Chapter 1

Principles of Statics

Introduction to Principles of Statics

Engineering Mechanics is defined as the science which considers the effects of forces
of rigid bodies. It has two main parts which is the statics and dynamics. Statics deals bodies
at rest despite of being under the action of forces however dynamics deals with the bodies
that has in motion of its either be in kinematics that deals with pure motion and kinetics that
deals motion to the applied forces.

Fundamentals Concepts and Definitions

Rigid Body. A rigid body is defined as a definite amount of matter the parts of which are
fixed in position relative to each other. However actually solid bodies are never been rigid
because they deform it under the action of forces however this deformation is negligible
compared to the size of the body and that the body could be assumed as a rigid body.
Forces. Force may be defined as those changes or tends to change of the static motion of a
body. In these subjects, we will only consider the external effects of the force to the bodies.
The characteristics of a force has its magnitude, the position of its line of action and the
direction in which the force acts along its line of action.
Principle of Transmissibility. The principles of transmissibility of a force state that the external
effect of a force on a body has the same for all points of application along it line of action.
Force System. A force system is an any arrangement where two or more forces act on a body
or a group of related bodies.
Coplanar and Non-Coplanar. Coplanar force system are the forces that lies in one plane along
the line of action otherwise it is said to be a non-coplanar force system.
Concurrent Forces. Concurrent forces are the forces that passes through a common point.
Parallel Force System. Parallel Force System are those the line of action is said to be parallel.
Non-concurrent force system. A non-concurrent force systems are those in which the line of
action is either be parallel nor intersect at a common point.

Axioms of Mechanics

The principles of mechanics cannot be proved mathematically unless it is demonstrated.

Hence, at this time we shall use fundamental axioms of mechanics as reference and state
them in the following form:

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 1. The parallelogram laws. The resultant of two forces is the diagonal of the parallelogram
formed on the vectors of these forces.
2. Two forces are in equilibrium when only equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and
collinear in action.
3. A set of forces in equilibrium may be added to any system of forces without changing
the effect of the original system.
4. Action and reaction forces are equal but oppositely directed.

Free Body Diagram

A free body diagram is a sketch of the isolated body which shows only the forces acting upon
the body. The action and reaction forces are main concept to distinguish the force system of
the structures. Let us consider and analyzed the figure below on how to apply the action and
reaction forces to create a free body diagram.

Considering the figure, it is assumed that all the forces will pass through to the line of
action. In this case at a certain point. The external forces that act on the bodies are the applied
forces exerted by the man, the friction which is consider as our reaction forces, the gravity and
the normal force. Hence the free body diagram can be drawn using cartesian plane wherein
the applied forces, friction force, normal force and gravity force will pass at a certain common
point.

Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantities. Scalar quantities are the quantities that possesses magnitude only
and can be added arithmetically.
Vector Quantities. Vector quantities are the quantities that can be combined
geometrically that possesses magnitude and its direction.

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 Parallelogram Law

Parallelogram Law. Parallelogram law states that the resultant of two forces is the
diagonal of the parallelogram formed on the vectors of these force. Consider the figure
below:

Force A and Force B passes through point O. Hence to find for the resultant is to have
a line paralllel to force A and force B, thus, R is the resultant of the two vectors that passes
through the point O.

Triangle Law

Triangle Law. If two vectors are represented by their free vectors placed tip to tail, their
resultant vector is the third side of the triangle, the direction of the resultant being from the tail
of the first vector to the tip of the last vector. Let us consider the figure below;

To use the triangle law of forces, let us first consider side OA as our first vector where
O is the tail and O is the tip of the first vector. Considering side OB as our second vector where
O is the tail and B is the tip of the second vector. Hence to have a resultant, is to connect the
tail of the resultant to tail of the first vector and connect to the tip of the second vector.

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 Chapter 2
Resultants of Force Systems

2.1 Forces and Components

Resultant forces are the sum of forces that act on the system. If the sum of all the
forces being applied to the body is zero, then the body is in equilibrium and it will not change
its original state of motion. However, if the sum of all the forces is not zero, the body will have
a varying state of motion thereby creating problems in dynamics.
The component of a force can be found with horizontal and vertical change when
looking at the geometric representation of the numbers in the algebraic representation. Let us
consider the illustration below;

Force F lies in the first quadrant, hence forces along X and Y direction is positive. Using the
six trigonometric functions;
𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑥
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥 =
𝐹 𝐹
Thus,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑥

To solve for the resultant force F and 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥,

𝐹 = √(𝐹𝑥)2 + (𝐹𝑦)2
𝐹𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 =
𝐹𝑥
Conditions: 1. If the resultant force with respect to origin lies in the first quadrant the sign of
X and Y component is positive.

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2. If the resultant force with respect to origin lies in second quadrant, the sign of x component
is negative and the Y component is positive.
3. If the resultant force with respect to origin lies in third quadrant, the sign of x component is
negative and the y component is negative.
4. If the resultant force with respect to origin lies in the fourth quadrant, the sign of x component
is positive and the y component is negative.
Example 1: A force of 400 lb is directed as shown in figure 2-1. Determine the X and Y
components of the force.

Figure 2-1
Solution: Based on the given figure, it was shown that the force is acting at the fourth
quadrant, thus we will use condition 4, that the sign of x component is positive and the y
component is negative. Thus,
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑥

𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠400𝑁𝑐𝑜𝑠60

𝐹𝑥 = 200𝑁
𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑥

𝐹𝑦 = −400𝑁𝑠𝑖𝑛60
𝐹𝑦 = −346.42 𝑁
Example 2: Determine the X and Y components of each of the forces as shown in figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2
Solution: Based on the figure shown, we have three forces that act on the origin, the force
F,T, and P. As per evaluation, the force F lies on the second quadrant, hence we will use
the condition 2. Similarly, the force T lies on the third quadrant, hence we will use condition
3. Likewise, force P lies on the fourth quadrant, hence we will use condition 4.
5
𝐹𝑥 = −390𝑙𝑏 ( ) = −150 𝑙𝑏
13
12
𝐹𝑦 = 390𝑙𝑏 ( ) = 360 𝑙𝑏
13

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 𝑇𝑥 = −400 𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛40 = −257 𝑙𝑏

𝑇𝑦 = −400𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠40 = −307 𝑙𝑏

𝑃𝑥 = 300𝑙𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 260𝑙𝑏

𝑃𝑦 = −300𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = −150 𝑙𝑏

Problem Set no. 1

1. Determine the X and Y components of each of the forces shown figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3

2. The triangular block shown in figure 2-4 is subjected to the loads P = 1600 lb and F =
600 lb. If AB = 8 in, and BC = 6 in, resolve each load into components normal and
tangential to AC.

Figure 2-4

3. The horizontal and vertical components of several forces are:

(a) Ph = -200 lb and Pv = 100 lb
(b) Fh = 300 lb anf Fv = -200 lb
(c) Th = -50 lb and Tv = -90 lb.
Determine each force.
4. In figure 2-5, the X-component of the force P is 140 lb to the left. Determine the force
P and its Y component.

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 Figure 2-5

2.2 Resultant of Three or More Concurrent Forces

In dealing with three or more forces concurrent forces to find the resultant requires to
find the sum of its component by adding the three or more vectors. There are two ways to
determine the resultant of three or more concurrent forces, that is by graphical and analytical
method.
Graphical Method: Two vectors can be added to give a resultant. These resultant in
turn can be added to a third vector until the vectors have been added together to give an
overall resultant. These vectors can be added in any order.
Analytical method: The vectors can be added into component that coincide with
arbitrarily chosen axes. The components of each vector with respect to these axes can be
added algebraically and the resulting additions will be the components of the overall vector.
Example: Determine completely the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in figure
2-6.

Figure 2-6
Solution: Using graphical method

Using cosine law to find for R1;

𝑅12 = 4002 + 3002 − 2(400)(300)𝑐𝑜𝑠105

𝑅1 = 558.7 𝑙𝑏

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Hence,
To solve for resultant Rt, we will find first angle ∝ and 𝛽;

For angle ∝ use cosine law and to find for 𝛽 is to use sum of angle;

3002 = 𝑅12 + 4002 − 2(𝑅1 )(400 )𝑐𝑜𝑠 ∝

∝ = 31.20

180 = 60 + 𝛽 + 𝛼 + 60

𝛽 = 58.80

𝑅𝑡2 = 𝑅12 + 200 − 2(𝑅1 )(200)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽

𝑹𝒕 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝒍𝒃 located at the second quadrant

To find for 𝜃𝑥 is to find the value of 𝛿 and 𝜎, thus;

𝜎 = 180 − 𝛼 − 105

𝜎 = 43.80
and 𝛿 is;

2002 = 𝑅𝑡2 + 𝑅12 − 2(𝑅𝑡 )(𝑅1 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿

𝛿 = 20.60

𝜃𝑥 = 180 − 𝛿 − 𝜎 − 45

𝜽𝒙 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟔𝟎

Solution using Analytical Method:

We first determine the components of the resultant form the algebraic summations of
the components of the given forces. Knowing the rectangular components of the resultant, we
can easily find R. Since the X components of a force F is given by 𝐹 = cos 𝜃𝑥 and the Y
component by 𝐹 = sin 𝜃𝑥 we obtain,

Figure 2-6
Solution:

𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝑋

∑ 𝑋 = 300 cos 45 − 400 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 − 200 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = −161.1 𝑙𝑏

𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑌

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 ∑ 𝑌 = 300 sin 45 + 400 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 200 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 458.5 𝑙𝑏

The magnitude and inclination of R are now found from;

2 2
𝑅 = √(∑ 𝑋) + (∑ 𝑌)

𝑅 = √(161.1)2 + (458.5)2

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟖𝟔 𝒍𝒃
∑𝑋 458.5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 = =
∑𝑌 161.1
𝜽𝒙 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟔𝟎

To find the direction of the resultant is to check the sign of ∑ 𝑋 and ∑ 𝑌, in these
examples it is shown that ∑ 𝑋 has negative sign and ∑ 𝑌 has positive sign, therefore the
resultant lies on the condition 2.

Problem Set no. 2

1. Determine the resultant of the concurrent forces shown in figure 2-7.

Figure 2-7
2. Find the resultant of the concurrent force system shown in figure 2-8.

Figure 2-8

3. The resultant of the concurrent forces in figure 2-9 is 300 lb pointing up along the Y
axis. Compute the values of F and 𝜃 required to give this resultant.

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 Figure 2-9

4. The block shown in figure 2-10 is acted upon by its weight W = 200 lb, a horizontal
force Q = 600 lb and the pressure P exerted by the inclined plane. The resultant R of
these forces is up and parallel to the incline thereby sliding the block up it. Determine
P and R. Hint: Take one axis parallel to the incline.

Figure 2-10

2.3 Moment of a Force

Moment of a force is defined as the product of the magnitude of the force and the
perpendicular distance form axis or point to the line of action of the force. It measures the
capacity or ability of the force to produce twisting or turning effect about an axis. It has a
tendency to cause a body to rotate about a specific point.
Let us consider the figure below;

Figure 2-11
In the illustration shown in figure 2-11, we can find the moment of both he forces by
taking moment about the point where the forces are acting. The find the moment due to force
F1 isto take the moment about the point F2 acts. Hence, the moment is 𝑀1 = 𝐹1 . 𝑑. On the
other hand, the moment due to force F2 where the position is not perpendicular to distance d,
is to take the component of F2. Hence, F2 has two components which are the horizontal force,
F2h and the vertical force F2v. it was noted that considering horizontal force F2h will give us
zero force, whereas the horizontal force F2v has its value. Therefore, we will use the vertical
force which is perpendicular to the distance d. Hence, to take the moment about the point is
𝑀2 = 𝐹2𝑣 . 𝑑.
Example:

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In figure 2-13, the force F is passing through C causes a clockwise moment of 120 [Link] about
A and a clockwise moment of 70 ft-lb about B. Determine the force and its 𝑥 intercept and 𝑖𝑥 .

Figure 2-13
Solution:
In the figure shown, the moment about force due by force F has a component of Fx
and Fy. In this case, the moment about point A of Fy = 0, because Fy passes through the line
of action about point A, hence only Fx will create moment about point A. On the other hand,
the moment about point B, Fx will not rotate because it passes through the line of action of
point B and only Fy will rotate about point B.
Taking clockwise to be positive about point A;

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 𝐹𝑥 . 𝑦

Since 𝑀𝐴 = 120 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡,

120 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡 = 𝐹𝑥 . 2 𝑓𝑡
120 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡
𝐹𝑥 =
2 𝑓𝑡

𝑭𝒙 = 𝟔𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕
Since 𝑀𝐵 = 70 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 𝐹𝑦 . 𝑥 − 𝐹𝑥 . 𝑦

70 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡 = 𝐹𝑦 . 5𝑓𝑡 − 60 𝑙𝑏 . 3𝑓𝑡

𝑭𝒚 = 𝟓𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒖𝒑

To solve for total force F,

𝐹 = √(𝐹𝑥 )2 + (𝐹𝑦 )2

𝐹 = √(60)2 + (50)2

𝐹 = 78.2 𝑙𝑏 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡
𝐹𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 =
𝐹𝑥
𝜽𝒙 = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟖𝟎

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 To determine the x intercept of F where F crosses the X axis, resolve F into its
component. Since Fx at D causes zero moment about point B, the specified clockwise
moment about point B can be created by placing Fy to the left of B. Hence,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 𝐹𝑦 . 𝑒

70 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡 = 50 𝑙𝑏 . 𝑒

𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝒇𝒕
𝑖𝑥 = 5 𝑓𝑡 − 𝑒

𝑖𝑥 = 5 𝑓𝑡 − 1.4 𝑓𝑡
𝒊𝒙 = 𝟑. 𝟔 𝒇𝒕

Problem Set no. 3

1. In figure 2-14, assuming clockwise moments as positive, compute the moment of

force F – 450 lb and force P = 361 lb about point A, B, C, and D.

Figure 2-14

2. In figure 2-15, find the y coordinate of point A so that the 361 lb force will have a
clockwise moment of 400 ft-lb about point O. Also determine the X and Y intercepts
of the action line of the force.

Figure 2-15

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 3. For the truss shown in figure 2-16, compute the perpendicular distance from E and
from G to the line of BD. Hint: Imagine a force F directed along BD and compute its
moment in terms of tis components about E and about G. Then equate these results
to the definition of moment M = F.d to compute the required perpendicular distances.

Figure 2-16
4. A force P passing through points A and B in figure 2-17 has a clockwise moment of
300 ft-lb about O. Compute the value of P.

Figure 2-17

2.4 Resultant of Parallel Forces

Forces that lie in the same plane and have lines of action that never been intersect
each other is said to be a parallel force. As long two forces acting on a body in the same plane
direction and parallel to each other, they are said to be acting in parallel. The resultant of a
system is determined when its is known in magnitude, direction, and position. Let us consider
in figure 2-18 shown below,

Figure 2-18
In the figure shown there are three forces acting on the system which are the forces
P, Q, and S which are parallel to each other. It is noted that each force has an X component
and Y component, that is the
∑ 𝑋 = 0, and ∑ 𝑌 = ∑ 𝐹.

To find the resultant,

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 𝑅 = √(∑ 𝑋)2 + (∑ 𝑌)2

Which reduces to
𝑅 = ∑𝐹 .
To determine the position of R is to select convenient point O as the moment center
and employ the principle that the moment of a resultant is equals the moment sum if its parts.
Thus,

𝑅 . 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀𝑜

Example: Determine the resultant of the parallel force system acting on the bar AB shown in
figure 2-19. The forces and positions are given in the figure.

Figure 2-19
Solution:
In the figure shown above, the resultant force is obtained by,

𝑅 = ∑𝐹

Assuming upward force to be positive,

𝑅 = 30 𝑙𝑏 − 20 𝑙𝑏 − 10 𝑙𝑏 − 40 𝑙𝑏

𝑅 = −40 𝑙𝑏 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛

The find for the distance of the resultant is to take moment on A and moment on B, thus,

𝑀𝑅 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴

Taking moment at A and assuming clockwise direction to be positive,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = (10 𝑙𝑏)(2𝑓𝑡) − (30 𝑙𝑏)(5 𝑓𝑡) + (40 𝑙𝑏)(8 𝑓𝑡)

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 190 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑀𝑅= 𝑅 . 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐴

(40 𝑙𝑏) . 𝑑𝐴 = 190 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡

𝑑𝐴 = 4.75 𝑓𝑡
Taking moment at B and assuming clockwise direction to be positive,

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 𝑀𝑅 = ∑ 𝑀𝐵

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = (−20 𝑙𝑏)(8 𝑓𝑡) − (10 𝑙𝑏)(6 𝑓𝑡) + (30 𝑙𝑏)(3 𝑓𝑡)

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = −130 𝑙𝑏 − 𝑓𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑀𝑅= 𝑅 . 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀𝐵

(40 𝑙𝑏) . 𝑑𝐵 = 130 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡

𝑑𝐵 = 3.25 𝑓𝑡
Thus, in figure 2-20 below it shows the location of the resultant with its distance to
point A and B,

Figure 2-20

Problem Set no. 4

1. A parallel force system acts on the lever shown in figure 2-21. Determine the
magnitude and position of the resultant.

Figure 2-21
2. The beam shown in figure 2-22 supports a load which varies from an intensity of 50 lb
per ft to 200 lb per ft. Calculate the magnitude and position of the resultant load. Hint:
Replace the given loading by a uniformly distributed load of 50 lb per ft plus a triangular
load varying from zero at A to 150 lb per ft at B.

Figure 2-22

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 3. Locate the amount and position of the resultant of the loads acting on the Fink truss
shown ion figure 2-23.

Figure 2-23
4. Find the values of P so that the four forces shown in figure 2-24 produce an upward
resultant of 300 lb acting at 4 ft from the left end of the bar.

Figure 2-24

2.5 Couples
A couple is the pair of equal parallel forces that are opposite in direction. The only
effect of a couple is to produce or prevent the turning of a body. The perpendicular distance
between the action lines of the forces is called the moment arm of the couple. The magnitude
of the resultant of those forces are said to be zero, hence their moment sum is constant and
independent at the moment center. Considering the figure 2-25 shown below,

Figure 2-25
Summing up moment at point A and assuming clockwise to be positive,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 𝐹 . 𝑑

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 𝐹 . (𝑑 + 𝑎) − 𝐹 . 𝑎 = 𝐹. 𝑑

We conclude that the moment of couple C is equal to the product of one of the
forces composting the couple multiplied by the perpendicular distance between their action
lines. This relation is expressed by the equation
𝐶 = 𝐹 .𝑑

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Example: The cantilever truss shown in figure 2-26 carries a vertical load of 2400 lb. The truss
is supported by bearings at A and B which exerts the forces 𝐴𝑣, 𝐴ℎ, and 𝐵ℎ . The four forces
shown constitute two couples which must have opposite moment effects to prevent movement
of the truss. Determine the magnitudes of the supporting forces.

Figure 2-26
Solution:
Take the sum of all the vertical forces assuming upward to become positive,

∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑣 = 𝐴𝑣 − 2400 𝑙𝑏 = 0

𝑨𝒗 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒖𝒑𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒅

Since 𝐴ℎ and 𝐵ℎ is unknown force, we will use moment at point A,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 𝐵ℎ (4 𝑓𝑡) − 2400 𝑙𝑏 (6 𝑓𝑡) = 0

𝑩𝒉 = 𝟑, 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
Take the sum of all the horizontal forces assuming going to the right is positive find the force
𝐴ℎ .

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 0

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 𝐵ℎ − 𝐴ℎ = 0

∑ 𝐹ℎ = 3,600 𝑙𝑏 − 𝐴ℎ = 0

𝑨𝒉 = 𝟑, 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕

Problem Set no. 5

1. Determine the resultant moment about point A of the system of forces shown in figure
2-27. Each square is 1 ft on a side.

17
 Figure 2-27
2. The three-step pulley in figure 2-28 is subjected to the given couples. Compute the
value of the resultant couple. Also determine the forces acting at the rim of the middle
pulley that are required to balance the given system.

Figure 2-28
3. A vertical force P at A and another vertical force F at B in figure 2-29 produce resultant
of 100 lb down at D and a counterclockwise couple of 200 lb-ft. Find the magnitude
and direction of forces P and F.

Figure 2-29

2.6 Resolution of a Force into a Force and a Couple

The force and the moment at first point are statically equivalent to the original force at
second point. The process of transforming one force applied at one point, into a force and a
couple at some other point is known as resolving a force into a force and a couple. Let us
consider the figure 2-30.

18
 Figure 2-30
Considering Figure 2-30 (a), let force F act on point A. By adding two collinear forces
F’ and F” equal and parallel to F at B, the effect of F is unchanged. The forces F and F” form
a couple having the moment arm d. Since the moment is independent of its moment center, it
is convenient to represent the curved vector 𝐶 = 𝐹 . 𝑑. in figure 2-30 (b). F and F” having
disposed of, there remains only F’ which acts at B. The original force acting at B plus a couple
C having the magnitude Fd.
Example: In figure 2-31 a system of forces reduces to a downward vertical force of 400 lb
through A plus a counterclockwise couple of 800 lb-ft. Determine the single force that will
produce an equivalent effect.

Figure 2-31
Solution:

𝐶 = 𝐹 . 𝑑 = 800 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡
400 𝑙𝑏 (𝑑) = 800 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡

𝒅 = 𝟐 𝒇𝒕 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑶

Figure 2-32
Taking moment about point O,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = −2𝑅 + 400 𝑙𝑏 (4 𝑓𝑡) − 800 𝑙𝑏. 𝑓𝑡 = 0

𝑹 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒈𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒐𝒘𝒏

19
 Problem Set no. 6

1. A force system consists of a clockwise couple of 480 lb.-ft plus a 240 lb force
directed up to the right through the origin of X and Y axes at 𝜃𝑥 = 300 . Replace the
given system by an equivalent single force and compute the intercepts of its line of
action with the X and Y axes.
2. Replace the system of forces acting on the frame in figure 2-33 by a resultant R at A
and a couple acting horizontally through B and C.

Figure 2-33
3. Replace the system of forces shown in figure 2-34 by an equivalent force through O
and a couple acting through A and B. Solve if the forces of the couple are (a)
horizontal and (b) vertical.

Figure 2-34
2.7 Resultant of Non-Concurrent Force System
A non-concurrent force system is those the lines of action neither parallel nor intersects
in a common point. The effect of unbalanced force system on a body is to give the body a
motion consisting of a combined translation and rotation. The translational effect is determined
by the magnitude of the resultant R whose components are ∑ 𝑋 and ∑ 𝑌. The rotational effect
is determined by the moment of the resultant force and can be expressed as in terms of applied
forces 𝑅 . 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀. The components of the resultant is equal the component of the given
forces and can be expressed as,

𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝑋

𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑌

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑅 = 𝑅 . 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀

The magnitude and direction of the resultant are determined by;

20
 2 2
𝑅 = √𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 = √(∑ 𝑋) + (∑ 𝑌)

𝑅𝑦 ∑𝑋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 = =
𝑅𝑥 ∑𝑌

Example: The rectangular framework shown in figure 2-35 is subjected to the indicated non-
concurrent system of forces. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant, also its
moment arm relative to the origin O.

Figure 2-35
Solution:
To be able to find the summation of all the forces that act along X and Y is we will find each
component.

𝑅𝑥 = ∑ 𝑋

∑ 𝑋 = 17.3 𝑙𝑏 − 70.7 𝑙𝑏 + 60 𝑙𝑏 − 50 𝑙𝑏 = −𝟒𝟑. 𝟒 𝒍𝒃

𝑅𝑦 = ∑ 𝑌

∑ 𝑌 = 10 𝑙𝑏 + 70.7 𝑙𝑏 − 86.6 𝑙𝑏 − 30 𝑙𝑏 = −𝟑𝟓. 𝟗 𝒍𝒃

𝑀𝑅 = ∑ 𝑀𝑜

Assuming counterclockwise to be positive,

∑ 𝑀𝑂 = (−17.3 𝑙𝑏)(3 𝑓𝑡) + (70.7 𝑙𝑏)(3 𝑓𝑡) + (70.7 𝑙𝑏)(4 𝑓𝑡) − (60 𝑙𝑏)(3 𝑓𝑡) − (86.6 𝑙𝑏)(4 𝑓𝑡)

∑ 𝑀𝑂 = −𝟖𝟑. 𝟒 𝒍𝒃 − 𝒇𝒕

To find for the resultant,

21
 2 2
𝑅 = √(∑ 𝑋) + (∑ 𝑌)

𝑅 = √(43.4)2 + (35.9)2 = 56.3 𝑙𝑏

∑𝑋
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 =
∑𝑌
35.9
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 = = 𝟑𝟗. 𝟔𝟎
43.4

𝑀𝑅 = 𝑅. 𝑑 = ∑ 𝑀𝑜

56.3 𝑙𝑏 𝑥 𝑑 = 83.4

𝒅 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟖 𝒇𝒕
Note that we neglect the signs of ∑ 𝑋, ∑ 𝑌, and ∑ 𝑀𝑜 because these signs indicate only
the directions but has no effect in magnitudes.

Problem Set no. 7

1. Determine completely the resultant of the forces acting on the step pulley shown in
figure 2- 36.

Figure 2-36
2. Completely determined the resultant with respect to point O of the force system
shown in figure 2-37.

Figure 2-37
3. The Howe roof truss shown in figure 2-38 carries the given loads. The wind loads are
perpendicular to the inclined members. Determine the magnitude of the resultant, its
inclination with the horizontal and where it intersects AB.

22
Figure 2-38

23
 Chapter 3
Equilibrium of Force Systems

3.1 Free-Body Diagrams

Problems in mechanics always involve the interaction of bodies upon one another.
Successful solution of these problems generally requires that the bodies be isolated form one
another so that the forces involved may be analyzed and unknown forces determined. An
isolated view of a body which shows only the external forces exerted on the body is called a
free body diagram. These external forces are caused either bodily contact or by gravitational
or magnetic attraction. Table shows the different free body diagrams.

Example: In figure 3-1, a 200-lb cylinder is supported by a horizontal rod AB and rests against
the uniform bar CD which weighs 100 lb. Draw the free-body diagrams (a) of rod AB, (b) of
the cylinder, (c) of the bar CD, and (d) of the assembled cylinder and bar. Assume the pins at
A, B, C, D and the rollers to be smooth and frictionless. The rod AB is assumed to be
weightless, a statement which although physically impossible is often to mean that the weight
is negligible when compared with other loads or forces.

24
 Figure 3-1
Solution:
In general assumption, consider the body is in equilibrium. In the figure shown the
cylinder will roll downwards, and the rods AB and CD has its reactions depending on the
amount of the weight of the cylinder and its inclination.
(a) Isolating the rod AB, the reactions of pin at A has a horizontal reaction, force Q
towards pin at A and reacted at pin B, the force P to make it equilibrium.
(b) On the cylinder, the forces that acts are the reacted forces P, the weight of the
cylinder, and the contact forces between the cylinder and to the rod AB.
(c) On the rod CD, the forces that act are the weight of the bar CD, the reactions at
pin C and the pin at D.
The free body diagrams shown below. Hint: If the assumptions of the forces are
wrong, it results to a negative value, hence the assumption is in opposite direction.

Figure 3-2 Free Body Diagram

25
 Problem Set no. 8

1. The cylinder C shown in figure 3-3 is supported in pivots at A and B. Each member
weighs 1000 lb. Draw a free-body diagram of the cylinder of rod AB.

Figure 3-3
2. The uniform rod in figure 3-4 weighs 420 lb and has its center of gravity at G. Draw a
FBD of the rod. Neglect the thickness of the rod and assume all contact surfaces to be
smooth.

Figure 3-4
3. Draw a FBD of pulleys E and D and of the bar shown in figure 3-5. Assume all hinges
to be smooth and neglect the weight of each other.

Figure 3-5

26
 3.2 Equilibrium of Concurrent Force System
The conditions of equilibrium for concurrent force system are obtained by determining
the equations that produce a zero resultant. The magnitude of the resultant of a concurrent
force system is found by means of the equation

2 2
𝑅 = √(∑ 𝑋) + (∑ 𝑌)

The resultant will be zero and the equilibrium will exist when the following equations
are satisfied:

∑𝑋 = 0

∑𝑌 = 0

These equations are known as the conditions of equilibrium. It is important to note that
with two conditions of equilibrium if only two unknown quantities can be determined to create
of a concurrent force system.

Example: A system of cords knotted together at A and B support the weight shown in figure
3-6. Compute the tension P, Q, F, and T acting in the various cords.

Figure 3-6
Solution: Let us consider the different methods in solving concurrent force system.
Method 1: Using horizontal and vertical axes
A concurrent force system refers to a collection of forces that all intersect or have their
lines of action meeting at a single point. This point is known as the "concurrent point." Such
systems are commonly analyzed using vertical and horizontal axes, which are aligned with
the gravitational and lateral directions, respectively. Concurrent force systems are analyzed
by breaking down forces into their vertical and horizontal components using aligned axes. The
conditions for equilibrium involving the sum of vertical and horizontal forces provide a
systematic approach to ensure balance and stability in systems subjected to multiple forces.
This approach simplifies the analysis of complex scenarios and helps engineers design
structures and systems that withstand various forces.

27
Considering at point A;

Figure 3-7

∑𝑋 = 0

𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠15 − 𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 0 𝑒𝑞. (1)

∑𝑌 = 0

𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛15 + 𝑄 sin 30 − 300 = 0 𝑒𝑞. (2)

Solve the value of P in equation (1),
𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑃= 𝑒𝑞. 1′
𝑐𝑜𝑠15
Substitute eq. 1’ in eq. 2,
𝑄 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑠𝑖𝑛15 + 𝑄 sin 30 − 300 = 0
𝑐𝑜𝑠15
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒃
Substitute the value of Q in eq. 1’,
410 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑃=
𝑐𝑜𝑠15
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕 𝒍𝒃
Considering at point B

Figure 3-8

∑𝑋 = 0

28
 𝑇 cos 30 − 𝐹 cos 75 − 𝑃 cos 15 = 0

𝑇 cos 30 − 𝐹 cos 75 − 367 cos 15 = 0 𝑒𝑞. 1

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐹 sin 75 − 𝑇 sin 30 − 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛15 − 200 = 0

𝐹 sin 75 − 𝑇 sin 30 − 367 𝑠𝑖𝑛15 − 200 = 0 𝑒𝑞. 2

From equation 1, solve value of T;
𝑇 = (𝐹 cos 75 + 367 cos 15)/𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝑒𝑞. 1′
Substitute value of T in eq. 2,

𝐹 sin 75 − 𝑇 sin 30 − 367 𝑠𝑖𝑛15 − 200 = 0 𝑒𝑞. 2

𝐹 sin 75 − ((𝐹 cos 75 + 367 cos 15)/(𝑐𝑜𝑠30 )) sin 30 − 367 𝑠𝑖𝑛15 − 200 = 0
Solving simultaneously,
𝑭 = 𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒃
Solving for t is to substitute value of F to eq. 1’,
𝑇 = (𝐹 cos 75 + 367 cos 15 )/𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑇 = (564 cos 75 + 367 cos 15 )/𝑐𝑜𝑠30

𝑻 = 𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒃
Method 2: Using Rotated Axes
The Rotated Axes Method, also known as the Generalized Method of Moments or the
Parallel Axis Theorem, is a powerful technique in mechanics that allows us to simplify the
analysis of complex systems or objects by changing the coordinate system in which we
analyze their motion. By rotating the coordinate axes, we can often reduce the problem to a
simpler one, making calculations more manageable and intuitive. The Rotated Axes Method
involves rotating the coordinate system around a point to simplify the representation of forces,
moments, and motion. This is particularly useful when dealing with systems that have forces
or motion along multiple axes, such as objects in three-dimensional space. The key idea is to
transform the original coordinate system into a new one where the problem becomes easier
to solve. The Rotated Axes Method is a valuable tool in mechanics that simplifies the analysis
of complex systems by changing the coordinate system to align with the primary directions of
motion or force. It allows engineers and physicists to handle intricate problems more
effectively, enhancing our ability to understand and predict the behavior of objects and
systems in various applications. Let us consider in figure 3-9 shown below.

29
 Figure 3-9
Considering figure a, the X axes is rotated along force Q which gives us a final illustration in
figure b,

∑𝑌 = 0

𝑃 sin 45 − 300 sin 60 = 0

𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕 𝒍𝒃

∑𝑋 = 0

𝑃 cos 45 − 𝑄 + 300 cos 60 = 0

𝑸 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒃
Rotating the X axes along force T, we can find values of force F and T,

Figure 3-10

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐹 𝑠𝑖𝑛45 − 𝑃 𝑠𝑖𝑛45 − 200 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 = 0

367 𝑠𝑖𝑛45 + 200 𝑠𝑖𝑛60
𝐹=
𝑠𝑖𝑛45
𝑭 = 𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒃

∑𝑋 = 0

𝑇 − 𝐹 𝑐𝑜𝑠45 − 𝑃 𝑐𝑜𝑠45 + 200 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 = 0

30
 𝑇 = 612 𝑐𝑜𝑠45 + 367 𝑐𝑜𝑠45 − 200 𝑐𝑜𝑠60

𝑻 = 𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒃
Method 3: Using Force Triangle
The Force Triangle Method, also known as the Triangle of Forces, is a graphical
technique used to analyze and solve problems involving concurrent forces acting on an object.
It provides a geometric approach that simplifies the vector addition of forces, allowing us to
determine the resultant force and its direction with ease. This method is particularly useful
when dealing with equilibrium and statics in physics and engineering. At its core, the Force
Triangle Method relies on the principle that multiple forces acting at a point can be combined
to form a closed triangle. The sides of this triangle represent the magnitudes and directions of
the individual forces, and the closed triangle represents the equilibrium of forces at that point.
The Force Triangle Method is a valuable tool for solving problems involving concurrent forces
and equilibrium. Its graphical approach simplifies the process of vector addition and helps
engineers and physicists gain insights into the behavior of systems subjected to multiple
forces. While it has its limitations, the Force Triangle Method remains a fundamental technique
in the toolbox of anyone dealing with statics and equilibrium in the realm of mechanics. Using
the tip to tail addition gives the closed of forces shown below.

Figure 3-11
Using sine law we obtain,
300 𝑃 𝑄
= =
sin 45 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 𝑠𝑖𝑛75
𝑷 = 𝟑𝟔𝟕 𝒍𝒃
𝑸 = 𝟒𝟏𝟎 𝒍𝒃
To solve for the forces of F and T is to draw a transversal line to form two triangles, say X be
the transversal line,

Figure 3-12

31
Using cosine law we obtain,

𝑥 2 = 𝑃2 + (200)2 − 2(𝑃)(200)𝑐𝑜𝑠105

𝑥 2 = (367)2 + (200)2 − 2(367)(200)𝑐𝑜𝑠105

𝑥 = 461 𝑙𝑏
Solve 𝛼 using sine law;
𝑃 𝑥
=
sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛105
367 461
=
sin 𝛼 𝑠𝑖𝑛105
𝛼 = 50.230
Thus,

𝛽 = 1200 − 𝛼 = 1200 − 50.230 = 69.770

Using sine law we obtain value of force F,
𝐹 𝑥
=
sin 𝛽 𝑠𝑖𝑛45
𝐹 461
=
sin 69.77 𝑠𝑖𝑛45
𝑭 = 𝟔𝟏𝟐 𝒍𝒃
To solve for force T is to find first the value of angle 𝛿 and use sine law,

𝛿 = 180 − 𝛽 − 45 = 180 − 69.77 − 45 = 65.23

𝑇 𝑥
=
sin 𝛿 𝑠𝑖𝑛45
𝑇 461
=
sin 65.23 𝑠𝑖𝑛45
𝑻 = 𝟓𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒃

Problem Set no. 9

1. The cable and boom shown in figure 3-13 support a load of 600 lb. Determine the
tensile force T in the cable and the compression force C in the boom.

32
 Figure 3-13
2. A 300-lb box is held at rest on a smooth plane by a force P inclined at an angle 𝜃 with
the plane as shown in figure 3-14. If 𝜃 = 450 determine the value of P and the normal
pressure N exerted by the plane.

Figure 3-14

3. In figure 3-15, represents the concurrent force system acting at a joint of a bridge.
Determine the values of P and E to maintain equilibrium of the forces.

Figure 3-15
4. The system knotted cords shown in figure 3-16 supports the indicated weights.
Compute the tensile force in each cord.

33
 Figure 3-16

3.3 Conditions of Equilibrium from Moments

Equilibrium is a fundamental concept in physics and engineering that describes the

state of a system when all forces acting upon it balance out, resulting in no net acceleration
or rotation. When it comes to analyzing equilibrium conditions, moments play a crucial role.
Moments, also known as torques, are rotational forces that can cause an object to rotate
around a fixed point or axis. By understanding the conditions of equilibrium through moments,
we can effectively predict and explain the behavior of various objects and systems.
The Three Conditions of Equilibrium:
There are three main conditions of equilibrium that can be derived from the concept of
moments:
Sum of Clockwise Moments = Sum of Counterclockwise Moments: This condition is
based on the principle of torque balance. For an object to remain in equilibrium, the sum of
the moments (torques) acting in a clockwise direction must be equal to the sum of the
moments acting in a counterclockwise direction.
Sum of Forces = 0: In addition to balancing moments, the sum of all forces acting on
the object must also be zero for equilibrium to be maintained. This condition is derived from
Newton's first law of motion, which states that an object at rest (or in uniform motion) will
remain so unless acted upon by an external force.
Net Torque = 0: The net torque about any point in the system must be zero. This means
that the rotational forces acting on the object must balance out, preventing any angular
acceleration.
Understanding equilibrium conditions through moments provides a powerful
framework for analyzing and predicting the behavior of objects and systems in various
contexts. By considering the balance of forces and rotational forces, we can ensure the
stability, safety, and functionality of structures, machinery, and even the human body. As
technology and engineering continue to advance, the application of these principles will remain
essential in solving new challenges and pushing the boundaries of innovation.
Form the conditions of equilibrium form moments, the only conclusion possible to yield
zero moment sums is that the resultant is zero. Hence, two others of equilibrium are

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

34
 ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

Some problems in mechanics can be solve equilibrium from moments in combinations

of the following formulas

∑ 𝑋 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑌 = 0

∑ 𝑋 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

∑ 𝑌 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

3.4 Three Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium Are Concurrent

In mechanics, the concept of equilibrium plays a crucial role in understanding the

stability and balance of objects subjected to various forces. When three coplanar forces are
in equilibrium, it means that the object they act upon remains stationary and experiences no
net translation or rotation. When these forces meet at a single point, the system is referred to
as a "co-planar concurrent force system." A co-planar concurrent force system is
characterized by three forces that share a common point of intersection. This point is referred
to as the "concurrent point." These forces can act at different angles and magnitudes, but they
must all intersect at the same point within the plane. The study of co-planar concurrent forces
in equilibrium provides insights into how forces interact within a two-dimensional plane to
maintain balance and stability. By understanding the conditions for equilibrium and applying
them to real-world situations, engineers and scientists can design and analyze structures and
systems that remain stable under various forces, ensuring safety and efficiency in diverse
applications.
Conditions for Equilibrium:
For a co-planar concurrent force system to be in equilibrium, two primary conditions
must be satisfied:
Force Equilibrium: The vector sum of all the forces in the system must be zero. This
ensures that there is no net force acting on the object, preventing any translational
acceleration.
Mathematical Expression: ∑ 𝐹 = 0, where ΣF represents the vector sum of all forces.
Moment Equilibrium: The vector sum of the moments (torques) about any point within
the plane must be zero. This ensures that there is no net rotational tendency, maintaining
angular equilibrium.
Mathematical Expression: ΣM = 0, where ΣM represents the vector sum of all moments.
Concurrent Forces in Equilibrium:
When these two equilibrium conditions are met, the system is not only in translational
equilibrium (no net force), but it is also in rotational equilibrium (no net moment). This implies
that the object will remain at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by external forces.

35
Example: The bell crank shown in figure 3-17 is supported by a bearing at A. A 100 lb force is
applied vertically at C, rotation being prevented by the force P acting at B. Compute the value
of p and the bearing reaction at A.

Figure 3-17
Solution: Since the bell crank is in equilibrium, the three forces which set act upon it must
pass through a common point. Prolonging the lines of action of the force to intersect at D
makes the direction of 𝑅𝐴 such that it must pass through A and D. From geometry of the
figure, the distance AE is found to be 13.67 in, hence the distance CD – 21.67 in. The
direction of 𝑅𝐴 id=s found from
𝐷𝐶
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 =
𝐴𝐶
21.67
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃𝑥 = = 2.71
8
𝜃𝑥 = 690 45′
Plotting the polygon of forces that are acting on the bell crank as shown in the figure, we
obtain by applying the law of sines
100 𝑃 𝑅𝐴
0 ′ = 0 ′ =
𝑠𝑖𝑛24 45 𝑠𝑖𝑛20 15 𝑠𝑖𝑛1350
𝑷 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟖𝒍𝒃 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑹𝑨 = 𝟏𝟔𝟗 𝒍𝒃

36
 Problem Set no. 10

1. The fink truss shown in figure 3-18 is supported by a roller at A and a hinge at B. The
given loads normal to the inclined member. Determine the reactions at A and B. Hint:
Replace the loads by their resultant.

Figure 3-18
2. The truss shown in figure 3-19 is supported by a hinge at A and a roller at B. A load of
200 lb is applied at C. Determine the reactions at A and B.

Figure 3-19
3. Determine the amount and direction of the smallest force P required to start the wheel
in figure 3-20 over the block. What is the reaction of the block?

Figure 3-20

4. Two weightless bars pinned together as shown in figure 3-21 support a load of 350
lb. Determine the forces P and F acting respectively along bars AB and AC that
maintain equilibrium of pin A.

37
 Figure 3-21

3.5 Equilibrium of Parallel Forces

The concept of equilibrium is fundamental in mechanics, describing the state in which

an object remains stationary or moves with constant velocity under the influence of forces.
When dealing with parallel forces, the analysis becomes particularly interesting as it involves
forces acting along the same line. Understanding the conditions and implications of equilibrium
for parallel forces is crucial for a wide range of applications in physics and engineering.
The equilibrium of parallel forces is a fundamental concept in mechanics that finds
widespread use in engineering, physics, and various other disciplines. The ability to analyze
and ensure equilibrium is essential for designing safe and stable structures, machinery, and
systems. By understanding the conditions for equilibrium and applying them to parallel force
systems, engineers and scientists can create efficient and functional designs that withstand
various forces and maintain balance in diverse applications.
Equilibrium of Parallel Forces:
Equilibrium of parallel forces occurs when the net force acting on an object is zero.
This can happen when multiple forces act along the same line and balance each other out.
Conditions for Equilibrium:
For parallel forces to be in equilibrium, two primary conditions must be satisfied:
Force Equilibrium: The algebraic sum of all parallel forces must be zero. This ensures
that the net force acting on the object is zero, resulting in no translational acceleration. We
found that the resultant of parallel force systems is determined by the equations

∑𝐹 = 0

Moment Equilibrium: The total moment (torque) about any point within the plane must
be zero. This ensures that the net rotational tendency caused by the parallel forces is zero.
We found that the moment of a systems is determined by the equations

∑𝑀 = 0

The force summation may be replaced by a moment summation. Hence the equation
of equilibrium for parallel forces may be also expressed by

38
 ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

The equation above implies that the moment centers A and B connect a line that is not
parallel to the forces.
Parallel Force Systems:
Parallel force systems can be categorized into three types based on their relative
directions and points of action:
Concurrent Parallel Forces: Multiple parallel forces that act at a common point,
resulting in a balanced system.
Collinear Parallel Forces: Forces that have parallel lines of action but do not meet at a
common point. These forces can be balanced if their magnitudes and directions are
appropriately chosen.
Coplanar Parallel Forces: Forces that are parallel and lie within the same plane.
Coplanar forces can be in equilibrium if their algebraic sum is zero.
Example: A beam simply supported at the ends, carries a concentrated load of 300 lb and a
uniformly distributed load weighing 100 lb per linear foot as shown in figure 3-22. Determine
the beam reactions.

Figure 3-22
Solution: Convert the uniform load into concentrated load,
𝑙𝑏
𝑃𝑢 = 100 (6𝑓𝑡) = 600 𝑙𝑏
𝑓𝑡

Take the summation of moment at 𝑅2 assuming positive clockwise direction to obtain the value
of 𝑅1

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 0

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝑅2 = 𝑅1 (10) − 300 (8) − 600 (3) = 0

𝑹𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐𝟎 𝒍𝒃

Take the summation of moment at 𝑅1 assuming positive clockwise direction to obtain the value
of 𝑅2

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = 0

39
 ⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝑅1 = −𝑅2 (10) + 300 (2) + 600 (7) = 0

𝑹𝟐 = 𝟒𝟖𝟎 𝒍𝒃
To check the value, a vertical summation of forces will be used assuming upward to be
positive,
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 = 300 + 600

420 + 480 = 300 + 600

900 𝑙𝑏 = 900 𝑙𝑏

Problem Set no. 11

1. Determine the reaction forces for the beam shown in figure 3-23.

Figure 3-23
2. Determine the reactions for the beam loaded as shown in figure 3-24.

Figure 3-24
3. The roof truss shown in figure 3-25 is supported by a roller at A and a hinge at B. Find
the value of the reactions.

Figure 3-25
4. The cantilever sbeam shown in figure 3-26 is built into a wall 2 ft thick so that it rests
against points A and B. The beam is 12 ft long and weighs 100 lb per ft. concentrated
load of 2000 lb is applied at the free end. Compute the reactions at A and B.

40
 Figure 3-26

3.6 Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Forces

Equilibrium is a fundamental concept in mechanics that describes the state in which

an object remains stationary or in uniform motion under the influence of forces. When dealing
with non-concurrent force systems, where forces do not meet at a single point, the analysis
becomes more complex but equally important. Understanding the conditions and principles of
equilibrium for non-concurrent force systems is essential for solving a wide range of problems
in physics and engineering.
The equilibrium of non-concurrent force systems is a fundamental aspect of mechanics
that enables engineers and scientists to analyze and design structures and systems that
maintain stability and balance. By understanding and applying the conditions for equilibrium,
individuals can ensure that forces acting on different points are properly balanced, reducing
the risk of failure and optimizing the performance of various objects and structures. Equilibrium
analysis in non-concurrent force systems is a crucial tool for solving complex engineering
problems and ensuring safe and efficient designs in a wide range of applications.
Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force Systems:
In a non-concurrent force system, forces do not intersect at a single point. Instead, they have
different lines of action and may be applied at various points. Equilibrium in such systems
involves ensuring that both translational and rotational equilibrium conditions are satisfied.
Conditions for Equilibrium:
To achieve equilibrium in a non-concurrent force system, three conditions must be met:
Force Equilibrium: The vector sum of all forces in the system must be zero. This
ensures that the object experiences no net force and remains stationary or in uniform motion.

∑𝐹 = 0

Moment Equilibrium: The total moment (torque) about any point within the system must
be zero. This ensures that the net rotational tendency caused by the forces is zero.

∑𝑀 = 0

Translational Equilibrium: The sum of all the moments about any axis in the plane must
be zero. This condition ensures that the object does not experience rotation about any chosen
axis.

∑ 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 = 0

41
Example: The roof truss shown in figure 3-27 is supported on rollers at A and hinged at B. The
wind loads are perpendicular to the inclined members. Determine the components of the
reactions at A and B.

Figure 3-27
Solution: The roller at A constraints the reactions to be vertical and that is 𝐴𝑣 . The reaction at
B is resolved into components 𝐵𝑣 and 𝐵ℎ . These three unknown quantities are determined by
applying the equations of equilibrium. Since the vertical given loads are symmetrical, we can
add the forces into one force and that is the 600 lb that act at the center of the truss shown in
figure b. As we can observed, the inclined forces are also symmetrical, hence we can replace
also into one force that act at point C and that is the 400 lb shown in figure b. Hence based
on the arrived values in figure b we can find the values of 𝐵ℎ by using,

∑𝑋 = 0

𝐵ℎ = 240 𝑙𝑏

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

320(20) + 600(40) + 240(15) − 80𝐵𝑣 = 0

𝐵𝑣 = 425 𝑙𝑏

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐴𝑣 + 𝐵𝑣 − 320 − 600 = 0
𝐴𝑣 + 425 − 320 − 600 = 0

𝐴𝑣 = 495 𝑙𝑏

Problem Set no. 12

1. A boom AB is supported in a horizontal position by a hinge A and a cable which runs

from C over a small pulley at D as shown in figure 3-28. Compute the tension T in the
cable and the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction at A. Neglect the size
of the pulley at D.

42
 Figure 3-28
2. Compute the total reactions at A and B for the truss shown in figure 3-29.

Figure 3-29
3. A pulley 4 ft in diameter and supporting a load of 200 lb is mounted at B on a horizontal
beam shown in figure 3-30. The beam is supported by a hinge at A and rollers at C.
Neglecting the weight of the beam, determine the reactions at A and C.

Figure 3-30

4. The cantilever truss shown in figure 3-31 is supported by a hinge at A and a strut BC.
Determine the reactions at A and B.

Figure 3-31

43
 Chapter 4
Analysis of Structures

4.1 Method of Joints

The method of joints is a fundamental technique used in structural analysis to
determine the internal forces (axial forces) in the members of a truss. A truss is a structure
composed of straight members connected at joints, and it is often used to support loads and
provide stability for various engineering applications, such as bridges, roof trusses, and crane
structures. The method of joints simplifies the analysis of truss structures by considering
equilibrium at individual joints.
Here's a step-by-step explanation of the method of joints:
Identify the Truss and Joints: Start by identifying the truss for which you want to
analyze the internal forces. Trusses consist of interconnected members (bars) and joints
(nodes) where the members meet.
Draw the Free-Body Diagram: Isolate a joint that is part of the truss and draw a free-
body diagram of that joint. This involves representing the joint as a point and showing all the
forces acting on it. Common forces include applied loads, reactions, and forces along the truss
members connected to the joint.
Apply Equilibrium Equations: Apply the principles of static equilibrium to the free-body
diagram. This means that the sum of the forces in both the horizontal and vertical directions
should be equal to zero. You can also consider moments if necessary.
Solve for Unknown Forces: With equilibrium equations applied, you'll have a system
of equations involving the unknown axial forces in the truss members connected to the joint.
Solve these equations to find the values of the unknown forces.
Move to the Next Joint: Repeat steps 2 to 4 for each joint in the truss. As you move
from joint to joint, you'll gradually solve for the axial forces in all the truss members.
Check for Consistency: After calculating the forces for all joints, it's a good practice to
check the consistency of your results. Ensure that the forces satisfy equilibrium at each joint
and that the truss remains in a stable configuration.
Key Considerations:
When applying equilibrium equations, remember that the forces along the truss
members are typically assumed to act along the members themselves, without any lateral
deflection. This simplification is valid as long as the truss remains in a state of static
equilibrium.
For trusses in which all members are connected at two force members (e.g., pin joints),
the method of joints is particularly effective. However, for more complex trusses with

44
redundant members or multiple types of supports, additional methods such as the method of
sections may be needed.
The method of joints is well-suited for manual calculations and smaller truss structures.
For larger and more complex trusses, computer-based structural analysis tools (e.g., finite
element analysis software) may be more efficient.
In summary, the method of joints is a valuable tool for analyzing truss structures by
simplifying the process into a series of equilibrium calculations at individual joints. It's a
foundational concept in structural engineering and provides insights into the internal forces
that govern the behavior of truss systems.

Example: A fink truss is loaded as shown in figure 4-1. Determine the force in each member
of the truss assuming them to be pin-connected.

Figure 4-1
Solution: The given loading is symmetrical; hence the reactions will be half of it.

∑ 𝐹𝑉 = 0

1000 𝑙𝑏 + 1000 𝑙𝑏 + 1000 𝑙𝑏 + 2000 𝑙𝑏 + 2000 𝑙𝑏 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑅𝐵

Since the reactions is half of the total loadings, 𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝐵 , thus

2𝑅𝐴 = 7000 𝑙𝑏

𝑅𝐴 = 3500 𝑙𝑏
𝑅𝐵 = 3500 𝑙𝑏
Using method of joints, let us consider at joint A

Figure 4-2

∑𝑌 = 0

3500 𝑙𝑏 − 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 0
𝐴𝐵 = 7000 𝑙𝑏 𝐶

45
 ∑𝑋 = 0

𝐴𝐶 − 𝐴𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 0

𝐴𝐶 = 6062 𝑙𝑏 𝑇
Considering at joint B,

Figure 4-3

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐵𝐶 − 100 𝑙𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 = 0
𝐵𝐶 = 866𝑙𝑏 𝐶

∑𝑋 = 0

𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵𝐷 − 1000𝑙𝑏 cos 60 = 0

7000 𝑙𝑏 − 𝐵𝐷 − 1000𝑙𝑏 cos 60 = 0

𝐵𝐷 = 6500 𝑙𝑏 𝐶
Considering joint C,

Figure 4-4

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐶𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 𝐵𝐶 sin 60 − 2000 = 0

𝐶𝐷 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 866 sin 60 − 2000 = 0

𝐶𝐷 = 866𝑙𝑏 𝐶

∑𝑋 = 0

𝐶𝐸 + 𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 + 𝐵𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 − 𝐴𝐶 = 0
𝐶𝐸 + 866 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 + 866 𝑐𝑜𝑠60 − 6062 = 0

𝐶𝐸 = 4040 𝑙𝑏 𝑇

46
 As discussed previously, the given loadings are symmetrical, thus the reactions of
forces on pin F are symmetrical to pin B, the reaction of forces at pin C is symmetrical to pin
E and the reactions forces at pin G is symmetrical to pin A. However, if the loading is not
symmetrical the solutions is to proceed to the next unmarked pin. The following figure shown
below is the appearance of reactions in each pin.

Figure 4-5

Problem Set no. 13

1. The cantilever beam shown in figure 4-6 is hinged at D and E. Find the force in each
member.

Figure 4-6

2. In the cantilever truss shown in figure 4-7, compute the force in members AB, BE,
and DE.

Figure 4-7
3. Compute the force in each member of the Warren truss shown in figure 4-8.

47
 Figure 4-8

4.2 Method of Sections

The method of sections is another essential technique used in structural analysis to

determine internal forces in truss members. Unlike the method of joints, which focuses on
analyzing individual joints of a truss, the method of sections involves cutting through the truss
to isolate a specific portion of it. This method is particularly useful for determining the internal
forces in selected members within the truss.
Here's a step-by-step explanation of the method of sections:
Select the Section: Choose a specific section of the truss where you want to analyze
the internal forces in one or more members. The section should ideally be isolated by cutting
through a maximum of three non-collinear members.
Draw the Free-Body Diagram: Isolate the chosen section and draw a free-body
diagram of the entire section. This involves representing the truss members that cross the
section as cut, revealing the internal forces (axial forces) in those members. The forces at the
cut ends of the members will be reactions or forces from the rest of the truss.
Apply Equilibrium Equations: Apply the principles of static equilibrium to the free-body
diagram of the selected section. This means that the sum of the forces in both the horizontal
and vertical directions should be equal to zero. If the section is in equilibrium, you can solve
for the internal forces in the members of interest.
Solve for Unknown Forces: With equilibrium equations applied, you'll have a system
of equations involving the unknown axial forces in the members that cross the section. Solve
these equations to find the values of the unknown forces.
Check for Consistency: After calculating the forces for the members in the selected
section, it's important to check the consistency of your results. Ensure that the forces satisfy
equilibrium conditions and that the truss remains in a stable configuration.
Key Considerations:
The method of sections is advantageous when you want to analyze specific members
within a truss without considering the entire structure. It is particularly useful when the truss is
large or complex and analyzing each joint individually would be impractical.
When choosing a section to cut through the truss, aim to isolate as few members as
possible while still obtaining the desired information about the internal forces. This helps
simplify the calculations and reduces the number of unknowns.

48
 The method of sections can be applied to both statically determinate and indeterminate
trusses, making it a versatile tool for structural analysis.
As with the method of joints, it's important to remember that the method of sections
assumes that the truss members are idealized as straight and connected at frictionless pins
or hinges.
While the method of sections is effective for hand calculations, computer-based
structural analysis software may be more efficient for larger and more complex truss
structures.
In summary, the method of sections is a powerful technique in structural analysis that
allows you to determine internal forces in specific members of a truss by cutting through a
chosen section and applying equilibrium principles. It provides valuable insights into the
behavior of truss members and is a key tool for structural engineers in designing and analyzing
truss structures.
Example: Find the force acting in members BD, BE, and CE of the Bowstring truss shown in
figure 4-9, using the method of sections. In each case determine the force by means of an
equation which does not involve the other unknown forces.

Figure 4-9
The required forces in BD, BE, and CE can be found by passing the section a-a through
these members. Since the original truss is in equilibrium, the two segments into which it is
divided by a cutting plane will also ne in equilibrium if the loads carried by the cut members
are replaced by external forces equal to these loads. These external forces are shown in figure
4-10 showing the free-body on the left section.

Figure 4-10 (Free-body diagrams of left section)

To find force CE is to take the moment at pin B so that BD and BE will be eliminated

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0

8𝐶𝐸 − 12(800) = 0

𝑪𝑬 = 𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝑻
If we take the moment of pin E, BE, BDv and CE will not rotate since it passes
through the line of action. The only unknown forces that will rotate is the force BDh, thus,

49
 ⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0

12 𝐵𝐷ℎ + 12(1200) − 24(1800) = 0

𝐵𝐷ℎ = 2400 𝑙𝑏
To find for other unknown forces BD is we will be using the proportionality between
the force and the slope triangle,
𝐵𝐷 𝐵𝐷𝑣 𝐵𝐷ℎ 2400
= = =
√10 1 3 3

𝐵𝐷𝑣 = 800 𝑙𝑏
𝐁𝐃 = 𝟐𝟓𝟑𝟎 𝐥𝐛 𝐂
Taking moment at pin O will eliminate forces BD, CE, and Beh because it passes at
pin O.

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝑂 = 0

36 𝐵𝐸𝑣 − 24(1200) + 12(1800) = 0

BEv = 200 lb
To find for other unknown forces Be is we will be using the proportionality between
the force and the slope triangle,
𝐵𝐸 𝐵𝐸ℎ 𝐵𝐸𝑣 200
= = =
√13 3 2 2

𝐵𝐸ℎ = 300 𝑙𝑏
𝐁𝐄 = 𝟑𝟔𝟏 𝐥𝐛 𝐂

Problem Set no. 14

1. The Warren truss loaded as shown in figure 4-11 is supported by a roller at C and a
hinge at G. By the method of sections, compute the force in members BC, DF, and
CE.

Figure 4-11

50
 2. Determine the force in members DF, DG, and EG of the Howe truss shown in figure
4-12.

Figure 4-12
3. Use the method of sections to compute the force in members AB, AD, BC, and BD of
the truss shown in figure 4-13.

Figure 4-13

4.3 Frames and Machines

Frames and machines are fundamental concepts in mechanics that play a significant
role in understanding and analyzing the behavior of structures and mechanisms. They are
both essential components of structural and mechanical engineering, helping engineers
design, analyze, and optimize a wide range of systems. Let's delve into the discussion on
frames and machines in mechanics:
A frame is a structural system composed of linear and rigid members connected at
their ends to form a stable and statically determinate structure. Frames are commonly used in
architectural and engineering applications to support loads, such as buildings, bridges, and
industrial structures. Here are some key points to consider:
Types of Frames: Frames can be categorized into two main types: plane frames (2D
frames) and space frames (3D frames). Plane frames are commonly analyzed in two
dimensions, whereas space frames involve analysis in three dimensions.
Load Distribution: Frames are designed to distribute external loads (such as dead
loads, live loads, wind loads) and internal forces (axial, shear, and bending) efficiently
throughout the structure to ensure stability and safety.
Structural Analysis: Analyzing frames involves applying principles of static equilibrium
to determine member forces, reactions, and deflections. Methods like the method of joints, the

51
method of sections, and more advanced techniques such as matrix methods and finite element
analysis are used for frame analysis.
Stability and Redundancy: Engineers consider the stability and redundancy of frames
to ensure that the structure can withstand both anticipated and unexpected loading conditions
without catastrophic failure.
Machines are mechanical systems designed to perform specific tasks by transmitting
or transforming forces and motions. They are essential in various industries, from
manufacturing to transportation, and can be found in everyday objects like vehicles,
appliances, and industrial equipment. Here are key aspects to discuss about machines:
Mechanisms and Kinematics: Machines are often composed of mechanisms, which
are combinations of rigid bodies (links) and joints (connections). The study of mechanisms
involves kinematics, which focuses on describing and analyzing the motion of machine
components.
Types of Machines: Machines can be classified based on their purpose, such as simple
machines (levers, pulleys), complex machines (engines, robots), and mechanisms with
specific functions (gear trains, linkages).
Forces and Motion: Understanding how forces and torques are transmitted and
transformed within a machine is crucial for its design and operation. Engineers consider
factors like stress, strain, and fatigue to ensure machine components withstand loads.
Mechanical Efficiency: Engineers strive to design machines that operate with high
mechanical efficiency, minimizing energy losses due to friction, wear, and other factors.
Dynamic Analysis: Analyzing the dynamic behavior of machines involves studying the
response to time-varying forces, impacts, vibrations, and other dynamic loads. This is crucial
for predicting and preventing potential issues.
Control and Automation: Many modern machines incorporate control systems and
automation to enhance performance, accuracy, and safety. These systems utilize sensors,
actuators, and algorithms to manage machine operations.
Integration of Frames and Machines:
Frames and machines often interact in engineering applications. For instance, the
structural frame of a crane supports the machine components responsible for lifting heavy
loads. Analyzing the interplay between the frame's structural integrity and the machine's
operational requirements is essential for a successful design.
In summary, frames and machines are integral to the field of mechanics and
engineering as a whole. Frames provide stability and support for various structures, while
machines enable the transmission and transformation of forces and motion to accomplish
specific tasks. Both concepts require a deep understanding of mechanics principles and play
a crucial role in modern engineering design and analysis.
Example: The frame shown in figure 4-14 supports a 600-lb load and has the given
dimensions. Neglecting the weights of the members, compute the values of the forces acting
on the pins B, C, D.

52
 Figure 4-14
Taking moment of E,

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐸 = 0

20𝐴𝑉 − 600(8) = 0
𝐴𝑉 = 240 𝑙𝑏

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0

600(12) − 20𝐸𝑉 = 0

𝐸𝑉 = 360 𝑙𝑏
Figure below shows the free body diagram of each frame

Figure 4-15
Considering the free body diagram at (b), take the moment of D to solve for 𝐵𝑉

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐷 = 0

12𝐵𝑣 − 600(4) = 0
𝑩𝒗 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
Taking moment at C;

⨭ ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 0

6𝐵ℎ + 200(6) − 240(10) = 0

𝑩𝒉 = 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃

53
Taking summation of x at FBD at b

∑𝑋 = 0

𝐷ℎ − 𝐵ℎ = 0

𝐷ℎ = 𝐵ℎ = 200 𝑙𝑏

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐷𝑣 + 200 − 600 = 0
𝑫𝒗 = 𝟒𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
To the FBD of AC we apply

∑𝑋 = 0

𝐵ℎ − 𝐶ℎ = 0

𝐵ℎ = 𝐶ℎ = 200 𝑙𝑏

∑𝑌 = 0

𝐶𝑣 − 200 − 600 = 0
𝑪𝒗 = −𝟒𝟎 𝒍𝒃
To find the resultant of the forces C, B, and D can be found from their components,

𝐶 = √𝐶𝑣 2 + 𝐶ℎ2

𝐶 = √402 + 2002

𝑪 = 𝟐𝟎𝟒 𝒍𝒃

𝐵 = √𝐵𝑣 2 + 𝐵ℎ2

𝐵 = √2002 + 2002

𝑩 = 𝟐𝟖𝟑 𝒍𝒃

𝐷 = √𝐷𝑣 2 + 𝐷ℎ2

𝐷 = √4002 + 2002

𝑫 = 𝟒𝟒𝟕 𝒍𝒃

54
 Problem Set no. 15

1. For the frame loaded as shown in figure 4-16, determine the horizontal and vertical
components of the pin pressure at B. Specify directions )up or down; left or right) of
the force as it acts upon member CD.

Figure 4-16
2. The frame shown in figure 4-17 is hinged to rigid supports at A and E. Find the
components of the hinge at A and E and the forces in members BC and BD.

Figure 4-17
3. The frame shown in figure 4-18 is supported by a hinge at E and a roller at D. Compute
the horizontal and vertical components of the hinge force at C as it acts upon BD.

Figure 4-18

55
 Chapter 5
Friction

5.1 Theory of Friction

Friction is a fundamental force that opposes the relative motion or tendency of motion between
two objects in contact. It plays a crucial role in our daily lives and has significant implications
in various scientific, engineering, and practical applications. The theory of friction involves
understanding its causes, effects, and various factors that influence its behavior.
Key Concepts in the Theory of Friction:
Types of Friction:
Static Friction: This is the frictional force that opposes the initiation of motion between two
surfaces in contact. It prevents an object from sliding when a force is applied.
Kinetic (or Dynamic) Friction: This type of friction occurs when two surfaces are in relative
motion. It opposes the motion of the object that is sliding or moving.
Causes of Friction:
Friction arises due to the microscopic irregularities on the surfaces of objects. Even seemingly
smooth surfaces have imperfections at the microscopic level, which interlock and resist
relative motion.
The intermolecular forces between atoms and molecules on the surfaces of objects also
contribute to friction. These forces can be attraction or repulsion, depending on the materials
involved.
Factors Affecting Friction:
Normal Force: Frictional force is proportional to the normal force pressing the surfaces
together. A greater normal force leads to greater friction.
Nature of Surfaces: The roughness and texture of surfaces affect friction. Rough surfaces
create more interlocking points, leading to higher friction.
Type of Materials: The materials' molecular properties, such as their atomic bonding, affect
the strength of intermolecular forces and thus friction.
Velocity and Pressure: Friction can change with velocity and pressure. At higher velocities,
friction might decrease due to reduced contact time, while increased pressure can lead to
more interlocking and higher friction.
Coefficients of Friction:

56
The frictional force between two surfaces is typically characterized by the coefficients of
friction: static friction coefficient (𝑓𝑠 ) and kinetic friction coefficient (𝑓𝑘 ). These coefficients
quantify the strength of friction between specific material pairs.
The relationship between the applied force and frictional force can be described using these
coefficients:

𝐹 = 𝑓𝑁, where N is the normal force.

Reducing Friction:
Lubrication: Introducing a lubricating substance between surfaces can reduce friction by
forming a protective layer that separates them.
Smoothing Surfaces: Polishing or machining surfaces can reduce microscopic irregularities
and lower friction.
Rolling Instead of Sliding: In many cases, rolling motion encounters less friction than sliding
motion.
Applications:
Friction is essential in everyday activities like walking, driving, and holding objects.
It's crucial in industrial applications like designing machinery, optimizing engines, and creating
efficient transportation systems.
Understanding friction is vital in fields like material science, nanotechnology, and
biomechanics.
In summary, the theory of friction encompasses the understanding of the forces that resist
motion between surfaces in contact. This understanding is essential for practical applications
and scientific advancements across various disciplines.

5.2 Angle of Friction

The angle of friction, also known as the angle of repose, is a concept in physics and
engineering that describes the angle at which a stationary object placed on a surface is on the
verge of sliding or moving due to the force of gravity. It is a fundamental parameter used to
analyze and predict the behavior of objects on inclined surfaces or slopes. The angle of friction
is closely related to the coefficient of friction, which quantifies the frictional forces between
surfaces.
Key Points about the Angle of Friction:
Definition:
The angle of friction (∅) is the angle between the horizontal plane and the inclined surface at
which an object placed on the surface is just about to start sliding due to gravity.
It is the angle at which the frictional force between the object and the surface is equal to the
component of the object's weight parallel to the surface.

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Calculation:
The tangent of the angle of friction is equal to the coefficient of friction between the two
surfaces. Mathematically,
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 𝑓, where 𝑓 is the coefficient of friction.
This relationship holds true for both static friction (𝑓𝑠 ) and kinetic friction (𝑓𝑘 ).
Interpretation:
A smaller angle of friction indicates that the surface has a lower resistance to sliding, while a
larger angle of friction implies a greater resistance.
Smooth surfaces typically have lower angles of friction, while rough or textured surfaces have
higher angles.
Applications:
Engineering: The angle of friction is used in the design of ramps, chutes, conveyor belts, and
other systems involving inclined surfaces. It helps determine the stability and maximum incline
an object can be placed on without sliding.
Geology: The angle of repose is important in studying the stability of slopes, landslides, and
the movement of loose materials like soil, sand, and rocks on hillsides.
Limitations and Considerations:
The angle of friction is a simplified concept that assumes ideal conditions, such as a rigid
object and uniform frictional forces. In real-world situations, factors like surface roughness,
irregularities, and the object's shape can influence the observed angle.
The angle of friction can vary between static and kinetic friction. The initial resistance to motion
might be greater than the resistance once the object is in motion.
Static and Kinetic Angle of Friction:
The static angle of friction (𝑓𝑠 ) corresponds to the angle at which an object is on the verge of
sliding but is still stationary.
The kinetic angle of friction (𝑓𝑘 ) is the angle at which an object is sliding at a constant velocity
down an inclined plane.
In summary, the angle of friction is a useful concept in physics and engineering that provides
insights into the behavior of objects on inclined surfaces. It helps engineers and scientists
design and analyze systems involving inclined planes and predict the conditions under which
an object will start sliding or remain stationary.

Laws of Friction

The laws of friction are fundamental principles that describe the behavior of frictional forces
between surfaces in contact. These laws were formulated based on observations and
experiments and provide valuable insights into the nature of friction. There are primarily three
laws of friction:

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Coulomb's Law of Friction (First Law of Friction):
Coulomb's law of friction states that the frictional force between two surfaces is proportional
to the normal force pressing the surfaces together.
Mathematically,
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑁, where:
F is the frictional force.
𝑓 is the coefficient of friction, a dimensionless constant that depends on the nature of the
materials in contact.
N is the normal force, which is the force exerted by a surface perpendicular to the contact
area.
Limiting Friction (Second Law of Friction):
The second law of friction states that the maximum amount of friction that can be developed
between two stationary surfaces is proportional to the normal force and is independent of the
apparent area of contact.
It is expressed as:
𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑁
Where;
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum frictional force before sliding begins.
This law helps determine the threshold at which an object is on the verge of sliding but is still
stationary.
Angle of Friction (Third Law of Friction):
The third law of friction states that the angle of friction (also known as the angle of repose)
between two surfaces is equal to the angle whose tangent is the coefficient of friction between
the surfaces.
Mathematically,

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 𝑓
where
∅ is the angle of friction and 𝑓 is the coefficient of friction.
This law is particularly useful when dealing with objects on inclined planes or slopes.
These laws of friction provide a foundation for understanding and predicting frictional behavior
in various scenarios. They help engineers, physicists, and scientists design and analyze
systems involving contact between surfaces, such as machinery, transportation, and materials
handling. However, it's important to note that these laws are simplifications and assumptions,
and real-world friction can be influenced by factors such as surface roughness, temperature,
and the presence of lubricants. Additionally, there are cases where friction behaves differently,
such as at very small scales (nanoscale) or in extreme conditions (high speeds, vacuum
environments).

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Example: A 200-lb block is in contact with a plane inclined at 300 to the horizontal. A force P,
parallel to and acting up the plane is applied to the body. If the coefficient of static friction is
0.20,
(a) Find the value of P to just cause motion to impend up the plane
(b) Find P to just prevent motion down the plane
(c) If P = 80 lb, determine the magnitude and direction of the friction force.
Solution:
(a) If the block has impending motion up the plane, the friction force, acting at its limiting
value will act down the plane to resist motion. The FBD of the block shown in figure 5-
1. Reference axes are selected so that the X axis is parallel to and positive in the
direction of impending motion. To find N, we apply the equation

Figure 5-1 (Impending motion up the plane)

∑𝑋 = 0

𝑁 − 200𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 0

𝑁 = 173.2 𝑙𝑏
Since limiting friction acts, we may use the equation
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑁

𝐹 = 0.2(173.2) = 34.64 𝑙𝑏
To determine P, we may apply the equation

∑𝑋 = 0

𝑃 − 𝐹 − 200 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 0

𝑃 = 34.64 + 100
𝑃 = 134.64 𝑙𝑏
(b) When the block has impending motion down the plane, the friction force, acting at its
limiting value will act up the plane to resist the motion. The FBD is shown in figure 5-
2. Note that the X axes is chosen parallel to and positive in the direction of impending
motion. N and the limiting value of F are the same as in part a. Hence to find P we
need only to apply the equation

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 Figure 5-2 (Impending motion down the plane)

∑𝑋 = 0

200 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 𝑃 − 𝐹 = 0
𝑃 = 100 − 34.64 = 65.36 𝑙𝑏
(c) The results obtained for parts a and b indicate that the 200 lb block will remain at rest
for all values of P between 65.36 lb and 134.64 lb. Hence when P = 80 lb, the block
will tend to slide down the plane. Although limiting value will not developed.
Considering equilibrium

∑𝑋 = 0

200 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 𝑃 − 𝐹 = 0

𝑃 = 100 − 80 = 20 𝑙𝑏

\ Problem Set no. 16

1. A 400-lb block is resting on a rough horizontal surface for which the coefficient of
friction is 0.40. Determine the force P required to cause motion to impend if applied
the block (a) horizontally or (b) downward at 300 with the horizontal (c) What minimum
fore is required to start motion?

2. The 200-lb block shown in figure 5-3 has impending motion up the plane caused by
the horizontal force of 400 lb. Determine the coefficient of static friction between the
contact surfaces.

Figure 5-3

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 3. The blocks shown in figure 5-4 are connected by flexible inextensible cords passing
over frictionless pulleys. At 𝐴 the coefficients of friction are 𝑓𝑠 = 0.30 and 𝑓𝑘 = 0.20
while at B they are 𝑓𝑠 = 0.40 and 𝑓𝑘 = 0.30. Compute the magnitude and direction of
the friction force acting on each block.

Figure 5-4

5.3 Problems in Friction

In this article we shall discuss further the applications of the principles of friction. It is necessary
in the development of proper technique to solve with minimum effort. In some problems, it will
be simpler to use the frictional and normal components of a surface reaction. In other words,
we should use the total surface reaction. The following listed below are the general rule in
solving problems in friction.
1. When the normal pressure can be computed directly in terms of known forces, use the
frictional and normal components of the surface reaction, but for other cases, use the
total surface reaction.
2. When only three forces act on a free body apply the sine law to the triangle of forces.
3. When more than three forces are involved of which only tow are unknown, use the
force summations with respect to the perpendicular axes of which one will coincides
with one of the unknown forces.
4. When non-concurrent systems always consider the possibility of eliminating two of the
unknown forces by taking a moment summation about the intersection of their lines of
action, or if this is not convenient, consider force summations that will involve one or
at most two of the unknown forces.
Example: The blocks shown in figure 5-5 are separated by a solid strut which is attached to
the blocks with frictionless pins. If the coefficient of friction for all surfaces is 0.20, determine
the value of the horizontal force 𝑃 to cause motion to impend to the right.

Figure 5-5
Solution: Draw the free body diagram in each block

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 Figure 5-6
Solve the angle if friction

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = 0.20

∅ = 11.30
Considering at figure c of the triangle we can solve value of C by sine law
𝐶 200
=
sin 56.3 sin 63.7
𝐶 = 186 𝑙𝑏

Considering figure, a, since value of C is known, we can solve 𝑁2

∑𝑌 = 0

𝑁2 − 400 − 186 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 = 0

𝑁 = 493 𝑙𝑏
Since motion impends, the friction force is found from the relation
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑁

𝐹 = 0.20(493) = 98.6 𝑙𝑏
Finally, we can find value of P from the condition

∑𝑋 = 0

𝑃 − 𝐹2 − 186𝑐𝑜𝑠30 = 0
𝑃 = 259.6 𝑙𝑏

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 Problem Set no. 17

1. In figure 5-7, two blocks are connected by a solid strut attached to each block with
frictionless pins. I f the coefficient of friction under each block is 0.25 and B weighs 270
lb, find the minimum weight of A to prevent motion.

Figure 5-7
2. A force of 400 lb is applied to the pulley shown in figure 5-8. The pulley is prevented
from rotating by a force P applied to the end of the brake lever. If the coefficient of
friction at the brake is 0.20, determine the value of P.

Figure 5-8
3. A homogeneous cylinder 3 ft in diameter and weighing 300 lb is resting on two inclined
planes as shown in figure 5-9. If the angle of friction is 150 for all contact surfaces,
compute the magnitude of the couple required to start the cylinder rotating
counterclockwise.

Figure 5-9

5.4 Wedges

Dealing with friction when working with wedges involves understanding and applying certain
principles to optimize their performance, efficiency, and safety. Friction can both enhance and
hinder the operation of wedges, and managing it effectively is crucial for achieving desired
outcomes. Here are the key principles involved in dealing with friction of wedges:
Coefficient of Friction:

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The coefficient of friction is a fundamental property that quantifies the frictional interaction
between two surfaces. It determines the magnitude of friction force.
Principle: Understand the coefficient of friction between the wedge and the material it interacts
with to predict and manage friction.
Material Selection:
The choice of materials for both the wedge and the material being split or moved significantly
impacts friction. Different materials have varying coefficients of friction.
Principle: Select materials that minimize friction while meeting other functional requirements
for the application.
Lubrication and Surface Treatment:
Lubrication reduces friction by creating a lubricating layer between surfaces. Surface
treatments, such as coatings or modifications, can also reduce friction.
Principle: Apply appropriate lubricants or surface treatments to reduce friction and enhance
efficiency.
Normal Force and Pressure:
Friction is proportional to the normal force (force perpendicular to the contact surface) and is
influenced by the pressure between surfaces.
Principle: Adjust the normal force by controlling the applied load to manage friction and
optimize wedge performance.
Angle of the Wedge:
The angle of the wedge affects friction. A steeper angle may lead to higher friction and force
requirements, while a shallower angle may reduce friction.
Efficiency and Force Distribution:
Friction can either enhance or hinder the efficiency of a wedge. Too much friction may waste
energy, while too little may lead to inadequate force transfer.
Surface Finish and Roughness:
The roughness of surfaces affects friction. Smoother surfaces generally experience lower
friction, while rough surfaces may increase friction.
Example: The block shown A in figure 5-10 supports a load 𝑊 = 1000 𝑙𝑏 and is to be raised
by forcing the wedge B under it. The angle of friction of all surfaces in contact is ∅ = 150 .
Determine the force P which is necessary to start the wedge under the block.

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 Figure 5-10
Solution: Draw the free body diagram in all contact surfaces

Figure 5-11
Using force triangle and by applying sine law in FBD at (a)
𝑅3 1000
=
sin 105 sin 40
𝑹𝟑 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟑 𝒍𝒃
Using force triangle and by applying sine law in FBD at (b)
𝑃 1503
=
sin 50 sin 75
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟗𝟐 𝒍𝒃

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 Problem Set no. 18

1. A wedge is used to split logs. If ∅ is the angle of friction between the wedge and the
log, determine the maximum angle 𝛼 of the wedge so that it will remain embedded in
the log.
2. As shown in figure 5-12, two blocks, each weighing 200 lb and resting on a horizontal
surface are to be pushed apart by a 300 wedge. The angle of friction is 150 for all
contact surfaces. What value of P is required to start movement of the blocks? How
would this answer be changed if the weight of one of the blocks were increased to
300 lb?

Figure 5-12
3. Determine the force P required to start the wedge shown in figure 5-13. The angle of
friction for all contact surfaces is 150 .

Figure 5-13

5.5 Square-Threaded Screws

Squared threaded screws, also known as square-threaded screws or square-thread screws,

are a type of screw that features a square-shaped thread profile. They are commonly used in
mechanical systems to convert rotational motion into linear motion or to provide a mechanical
advantage in lifting heavy loads. When dealing with friction in squared threaded screws,
several important principles come into play:
Thread Profile and Friction:
The square thread profile has a larger contact area compared to other thread profiles (such
as V-threads). This increased contact area can result in higher friction between the threads.

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The squared thread profile can generate more friction than other thread profiles, impacting the
overall efficiency of the screw.
Coefficient of Friction:
The coefficient of friction between the threads of the screw and the corresponding nut or load-
bearing surface determines the resistance to motion. Understanding and managing the
coefficient of friction is essential to minimize energy losses due to friction and optimize screw
performance. By considering these principles and effectively managing friction in squared
threaded screw systems, engineers and designers can optimize the performance, efficiency,
and reliability of mechanical systems that rely on these types of screws for linear motion or
force transmission.

5.6 Belt Friction

Belt friction is a phenomenon that occurs when a flexible belt or strap is used to transmit
motion and force between two rotating shafts or pulleys. This mechanism is commonly
employed in various machines and systems, such as conveyor belts, power transmission
systems, and automotive engines. Dealing with belt friction involves understanding its effects,
optimizing performance, and managing the frictional forces involved. Here's a discussion of
belt friction in dealing with friction:
Belt Tension and Contact Angle:
Belt tension is crucial in maintaining proper contact between the belt and the pulleys. The
contact angle between the belt and the pulley determines the magnitude of friction. Proper
tensioning and alignment of the belt are essential to achieve effective frictional grip and
minimize slip.
Coefficient of Friction:
The coefficient of friction between the belt material and the pulley surfaces influences the
frictional force that can be transmitted through the belt.
Slip and Efficiency:
Belt slip occurs when the frictional force is insufficient to prevent the belt from slipping on the
pulleys. Slip reduces power transmission efficiency. Manage tension, coefficient of friction,
and load to prevent excessive slip and maximize efficiency.
Pulley Design and Geometry:
The design and geometry of the pulleys influence the contact area, tension distribution, and
frictional grip of the belt. Optimize pulley diameter, groove design, and alignment to ensure
uniform and effective belt-to-pulley contact.

5.6 Rolling Friction

Rolling resistance, also known as rolling friction, is a type of friction that opposes the rolling
motion of a round or cylindrical object (such as a wheel) over a surface. It is a critical factor in
various real-world scenarios, particularly in transportation, engineering, and mechanics.

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Understanding and managing rolling resistance is essential for optimizing efficiency, energy
consumption, and overall performance. Here's a comprehensive discussion of rolling
resistance in dealing with friction:
Mechanism of Rolling Resistance:
Rolling resistance occurs due to the deformation and recovery of the materials in contact as
the object rolls over a surface. When the object is compressed against the surface, energy is
absorbed, and when it rebounds, energy is released.
This deformation and recovery process requires energy, resulting in the conversion of kinetic
energy (motion) into potential energy (elastic deformation) and then back into kinetic energy.
This energy loss contributes to rolling resistance.
Coefficient of Rolling Resistance (Crr):
Similar to other types of friction, rolling resistance is characterized by a coefficient of rolling
resistance (Crr). This coefficient represents the ratio of the rolling resistance force to the
normal force pressing the object against the surface. Different materials, surface conditions,
and tire designs have varying Crr values.
Factors Influencing Rolling Resistance:
Tire Design and Construction: The design, composition, and construction of the tire or rolling
object influence its ability to deform and recover during rolling.
Tire Pressure: Underinflated tires have larger contact areas and experience higher
deformation, leading to increased rolling resistance.
Surface Conditions: Rough or uneven surfaces increase rolling resistance by causing more
frequent and significant deformations.
Load: Heavier loads result in greater deformation and energy loss, leading to higher rolling
resistance.
Speed: Rolling resistance generally increases with speed, but its effects can become relatively
less significant at higher speeds.
Minimizing Rolling Resistance:
Tire Inflation: Proper tire inflation within recommended limits reduces the contact area and
deformation, thus lowering rolling resistance.
Tire Design: Optimizing tire design, tread patterns, and materials can reduce energy loss
during deformation and enhance rolling efficiency.
Surface Smoothness: Smoother Road surfaces reduce the frequency and severity of tire
deformations, minimizing rolling resistance.
Load Management: Distributing loads evenly and avoiding overloading can help mitigate
excessive deformation and energy loss.
Lubrication: Applying appropriate lubrication to rolling surfaces, such as ball bearings, reduces
friction and lowers rolling resistance.
Impact on Efficiency and Energy Consumption:
Rolling resistance consumes energy, leading to decreased efficiency and increased fuel
consumption in vehicles.

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Vehicles with higher rolling resistance require more energy to maintain speed, resulting in
decreased mileage and increased operating costs.

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