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BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS (QUALITATIVE):

Carbohydrates (cellulose-based water filters, PHA and PLA as bioplastics), Nucleic
acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies and RNA vaccines for Covid19, Forensics – DNA
fingerprinting), Proteins (Proteins as food – whey protein and meat analogs, Plant based
proteins), lipids (biodiesel, cleaning agents/detergents), Enzymes (glucose-oxidase in
biosensors, lignolytic enzyme in bio-bleaching)
BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Biomolecules are organic molecules found in living organisms. They play essential roles
in the structure and functioning of cells.
Major biomolecules are
Class Examples Functions

Carbohydrates Glucose, Sucrose, Starch Energy source, structural roles

Proteins Enzymes, Hemoglobin, Keratin Catalysis, transport, structure

Lipids Fats, Oils, Steroids Energy storage, cell membrane

Genetic information storage and

Nucleic Acids DNA, RNA
transfer

Vitamins Vitamin C, Vitamin D Coenzymes, regulatory functions

CORBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are organic compounds made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O), usually in the ratio Cₙ(H₂O)ₙ. They are also called saccharides, and
their main function is to provide energy.
Carbohydrates are classified based on the number of sugar units:
1. Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars): the basic unit of Carbohydrates.
is called as monosaccharides. Ex Glucose and Fructose
 Definition: Cannot be broken down further by hydrolysis.

Glucose Fructose

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under CC BY-SA
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type Example Source

Glucose Blood sugar Fruits, honey

Fructose Fruit sugar Fruits

Galactose – Milk (part of lactose)

2. Disaccharides: Disaccharides are those sugar which yield molecules of same or

different monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
Examples 1. maltose: maltose yields two molecules of glucose on hydrolysis.
2. Lactose: yield one molecules of galactose on hydrolysis.
disaccharide Composition Source

Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Sugarcane

Lactose Glucose + Galactose Milk

Maltose Glucose + Glucose Germinating seeds

3. Polysaccharides: these are long chain of monosaccharide lined together.

• They serve as storage molecules for energy such as glycogen in animals and
starch in plants and also provide structures and supports such as cellulose in
plant cell walls.
• They play important role in the cellular process such as cellular recognition
and regulation gene expression

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Examples glycogen starch amylopectin

4. Oligosaccharides: carbohydrates that contain more than two simples’ sugars
are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides depending upon the structures.
Oligosaccharides usually three and ten sugar units which polysaccharides
more than three sugar units.
CELLULOSE BASED WATER FILTER
Definition
Cellulose is a natural polymer made of glucose units (C₆H₁₀O₅) n.
It's the main component of plant cell walls and is abundant, biodegradable, and
renewable

Types of Cellulose Used:

1. Cellulose Fibers: Raw or modified plant-based fibres
2. Microcrystalline Cellulose (MCC): Purified and partially depolymerized
3. Nanocellulose:
o Cellulose nanofibrils (CNF)
o Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC)
Working Mechanism of Cellulose based water filter :
1. Physical Filtration: Traps suspended particles like dust, sand, and sediments.
2. Adsorption: Modified cellulose can adsorb:
o Heavy metals (Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺)
o Dyes and toxins

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o Microorganisms (when infused with silver nanoparticles or activated

carbon)
3. Chemical Binding (if modified):
o Surface groups (like –OH, –COOH) can bind with pollutants
chemically.
Application

 Household filters

 Industrial wastewater treatment

 Medical use
 Rural water purification
 Removal of dyes, oils, and metals
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) and
PHA AND
Polylactic PLA AS
Acid BIOPLASTICS
(PLA) are
biodegradable polymers derived
from renewable resources.
They are increasingly being used
in bioplastics production to reduce
reliance on traditional plastics.
PHA and PLA offer a sustainable
alternative to petroleum-based
plastics, contributing to
environmental conservation.

PHA is a naturally occurring biopolymer produced by microorganisms through

fermentation of organic materials.
Biodegradability: Easily decomposes in soil, compost, and marine environments.
Properties: High strength, durability, flexibility, and heat resistance.
Applications: Packaging, medical devices, agriculture, and disposable cutlery
PLA is a biodegradable thermoplastic made from fermented plant starches (corn,
sugarcane, etc.).

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Biodegradability: Breaks down under industrial composting conditions.

Properties: Lightweight, transparent, and strong, but less flexible than PHA.
Applications: Food packaging, 3D printing, textiles, and biomedical implants

Feature PHA PLA

Source Microbial fermentation Plant-based (corn, sugarcane)

Biodegradability High (including marine environments) Moderate (needs industrial composting)

Strength High durability and flexibility High strength but brittle

Heat Resistance Can be customized for high resistance Low heat resistance

Cost More expensive due to production More affordable

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF PHA AND PLA BIOPLASTICS

PHA and PLA bioplastics help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and plastic
pollution, contributing to a cleaner environment.
Biodegradability of PHA and PLA minimizes landfill waste and marine pollution,
promoting a more sustainable waste management system.
Life cycle assessments show that PHA and PLA have lower environmental impacts
compared to traditional plastics, making them a viable eco-friendly alternative
Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids (DNA Vaccine for Rabies)

WHAT IS DNA VACCINE

A DNA vaccine is a type of vaccine that uses a
piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an
immune response against the pathogen.
The vaccine works by introducing the
pathogen's DNA into the body, where it is
taken up by cells and used to produce viral or
bacterial proteins.
These proteins are then displayed on the
surface of the cells, which triggers an immune
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response and the production of antibodies
against the pathogen.
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DEFNINTION OF DNA VACCINE

DNA vaccine introduces a plasmid containing genes that code for rabies virus
antigens (usually the glycoprotein gene).
Mechanism:
A plasmid containing the gene for the rabies glycoprotein (G protein) is
introduced into the body.
The host's cells take up the plasmid and express the protein, simulating a natural
infection.
The immune system recognizes the protein as foreign and produces antibodies
and T-cell responses.
Examples of DNA Rabies Vaccines:
• INOVIO’s INO-4800: A DNA-based rabies vaccine candidate.
• ZyCoV-D: While primarily for COVID-19, it showcases DNA vaccine
technology applicable to rabies. the vaccine was developed by the Zydus
Cadila pharmaceutical company.

Advantages
• Safety: No risk of infection as it does not contain live or inactivated
virus.
• Stability: More stable than traditional vaccines, making storage and
transportation easier.
• Cost-Effective: Can be produced more cheaply than conventional
vaccines.
• Rapid Production: Faster to develop and manufacture, especially useful
during outbreaks.
Challenges:
• Lower immune response compared to live or viral-vector vaccines.

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• Requires advanced delivery systems like electroporation to improve DNA

uptake.
Regulatory approval and widespread adoption are still in progress

RNA VACCINE FOR RABIES

An RNA vaccine for COVID-19 is a type of

vaccine that uses messenger RNA (mRNA)
to instruct human cells to produce a viral
protein, which then triggers an immune
response.

How RNA COVID-19 Vaccines Work

1. Injection of mRNA
The vaccine contains synthetic mRNA encoding the spike (S)
protein of SARS-CoV-2.
2. Cell Uptake
The mRNA enters human cells (mainly muscle cells) after
vaccination.
3. Protein Production
The human ribosomes read the mRNA and produce the spike protein
of the virus.
4. Immune Response Activation

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1. The immune system recognizes the spike protein as foreign and

produces antibodies.
2. The body also activates T-cell responses, ensuring a strong
immune defence.
5. Immunity Development
If the vaccinated person later encounters the virus, the immune system rapidly
neutralizes it before it causes severe disease
India has two approved COVID-19 vaccines: Covishield and Covaxin
The COVID-19 pandemic (also known as the coronavirus pandemic and
COVID pandemic), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
(SARS-CoV-2), began with an outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in
December 2019. Soon after, it spread to other areas of Asia, and then worldwide
in early 2020

DNA FINGERPRINTING

DNA fingerprinting, also called DNA

profiling, is a forensic technique used to
identify individuals based on their unique
genetic makeup. It analyses specific
regions of DNA that vary between people,
making it useful for criminal
investigations, paternity tests, and
identifying unknown individuals.

STEPS INVOLVED IN DNA PRINTING

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[Link] collection: DNA is extracted from a biological sample, such as

blood, semen, or hair. The sample is then purified and processed to isolate the
DNA.
2. DNA amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified using a technique
called polymerase chain reaction (PCR). PCR produces many copies of a
specific DNA region which allows for more accurate analysis.
[Link] Electrophoresis: DNA fragments are separated by size using an electric
field.
[Link] analysis: The amplified DNA is then analysed using a technique called
gel electrophoresis. The DNA fragments are separated based on size and
charge, and a DNA profile is generated.
5. DNA comparison: The DNA profile obtained from the biological sample is
then compared to the DNA profiles of other individuals, such as suspects or
victims, to determine if there is a match.
APPLICATION
Crime Investigations – Identifies suspects or victims from crime scene
evidence.
Paternity Testing – Determines biological relationships.
Disaster Victim Identification – Identifies remains in mass disasters.
Exoneration of Innocent Individuals – Used to free wrongly accused persons.
Wildlife Forensics – Tracks illegal poaching of endangered species.
PROTEINS AS FOOD
Proteins are essential macronutrients required for various biological functions,
including muscle development, enzyme production, and immune responses. In
the food industry, proteins play a crucial role in nutrition, texture, taste, and
shelf stability.
Functions of Proteins in Food:
• Nutritional Role: Essential for body growth, repair, and enzymatic
functions.
• Structural Role: Provides texture and consistency in food products.
• Emulsification: Helps in mixing water and fat-based ingredients.
• Gelation: Forms gels in products like yogurt and gelatine desserts.

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• Foaming: Helps create aerated products like meringues and whipped

creams.
• Water Retention: Improves moisture retention in processed food
A. Animal-Based Proteins
These proteins are derived from animal sources and are typically complete
proteins (containing all essential amino acids).
1. Milk Proteins
1. Casein (used in cheese, yogurt, and infant formulas).
2. Whey Protein (used in protein powders, dairy products, and bakery
items).
2. Meat Proteins
1. Myofibrillar Proteins (actin and myosin, responsible for meat
texture).
2. Collagen (used in gelatin production).
3. Egg Proteins
1. Albumin (used in baking, emulsification, and foaming).
2. Ovotransferrin (antimicrobial properties in egg whites).
4. Fish and Seafood Proteins
1. Fish gelatin (alternative to bovine/porcine gelatin).
2. Surimi (processed fish protein used in imitation crab).
PLANT-BASED PROTEINS
Plant proteins are increasingly used in food production due to their
sustainability and suitability for vegetarian/vegan diets.
1. Soy Protein
1. Used in soy milk, tofu, tempeh, and textured vegetable protein
(TVP).
2. Found in meat substitutes like Beyond Meat and Impossible
Burger.
2. Wheat Protein (Gluten & Seitan)

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1. Gives elasticity to dough in bread making.

2. Used in plant-based meat alternatives.
3. Pea Protein: Popular in vegan protein powders and plant-based meat.
4. Rice and Hemp Proteins: Used in gluten-free and vegan protein
products.
5. Legume Proteins (Lentils, Chickpeas, Beans): Used in plant-based food
production (e.g., hummus, plant protein bars).
6. Fungal Protein (Mycoprotein - Quorn): A protein source derived from
fungi, commonly used as a meat substitute.
Applications of Proteins in Food Production
A. Dairy Industry
• Casein and whey proteins improve texture and nutritional value.
• Used in yogurt, cheese, protein-enriched milk, and infant formula.
B. Meat Processing
• Meat proteins provide structure and moisture retention.
• Plant proteins (e.g., soy, pea) replace animal proteins in plant-based
meats.
C. Bakery and Confectionery
• Egg albumin helps in foaming and leavening.
• Gluten provides elasticity in bread and pasta.
D. Beverage Industry
• Protein-enriched drinks (e.g., whey protein shakes, soy milk).
E. Functional and Health Foods
• Protein bars, dietary supplements, and high-protein snacks.
F. Vegetarian and Vegan Food Industry
• Meat analogues using soy, pea, and mycoproteins.
• Dairy substitutes using almond, soy, and oat proteins
WHEY PROTEIN

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Definition:
Whey protein is a high-quality, complete protein derived from whey, the liquid
portion of milk that separates during cheese production.
It contains all 9 essential amino acids, is easily digestible, and has high
bioavailability, making it ideal for nutrition and fitness applications.

Composition of Whey Protein:

 Beta-lactoglobulin (50–60%)
 Alpha-lactalbumin (15–25%)
 Immunoglobulins (10–15%)
 Lactoferrin, Bovine Serum Albumin
 Small amounts of lactose, minerals, and fat

Types of Whey Protein

Protein
Type Characteristics
%
Whey Protein Concentrate (WPC) 70–80% Contains some fat and lactose
Whey Protein Isolate (WPI) 90–95% Very low in fat and lactose
Whey Protein Hydrolysate (WPH) ~90% Pre-digested, faster absorption

Nutritional & Health Benefits:

 Muscle growth and post-workout recovery
 Aids in weight management and fat loss
 Enhances immune function (immunoglobulins, lactoferrin)
 Improves antioxidant defence (boosts glutathione)

Applications:
Sector Uses
Sports & Fitness Protein shakes, bars, supplements
Medical Nutrition Wound healing, malnutrition
Infant Nutrition Protein-rich formulas

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MEAT ANALOGUES

Meat analogues are plant-based or alternative protein products designed to

mimic the taste, texture, appearance, and nutritional value of traditional
animal meat.

Common Ingredients Used:

Source Type Example Ingredients
Plant Proteins Soy, pea, wheat gluten (seitan), lentils
Fungi-based Mycoprotein (e.g., Quorn)
Others Jackfruit, chickpeas, black beans

Types of Meat Analogues:

Type Example Products

Vegetarian Meat Soy nuggets, tofu-based kebabs

Vegan Meat Plant-only burgers (e.g., Beyond Meat)

Lab-grown Meat Cultured meat from animal cells

Insect Protein Cricket powder patties (less common)

Applications of meat analogue:

Product Used In

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Product Used In

Plant-based burger patties Fast food chains, ready meals

Vegan sausages/nuggets Frozen snacks, meal kits

Meat-free deli slices Sandwiches, salads

LIPIDS
Lipids are organic compounds made mostly of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
oxygen (O), but in different ratios than carbohydrates. They are insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents like chloroform and ether.
LIPID BIODIESEL
Biodiesel is a renewable fuel made from biological lipids such as vegetable oils
and animal fats. It is an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum-based
diesel.
Sources of Lipids for Biodiesel Production
1. Plant Oils
1. Soybean oil
2. Palm oil
3. Rapeseed oil
4. Sunflower oil
5. Jatropha oil
2. Animal Fats
1. Beef tallow
2. Lard (pig fat)
3. Poultry fat
3. Microbial and Algal Oils
1. Microalgae (rich in triglycerides)
2. Yeast-derived oils

Chemical Process of Biodiesel Production (Transesterification)

LAKSHMINARAYANA
The main processN for
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
converting K.V.G COLLEGE
lipids into biodiesel OF ENGINEERING SULLIA
is transesterification, where 14
triglycerides react with alcohol (methanol or ethanol) in the presence of a catalyst (NaOH,
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Advantages of Using Lipids in Biodiesel

 Renewable and biodegradable fuel
 LIPIDS
ReducesINgreenhouse
DETERGENT gas emissions
PRODUCTION
Lower sulphur content compared to petroleum diesel
 [Link]
Role of Lipids
with in Detergents
existing diesel engines
Lipids, particularly fatty acids and triglycerides, are used in soap and detergent
manufacturing. They serve as surfactants, which help remove dirt and grease
from surfaces.
B. Types of Lipids Used in Detergent Production
1. Natural Fats and Oils
1. Coconut oil (rich in lauric acid)
2. Palm oil
3. Tallow (animal fat)
2. Synthetic Lipid-Based Compounds
Sulfonated fatty acids (used in synthetic detergents) C. Soap and Detergent
Production Process
1. Soap Production (Saponification Process)
Saponification is the reaction between a fat (triglyceride) and an alkali (sodium
hydroxide - NaOH) to produce soap and glycerol.

2. Detergent Production (Sulfonation Process)

Unlike traditional soap, detergents are made by chemically modifying fatty acids. The key step
isLAKSHMINARAYANA
sulfonation, where
N fatty acidsPROFESSOR
ASSISTANT react with sulfuric acid or sulphur
K.V.G COLLEGE trioxide to
OF ENGINEERING form detergents.
SULLIA 15

D. Benefits of Lipid-Based Detergents

Effective grease removal

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ENZYMES IN BIOSENSOR FABRICATION

Enzymes As Biosensors
Bio + Sensor (detect something & give
Response)
Components of Biosensor
Analyte → Bio-Receptor (Enzyme) →
Transducer → Amplifier → Processor

A Transducer is used to convert Biochemical signal (resulting from interaction

of the Analyte with the Bioreceptor) into an Electronic signal.
Amplifier increases intensity of the signal so that it can be easily measurable.

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Processor Convert the signal into output. after processing values are displayed
in monitor. Processor Convert the signal into output. after processing values are
displayed in monitor.
So we can Define Enzyme Biosensors as
An analytical device that combines an Enzyme with a transducer to produce a
signal proportional to target analyte conc.
Best example for biosensor enzyme is blood glucose meter

A BLOOD GLUCOSE METER OR GLUCOSE OXIDISE BIOSENNSOR

IS A DEVICE FOR MEASURING BLOOD GLUCOSE LEVEL.
What is Glucose Oxidase
An oxidoreductase enzyme that catalyses:

Source: Aspergillus Niger (a fungus)

Small drop of Blood is placed on a disposable test strip. Within seconds, level of
Blood glucose will be shown on digital display
H₂O + Glucose + O₂ → Glucose Oxidase → Gluconic Acid + H₂O₂
Working Principle of Glucose Biosensor:
1. Enzyme Layer: Gox (glucose oxidise) reacts with glucose in the blood.
2. Reaction Output: Produces hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂).
3. Electrode: Detects H₂O₂ or the consumption of O₂.
4. Signal Generation: Converts it into an electrical signal.
5. Result Displayed: Proportional to blood glucose level.

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LIGNOLYTIC ENZYME IN BIO-BLEACHING

Bio-bleaching is an eco-friendly process used to remove lignin from pulp and
textiles without using harsh chemicals like chlorine. Lignolytic enzymes, which
degrade lignin, play a crucial role in this process by enhancing the brightness
and quality of fibers while reducing environmental pollution.

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Lignolytic Enzymes in Biobleaching

1. Laccases (Lac)
• Catalyze the oxidation of lignin and phenolic compounds.
• Work with redox mediators to break down lignin efficiently.
• Used in paper pulp bleaching, textile dye decolorization, and
wastewater treatment.
2. Manganese Peroxidases (MnP)
• Degrade lignin by oxidizing Mn²⁺ to Mn³⁺, which acts as a lignin
oxidizer.
• Effective in removing residual lignin in kraft pulp bleaching.
3. Lignin Peroxidases (LiP)

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• Directly break down lignin polymers by cleaving aromatic rings.

• Used in paper and textile industries for lignin removal.
Enzymes play a crucial role in modern detergent formulations, enhancing their
cleaning efficiency by breaking down various stains and soils. These enzymes
help remove organic materials like proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, making
detergents more effective at lower temperatures and reducing the need for harsh
chemical
Types of Enzymes Used in Detergent Formulation
1. Proteases
1. Break down protein-based stains (e.g., blood, egg, sweat).
2. Commonly derived from Bacillus species.
Example: Subtilisin.
2. Amylases
1. Break down starch-based stains (e.g., gravy, sauces).
2. Help prevent redeposition of dirt on fabrics.
Example: α-Amylase.

3. Lipases
1. Decompose fat and grease stains (e.g., butter, oil).
2. Work effectively at low temperatures.
Example: Lipolase.
4. Cellulases

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1. Help maintain fabric integrity by breaking down microfibrils on

cotton.
2. Prevents pilling and enhances colour brightness.
Example: Endogluc

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