancreas,-Insulin,-and-Diabetes---
Endocrine-Glands-and-Their-
Hormones_21860/
glucose to be conserved to provide the brain with adequate glucose and to allow other tissues
to metabolize fatty acids and glycogen stored in the cells.

The major target tissues for insulin are the liver, adipose tissue, muscles, and the area of the
hypothalamus that controls appetite, called the satiety (fulfillment of hunger) center.

Glucagon is released from the alpha cells

when blood glucose levels are low. Glucagon
binds to membrane-bound receptors primarily
in the liver, causing the glycogen stored in the
liver to be converted to glucose. The glucose
is then released into the blood to increase
blood glucose levels. After a meal, when
blood glucose levels are elevated, glucagon [Link]

secretion is reduced.

Somatostatin (sō′mă-tō′statı̆n) is released by the delta

cells in response to food intake. Somatostatin inhibits the
secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract
activity.

[Link]
the-hormonal-actions-of-somatostatin_fig2_38038932

 Testes and Ovaries

The testes of the male and the ovaries of the female secrete sex hormones, in addition to
producing sperm cells or oocytes, respectively. The hormones produced by these organs play
important roles in the development of sexual characteristics.

● The main sex hormone in the

male is testosterone (tes′ tos′
tĕ-rōn), which is secreted by
the testes. It is responsible for
the growth and development
of the male reproductive

[Link]
373484
 structures, muscle enlargement, the growth of body hair, voice changes, and the male
sexual drive.

● In the female, two main classes of sex hormones, secreted by the ovaries, affect
sexual characteristics: estrogen and progesterone. Together, these hormones
contribute to the development and function of female reproductive structures and
other female sexual characteristics. Two such characteristics are enlargement of the
breasts and the distribution of adipose tissue, which influences the shape of the hips,
breasts, and thighs. In addition, the female menstrual cycle is controlled by the
cyclical release of estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries.

 Thymus

The thymus lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity. It is important in the function of the
immune system. The thymus secretes a hormone called thymosin, which aids the
development of white blood cells called T cells. T cells help protect the body against
infection by foreign organisms. The thymus is most important early in life; if an infant is born

without a thymus, the immune system does not develop normally, and the body is less
capable of fighting infections.
[Link]

 Pineal Gland

The pineal (pinecone) gland is a small, pinecone-shaped structure located superior and
posterior to the thalamus of the brain. The pineal gland produces a hormone
called melatonin, which is thought to decrease the secretion of LH and FSH by decreasing
the release of hypothalamic-releasing hormones. Thus, melatonin inhibits the functions of the
reproductive system. Animal studies have demonstrated that the amount of available light
controls the rate of melatonin secretion. In many animals, short day length causes an increase
in melatonin secretion, whereas longer day length causes a decrease in melatonin secretion.

10.7 OTHER HORMONES

[Link]
produces-melatonin-regulates-sleep/
Learning Outcomes. By the end of
this section, the students will be able to:
A. Describe the functions of hormones secreted by the stomach and small intestine, the
functions of prostaglandins, and the functions of erythropoietin.

Cells in the lining of the stomach and small intestine secrete hormones that stimulate the
production of digestive juices from the stomach, pancreas, and liver. This secretion occurs
when food is present in the digestive system, but not at other times. Hormones secreted from
the small intestine also help regulate the rate at which food passes from the stomach into the
small intestine.

Prostaglandins are widely distributed in tissues of the body, where they function as
intercellular signals. Unlike most hormones, they are usually not transported long distances in
the blood but function mainly as autocrine or paracrine chemical signals (see table 10.1).
Thus, their effects occur in the tissues where they are produced. Some prostaglandins cause
relaxation of smooth muscle, such as dilation of blood vessels. Others cause contraction of
smooth muscle, such as contraction of the uterus during the delivery of a baby. Because of
their action on the uterus, prostaglandins have been used medically to initiate abortion.
Prostaglandins also play a role in inflammation. They are released by damaged tissues and
cause blood vessel dilation, localized swelling, and pain. Prostaglandins produced by platelets
appear to be necessary for normal blood clotting. The ability of aspirin and related substances
to reduce pain and inflammation, to help prevent the painful cramping of uterine smooth
muscle, and to treat headache is a result of their inhibitory effect on prostaglandin synthesis.

The kidneys secrete the hormone erythropoietin (ĕ-rith′ rō-poy′ ĕ-tin) in response to reduced
oxygen levels in the kidney. Erythropoietin acts on bone marrow to increase the production
of red blood cells.

In pregnant women, the placenta is an important source of hormones that maintain pregnancy
and stimulate breast development. These hormones are estrogen, progesterone, and human
chorionic gonadotropin (gō′ nad-ō-trō′ pin), which is similar in structure and function to LH.

SUMMARY
10.1 Principle of Chemical Communication
 The four classes of chemical messenger are autocrine, paracrine, neurotransmitter,
and endocrine.
 Endocrine chemical messengers are called hormones.
10.2 Function of the Endocrine System
 The endocrine system has 10 major functions that contribute to homeostasis.
10.3 Hormones
Chemical Nature of Hormones

1. There are two chemical categories of hormones: lipid-soluble and water-soluble.

2. Lipid soluble hormones include steroids, thyroid hormones, some fatty acid derivatives.
3. Water-soluble hormones includes proteins, peptides, and amino acid.
 Water soluble hormones circulate freely in the blood.
 Proteases degrade protein and peptide hormones in the blood, the breakdown products
are then excreted in the urine. However, some water-soluble hormones have chemical
modifications, such as the addition of a carbohydrates group, which prolongs their life
span
10.4 Control of Hormone Secretion
Stimulation of Hormone Stimulation
Three types of stimuli result in hormone secretion: humoral, neural. and hormonal
 Humoral stimulation is exhibited by hormones that are sensitive to circulating blood
levels of certain molecules, such as glucose or calcium.
 Neural stimuli cause hormone secretion in direct response to action potentials in
neurons, as occurs during stress of exercise. Hormones from the hypothalamus that
cause the release of other hormones are called releasing hormones.
 Hormonal stimulation of another hormone secretion is common. in the endocrine
system. Hormones from the anterior pituitary that stim ulate hormones from other
endocrine glands are called tropic hormones.
Inhibition of Hormone Release
Although the stimulus of hormone secretion is important, inhibition is equally important.
 Humoral substances can inhibit the secretion of hormones.
  Neural stimuli can prevent hormone secretion.
 Inhibiting hormones prevent hormone release.
Regulation of Hormone Levels in the Blood
Two processes regulate the overall blood levels of hormones, negative feedback and positive
feedback
 Negative feedback prevents further hormone secretion once a set point is achieved.
 Positive feedback is a self-promoting system whereby the stimulation of hormone
secretion increases over time.

10.5 Hormone Receptors and Mechanisms

Classes of Receptors
Each of the two groups of hormones has its own class of receptors
 Lipid-soluble hormones hind to nuclear receptors located inside the nucleus of the
target cell. Some lipid-soluble hormones have rapid actions that are most likely
mediated via a membrane-bound receptor.
 Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-bound receptors, which are integral
membrane proteins.

Action of Nuclear Receptors

1. Nuclear receptors have portions that allow them to bind to the DNA the nucleus once the
hormone is bound.

 The hormone-receptor complex activates genes, which in turn activate the DNA to
produce mRNA.
 The mRNA increases the synthesis of certain proteins that produce the target cell's
response.
2. Nuclear receptors cannot respond immediately because it takes time produce the mRNA
and the protein,
Membrane-Bound Receptors and Signal Amplification

 Membrane bound receptors activate a cascade of events me the hormone bonds.

 Some membrane-bound receptors are associated with membrane proteins called G
proteins. When a hormone binds to a membrane-bound receptor, G proteins are
activated. The α bit of the G protein can bind to join channels and channels and cause
 them to open or change the rate of synthesis of intracellular mediators, such as a
cAMP.

3. Second-messenger systems act rapidly because they act on already existing enzymes and
produce an amplification effect.

10.6 Endocrine Glands and Their Hormones

1. The endocrine system consists of ductless glands

2. Some glands of the endocrine system perfors more than one linction

Pituitary and Hypothalamus

 The pituitary is connected to the hypothalamus in the brain by the infundibulum. It is

divided into anterior and posterior portions.
 Secretions from the anterior pituitary are controlled by hormones that pass through the
hypothalamic-pituitary portal system from the hypothalamus.
 Hormones secreted from the posterior pituitary are controlled by action potentials
carried by axons that pass from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary.
 The hormones released from the anterior pituitary are growth hormone (GH), thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH). adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing
hormone (LH). follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), prolactin, and melanocyte
stimulating hormone (MSH)
 Hormones released from the posterior pituitary include antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
and oxytocin.

Thyroid Gland

 The thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormones, which control the metabolic rate of
tissues, and calcitonin, which helps regulate blood Ca2+ levels.
Parathyroid Glands

 The parathyroid glands secrete parathyroid hormone, which helps regulate blood Ca 2+
levels. Active vitamin D also helps regulate blood Ca levels.

Adrenal Glands

1. The adrenal medulla secretes primarily epinephrine and some norepinephrine. These
hormones help prepare the body for physical activity.

2. The adrenal cortex, secretes three classes of hormones.

 Glucocorticoids (cortisol) reduce inflammation and break down proteins and lipids,
making them available as energy sources other tissues.
 Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) help regulate blood Na + and K+ levels and water
volume. Renin, secreted by the kidneys helps regulate blood pressure by increasing
angiotensin II and aldosterone production. These hormones case blood vessels to
constrict and enhance Na+ and water retention by the kidney.
 Adrenal androgens increase female sexual drive but normally have little effect in
males.

Pancreas, Insulin, and Diabetes

 The pancreas secretes insulin in response to elevated levels of blood glucose and
amino acids. Insulin increases the rate at which many tissues, including adipose
tissue, the liver, and skeletal muscles, take up glucose and amino acids.
 The pancreas secretes glucagon in response to reduced blood glucose and increases
the rate which the liver releases glucose into the blood.
 The pancreas secretes somatostatin in response to food intake. Somatostatin inhibits
insulin and glucaon secretion and gastric tract activity.

Testes and Ovaries

 The testes secrete testosterone, and the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone.
These hormones help control reproductive processes.
 LH and FSH from the pituitary gland control hormone secretion from the ovaries and
testes.

Thymus
  The thymus secretes thymosin, which enhances the function of the immune system.

Pineal Gland

 The pineal gland secretes melatonin, which may help regulate the onset of puberty by
acting on the hypothalamus.

10.7 Other Hormones

 Hormones secreted thy cells in the stomach and intestine help regulate stomach,
pancreatic, and liver secretions.

 The prostaglandins we hormones that have a local effect numerous effects on the
body, and play a role in inflammation.
 ANH from the right atrium of the heart lowers blood pressure.
 Erythropoietin from the kidney stimulates red blood cell production.
 The placenta secretes human chorionic gonadotropin, estrogen, and progesterone,
which are essential to the maintenance of pregnancy.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

 Endocrine System – A  Endocrinology – The scientific study

communication system of glands that of the endocrine system and its
secrete hormones into the disorders.
bloodstream to regulate growth,  Autocrine Messenger – Acts on the
metabolism, reproduction, and mood. same cell that secreted it (e.g., white
 Hormone – A chemical messenger blood cells during infection).
secreted by endocrine glands that  Paracrine Messenger – Acts locally
travels through the blood to target on nearby cells of a different type
tissues, triggering specific responses. (e.g., histamine in allergic reactions).
 Target Tissue – Cells or organs with  Neurotransmitter – Released by
receptors that respond to a specific neurons into synaptic clefts to
hormone. stimulate adjacent cells.
 Endocrine Messenger – Hormones  Hormonal Stimuli – Hormones that
that travel through the bloodstream to stimulate the release of other
distant target cells. hormones (e.g., tropic hormones from
 Lipid-Soluble Hormones – the pituitary).
Nonpolar hormones (e.g., steroids,  Negative Feedback – A self-limiting
thyroid hormones) that pass-through system where hormone levels inhibit
cell membranes and bind to nuclear further secretion.
receptors.  Positive Feedback – A self-
promoting system where hormone
 Water-Soluble Hormones – Polar
stimulation increases over time.
hormones (e.g., peptides, proteins)
 Receptor – A protein that binds to a
that bind to membrane-bound
hormone and initiates a cellular
receptors and use second messengers.
response.
 Binding Proteins – Carrier proteins
 Specificity – The tendency of a
that transport lipid-soluble hormones
hormone to bind only to its specific
in the blood and prolong their
receptor.
lifespan.
 Nuclear Receptor – Found inside the
 Proteases – Enzymes that degrade
cell; binds lipid-soluble hormones
water-soluble hormones in the
and regulates gene transcription.
bloodstream.
 Membrane-Bound Receptor –
Located on the cell surface; binds
water-soluble hormones and activates
second messengers.

 Humoral Stimuli – Blood levels of

molecules (e.g., glucose, calcium)
that trigger hormone release.
 Second Messenger – Intracellular
 Neural Stimuli – Nerve signals that
molecules (e.g., cAMP) that relay
stimulate hormone secretion (e.g.,
signals from membrane-bound
stress-induced release of
receptors.
epinephrine).
 G Protein – A membrane protein
that activates intracellular enzymes
like adenylate cyclase.
 Signal Amplification – A process  Pancreas – Secretes insulin (lowers
where one hormone triggers blood glucose), glucagon (raises
thousands of second messengers, blood glucose), and somatostatin
rapidly amplifying the cellular (inhibits insulin/glucagon).
response.  Testes – Produce testosterone (male
 Pituitary Gland – The “master traits and reproductive function).
gland” that secretes hormones like  Ovaries – Produce estrogen and
GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, progesterone (female traits and
prolactin, and MSH. menstrual cycle).
 Hypothalamus – Regulates pituitary  Thymus – Secretes thymosin to
function via releasing and inhibiting support immune system
hormones. development.
 Pineal Gland – Produces melatonin,
 Adrenal Glands –
which regulates sleep and
reproductive hormone release.
 Medulla: Secretes epinephrine
 Prostaglandins – Locally acting
and norepinephrine (fight-or-
signals involved in inflammation,
flight response).
smooth muscle activity, and blood
 Cortex: Produces cortisol
clotting.
(metabolism, inflammation),
 Erythropoietin (EPO) – Secreted by
aldosterone (Na⁺/K⁺
kidneys to stimulate red blood cell
balance), and androgens (sex
production.
traits).
 Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
 Thyroid Gland – Produces T3, T4 (hCG) – Secreted by the placenta to
(regulate metabolism), and calcitonin maintain pregnancy
(lowers blood calcium).

 Parathyroid Glands – Secrete PTH

to increase blood calcium and
activate vitamin D.
ACTIVITY

Part 1
Direction: Label the following diagram of the endocrine system with the words in the box.

Part 2
Direction: Match the functions describe in column B with the endocrine gland listed in
column A.

ASSESSMENT

1. Which of the following best describes a hormone?

A. A neurotransmitter released into synapses
B. A chemical messenger secreted by exocrine glands
C. A chemical messenger that travels through the bloodstream to target tissues
D. A digestive enzyme that breaks down proteins

2. What distinguishes endocrine glands from exocrine glands?

A. Endocrine glands have ducts; exocrine glands do not
B. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into ducts
C. Exocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream
D. Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the blood
3. Which chemical messenger acts on the same cell that secretes it?
A. Paracrine
B. Autocrine
C. Neurotransmitter
D. Endocrine

4. Which hormone is secreted by the adrenal medulla during stress?

A. Cortisol
B. Epinephrine
C. Aldosterone
D. Insulin

5. What is the main function of the endocrine system?

A. To digest food
B. To send electrical signals
C. To regulate body functions using hormones
D. To pump blood throughout the body

6. What is the primary function of insulin?

A. Decrease blood glucose
B. Increase blood glucose
C. Stimulate protein synthesis
D. Promote fat breakdown

7. Which hormone stimulates uterine contractions and milk release?

A. Prolactin
B. LH
C. Estrogen
D. Oxytocin

8. How does the hypothalamus control hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland?
A. By sending electrical signals through nerves
B. By releasing hormones into a portal system that reaches the pituitary
C. By storing pituitary hormones for later use
D. By increasing blood pressure to stimulate hormone release

9. Which hormone is secreted by the heart to lower blood pressure?

A. ANH (Atrial Natriuretic Hormone)
B. Aldosterone
C. ADH
D. Epinephrine

10. Which hormone is secreted by alpha cells of the pancreas?

A. Insulin
B. Glucagon
C. Somatostatin
D. Cortisol

11. What type of receptor do lipid-soluble hormones bind to?

A. Membrane-bound receptors
B. Cytoplasmic enzymes
C. Nuclear receptors
D. G protein-coupled receptors

12. What is the role of second messengers like cAMP?

A. Transport hormones in the blood
B. Bind directly to DNA
C. Degrade hormones
D. Activate intracellular enzymes

13. What type of hormone can pass through the cell membrane and bind to nuclear receptors?
A. Water-soluble hormones
B. Protein hormones
C. Lipid-soluble hormones
D. Peptide hormones

14. Which hormone helps regulate sodium and potassium levels?

A. Aldosterone
B. Epinephrine
C. Cortisol
D. Prolactin

15. What feedback mechanism inhibits hormone secretion once a set point is reached? A.
Positive feedback
B. Negative feedback
C. Hormonal feedback
D. Neural inhibition

16. Why do water-soluble hormones require membrane-bound receptors to exert their effects?
A. They are too small to bind to nuclear receptors
B. They are polar and cannot pass through the plasma membrane
C. They are unstable and degrade before reaching the nucleus
D. They are stored in vesicles inside the cell

17. What would happen if the body lacked negative feedback mechanisms for hormone
regulation?
A. Hormone levels would remain constant
B. Hormone secretion would stop entirely
C. Hormones would only be secreted during sleep
D. Hormone levels could rise uncontrollably, disrupting homeostasis

18. Why do lipid-soluble hormones have longer lifespans in the bloodstream compared to
water-soluble hormones?
A. They are larger and harder to break down
B. They are stored in the liver before release
C. They bind to transport proteins that protect them from degradation
D. They are secreted in larger quantities

19. How does the hypothalamus regulate hormone secretion from the anterior pituitary gland?
A. By sending electrical impulses directly to the pituitary
B. By releasing hormones into the bloodstream that travel to the pituitary
C. By stimulating the adrenal glands to release pituitary hormones
D. By increasing body temperature

20. What is the significance of signal amplification in hormone action?

A. It allows hormones to be stored longer in the bloodstream
B. It ensures that only one receptor is needed for a response
C. It enables a small amount of hormone to trigger a large cellular response
D. It prevents hormones from binding to incorrect receptors

Answer Key:

1. C

2. D

3. B

4. B

5. C

6. A

7. D

8. B

9. A

10. B
11. C

12. D

13.C

14. A

15. B

16. B

17. D

18. C

19. B

20. C

Book Reference

VanPutte, C., Regan, J., & Russo, A. (2022). ISE Seeley’s Essentials of Anatomy and
Physiology (11th ed., pp. 296–330). McGraw-Hill Education.