HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Major Reproductive Events

The major reproductive events in human beings are as follows
1. Gametogenesis : It is the formation of gametes. It includes spermatogenesis (formation of sperms)
and oogenesis (formation of ova/eggs).
2. Insemination : It is the transfer of sperms by the male into the genital tract of the female.
3. Fertilization : Fusion of male and female gametes to form zygote is called fertilization.
4. Cleavage : It is rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote which convert the single celled zygote into a
multicellular structure called blastocyst (blastula).
5. Implantation : It is the attachment of blastocyst to the uterine wall.
6. Placentation : It involves the formation of placenta which is the intimate connection between the
foetus and uterine wall of the mother to exchange the materials.
7. Gastrulation : It is the process by which blastocyst is changed into gastrula with three primary germ
layers.
8. Organogenesis : It is the formation of specific tissues, organs and organ-systems from three primary
germ layers.
9. Parturition (Child Birth) : It involves expelling of the baby from the mother's womb (uterus).
HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 Scrotum
• It is a pouch of deeply pigmented skin divided into two separate sacs.
• Each sac contains one testis.
• The normal temperature of the testes in the scrotum is about 2°-2.5°Clower than the internal body temperature. This
temperature is the ideal temperature for developing sperms.
• The scrotum remains connected with the abdomen or pelvic cavity by the inguinal canals.
• The spermatic cord, formed from the spermatic artery, vein and nerve bound together with connective tissue passes
into the testis through inguinal canal.

Testes
• Testes are primary sex organs in man.
• There is a pair of testes that are suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic cords.
• Each testis is oval in shape with a length of about4 to 5 cm and a width of about 2 to 3 cm.
I. Protective Coverings:
• (a) tunica vaginalis is the outer covering of the testis.
• (b) The tunica albuginea is a fibrous covering surrounding the testis situated under the tunica vaginalis.
• (c) The tunica vasculosa consists of a network of capillaries supported by delicate connective tissue which lines the
tunica albuginea.
I. Testicular Lobules: Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules.
II. Seminiferous Tubules:
(iii) Seminiferous Tubules
• Each testicular lobule of testis contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules. Wall of each seminiferous
tubule is formed of a single layered germinal epithelium.
• Majority of cells in this epithelium are cuboidal called male germ cells (spermatogonia) and at certain places, there
are present tall Sertoli or sustentacular cells.
• These cells support developing germ cells and provide them with nutrition especially spermatids.

(iv) Interstitial Cells or Leydig's Cells (Endocrine portion of the testis)

• In between the seminiferous tubules in the connective tissue, there are present small groups of rounded interstitial or
Leydig's cells which secrete androgens (e.g., testosterone), i.e., male sex hormones.
(v) Rete testis and vasa efferentia
• The seminiferous tubules are closed at one end but on the other side they join to a network the rete testis from where
fine ciliated ductules,the vasa efferentia arise.

Epididymes The epididymis is a mass of long narrow closely coiled tubule which lies along the inner side of each
testis. At the anterior end of the testis it is called caput epididymis, in which the vasa efferentia open. The middle
part of the eipdidymis is known as corpus epididymis. The posterior end of the epididymis is called as cauda
epididymis. The epididymis stores the sperms and also secretes a fluid which is considered to nourish the sperms.
Vasa deferentia A vas deferens emerges from the cauda epididymis on each side and leaves the scrotal sac and
enters the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal. The vas deferens loops over the urinary bladder where it is
joined by duct from the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct.
• Vasa deferentia carry sperms.
Rete testis, vasa efferentia, epididymes and vasa deferentia are called the male sex accessory ducts. These
ducts store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra.

Ejaculatory ducts
• The ejaculatory ducts are two short tubes each formed by the union of the duct from a seminal vesicle and a vas
deferens.
• They pass through the prostate gland and join the prostatic part of the urethra.
• The ejaculatory ducts are composed of the fibrous, muscular and columnar epithelial tissue.
• Ejaculatory ducts carry sperms and secretion of seminal vesicles.

Urethra
• The male urethra provides a common pathway for the flow of urine called semen.
• It is much longer in male than in the female, measuring about 20 cm.

Penis
• The penis is male genitalia (male copulatory organ). At the tip of the glans penis is the slit like opening called the
external urethral orifice or urinogenital aperture. The penis in addition to conducting urine from the body, transfers
semen into reproductive tract of the female during sexual intercourse. The penis contains masses of erectile tissue
two dorsal corpora cavernosa and one ventral corpus spongiosum.
• The corpus spongiosum which contains the penile urethra, is enlarged end of the penis to form the glans penis.
• The glans penis is covered by loose fold of skin, the prepuce or foreskin.
• During sexual arousal the three bundles of tissue in the penis become engorged with blood. The penis carries both
urine and semen.
 Male Accessory glands
• The seminal vesicles are one pair of sac like structures near the base of the bladder.
• Their ducts join the vasa deferentia to form the ejaculatory ducts.
• They produce an alkaline secretion which forms 60% of the volume of semen.
• The pH of seminal fluid is 7.4. The secretion of the seminal vesicles contains fructose, hormone - like prostaglandins,
and clotting proteins that are different from those in blood.
• The prostate gland is a single large gland that surrounds the urethra.
• It produces a milky secretion with pH 6.5 which forms 25% of the volume of semen.
• A number of small ducts carry fluid from the prostate to the urethra. Secretion of the prostate gland nourishes and
activates the spermatozoa to swim.
• A pair of bulbourethral glands or Cowper's glands are present on either side of membranous urethra. These glands
secrete an alkaline fluid.
• They also secrete mucus that lubricates the end of the penis and lining of the urethra. This decreases the number of
sperms damaged during ejaculation.

Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes as
mentioned above. The secretion of bulbourethral glands also helps in lubrication of the penis.
Nitric oxide- Erectile tissue have blood
vessels and blood sinus (cavity) which
became dilate due to flow of blood
(increase)
 HUMAN FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The female reproductive system consists of the ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, and the external
genitalia. Because of their role in nourishing the offspring, the breasts or mammary glands are considered
part of the female reproductive system.
 Ovaries:
• Ovaries are primary sex organs in human female.
• The ovaries are paired structures located in the upper pelvic cavity.
• Each ovary, shaped like an unshelled almond, is about 2 to 4 cm in length.
• The ovarian ligament (ligment of ovary) attaches the ovary to the uterus.
I. The ovary is covered by a layer of cubical epithelium called the germinal epithelium.
[Link] ovarian stroma consists of a dense outer layer called the cortex and a less dense inner portion
called the medulla.
• Functions of Ovaries: Production of ova and secretion of female sex-hormones.

• Two Fallopian tubes (oviducts), uterus and vagina constitute the female accessory ducts.

Fallopian tubes (oviducts):

• Each Fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long and consists of the following parts.
I. The infundibulum is a dilated trumpet-like portion opening into the peritoneal cavity. The end of the
tube has finger-like projections called fimbriae which help in collесtion of the ovum after ovulation.
II. The ampulla is the widest and longest part of the Fallopian tube.
III. The isthmus is the short, narrow thick-walled portion that follows the ampulla.
IV. The uterine part passes through the uterine wall and communicates with the uterine cavity.
• Functions of Fallopian Tubes. The Fallopian tube conveys the ovum from the ovary to the uterus. It
is done by peristalsis. Fertilization of the ovum generally takes place in the upper portion of the
Fallopian tube (ampulla).
 Uterus (= Metra or Hystera or Womb):
• The uterus is a hollow muscular and inverted pear shaped structure. It lies in the pelvic cavity between
the urinary bladder and the rectum.
• The walls of the uterus are composed of three layers of tissues.
I. The perimetrium is an outer thin covering of peritoneum.
II. The myometrium is a middle thick layer of smooth muscle fibres which shows strong contraction
during delivery of the baby.
III. The endometrium is inner glandular layer that lines the uterine cavity. The endometrium undergoes
cyclical changes during menstrual cycle.

• Functions of Uterus. After puberty the uterus goes through the menstrual cycle, If the fertilization has
taken place, the embryo gets attached to the uterine wall where it is nourished and protected. At the
end of the gestation period labour begins and concludes when the child is born.

Vagina:
• The vagina is a tube, about 10 cm long, that extends from the cervix to the outside of the body. It is
easily stretched.
• The opening of the vagina, called the vaginal orifice (vaginal opening), is partially covered by a
membrane called the hymen.
External genitalia (Vulva or Pudendum): The external genitalia are collectively called the vulva that consists
of the following structures.
1. Mons pubis. It is the anterior most portion of the external genitalia which is a cushion of fatty tissue
covered by skin and pubic hair.
2. Clitoris. Posterior to the mons pubis is the clitoris which is homologous to glans penis of the male. It
contains erectile tissue. Clitoris differs from male penis as it is very much reduced in size and does not
have any passage (it is solid structure, however, male penis has urethra). There are present urethral
orifice (urethral opening) and vaginal orifice (vaginal opening) in the midline of the vulva.
3. Labia majora. These are two large fleshy folds of skin which form the boundary of vulva. They are partly
covered by pubic hair and contain large number of sebaceous (oil) glands. The labia majora are
considered homologous to the scrotum of the male.
4. Labia minora. These are two smaller folds of skin which lie under the labia majora. The area between the
labia minora is called the vestibule. Vestibule is homologous to membranous urethra of male.
5. Hymen The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a membrane called hymen.

Glands. Vestibular glands. These are of two types. The lesser vestibular glands (= Paraurethral glands or
glands of Skene) are numerous minute glands that are present on either side of the urethral orifice
(opening). These glands are homologous to the male prostate and secrete mucus.
The greater vestibular glands (= Bartholin's glands) are paired glands, situated one on each side of the
vaginal orifice (opening). These glands are homologous to the bulbo-urethral (Cowper's) glands of male
and secrete viscid fluid that supplements lubrication during sexual intercourse.
 Mammary gland

• mammary gland is a modified apocrine sweat gland that

produce milk.
• Mammary gland attach with the pectoralis major
muscles through Cooper's ligament.
• A mammary gland consists of 15 to 20 lobes.
• In each lobe there are several smaller compartments
called lobules, composed of grape like cluster of milk
secreting glands termed alveoli (small cavities).
• Each lactiferous duct typically carries milk from one of
the lobe to the exterior.
GAMETOGENESIS
Gametogenesis is the process by which male and female sex cells or gametes, i.e., sperms and ova are formed
respectively in the male and female gonads (testes and ovaries).
Gametogenesis for the formation of sperms is termed as spermatogenesis, while that of ova is called oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis
it begins during puberty and continue
Till death
In humans, this process takes 65 to
75 days.

1. Spermatocytogenesis: it is
formation of spermatid from
spermatogonia.

2. Spermiogenesis/ spermateliosis:
(longest phase) it is differentiation of
spermatids (metamorphosis) into
sperms.
After spermiogenesis sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli
cells and are finally released from the seminiferous tubules by the
process called spermiation.

The human male ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms during a
coitus of which, for normal fertility, at least 60 per cent sperms must
have normal shape and size and at least 40 per cent of them must
show vigorous motility.
Hormonal Control of Spermatogenesis.
• Spermatogenesis is initiated due to
increase in gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) by the hypothalamus.
• GnRH acts on the anterior lobe of
pituitary gland to secrete luteinizing
hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH).
• LH acts on the Leydig's cells of the testes
to secrete testosterone.
• FSH acts on Sertoli cells of the
seminiferous tubules of the testes to
secrete an androgen binding protein
(ABP) and inhibin.
• ABP concentrates testosterone in the
seminiferous tubules.
• Inhibin suppresses FSH synthesis.
• FSH acts on spermatogonia to stimulate
sperm production.
 (Sec egg memb)
Form by modifications of
granulosa cells

Secrete by oocyte

Primary egg memb.

Non cellular
Menstrual cycle

The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes and
human beings) is called menstrual cycle.
The duration of the female reproductive cycle typically ranges from 24 to 35 ( 28+/-days),
which devide into following phases:

1) On the basis of ovarian cycle ( series of events in the ovaries)

Follicular Phase
Ovulation/ovulatory phase
Luteal phase
2) On the basis of uterine (menstrual) cycle- series changes in endometrium:
Menstrual phase
Proliferative phase
Secretory phase