Supplementary A

Mathematical Description of
Continuous-Time Signals
Goals

◼ To define some mathematical functions that can be used to

describe various types of signals.
◼ To develop methods of shifting, scaling, and combining those
functions in useful ways to represent real signals.
◼ To recognize certain symmetries and patterns and use them to
simplify signal and system analysis.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Typical Continuous-Time Signals

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Continuous vs Continuous-Time Signals

All continuous signals that are functions of time are

continuous-time but not all continuous-time signals are
continuous

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Continuous-Time Sinusoids

() ( )
g t = Acos 2 t / T0 +  = Acos 2 f0t +  = Acos  0t +  ( ) ( )
    
Amplitude Period Phase Shift Cyclic Radian
(s) (radians) Frequency Frequency
(Hz) (radians/s)

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Continuous-Time Exponentials

g (t ) = Ae−t /
 
Amplitude Time Constant (s)

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Complex Sinusoids Euler’s relation:

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Signum Function
 1 , t  0
 
sgn (t ) =  0 , t = 0 
−1 , t  0 
 

Precise Graph Commonly-Used Graph

The signum function, in a sense, returns an indication of

the sign of its argument.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Unit Step Function

1 , t  0

u (t ) = 1 / 2 , t = 0
0 , t  0


The product signal g (t )u (t ) can be thought of as the signal g (t )

“turned on” at time t = 0.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Unit Step Function

The unit step function can mathematically describe a

signal that is zero up to some point in time and non-
zero after that.

() ()
v RC t = Vb u t
i (t )= (V / R )e
b
u (t )
−t / RC

v (t )= V (1− e
C b )u (t )
−t / RC

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Unit Ramp Function

t , t  0  t
ramp (t ) =   =  u ( )d  = t u (t )
0 , t  0  −

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Unit Ramp Function

Product of a sine wave and a ramp function.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Introduction to the Impulse

1 / a , t  a / 2
Define a function  (t ) = 
0 , t a/2

Let another function g (t ) be finite and continuous at t = 0.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Introduction to the Impulse

The area under the product of the two functions is

a/2
1
A =  g (t )dt
a − a/2
As the width of  (t ) approaches zero,
a/2
1 1
lim A = g (0 )lim  dt = g (0 )lim (a ) = g (0 )
a→0 a→0 a a→0 a
− a/2

The continuous-time unit impulse is implicitly defined by



g (0 ) =   (t )g (t )dt
−

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Unit Step and Unit Impulse

As a approaches zero, g (t ) approaches a unit

step and g (t ) approaches a unit impulse.

The unit step is the integral of the unit impulse and

the unit impulse is the generalized derivative of the
unit step.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Graphical Representation of the Impulse

The impulse is not a function in the ordinary sense because its value at
the time of its occurrence is not defined. It is represented graphically by
a vertical arrow. Its strength is either written beside it or is represented
by its length.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Properties of the Impulse

The Sampling Property



 g (t ) (t − t )dt = g (t )
−
0 0

The sampling property “extracts” the value of a function at

a point.
The Scaling Property
1
 (a (t − t 0 ))=  (t − t 0 )
a
This property illustrates that the impulse is different from
ordinary mathematical functions.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Unit Periodic Impulse

The unit periodic impulse is defined by


 T (t ) =   (t − nT ) , n an integer
n=−

The periodic impulse is a sum of infinitely many uniformly-

spaced impulses.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 The Periodic Impulse

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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The Unit Rectangle Function

 1 , t 1/ 2
 
rect (t ) = 1 / 2 , t = 1 / 2  = u (t + 1 / 2 ) − u (t − 1 / 2 )
 0 , t  1 / 2
 

The product signal g (t )rect (t ) can be thought of as the signal g (t )

“turned on” at time t = − 1 / 2 and “turned back off” at time t = + 1 / 2.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Combinations of Functions

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Let a function be defined graphically by

and let g (t ) = 0 , t  5
Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.
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Shifting and Scaling Functions
Amplitude Scaling, g(t ) → Ag(t )

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Time shifting, t → t − t 0

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Time scaling, t →t /a

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

 t − t0 
Multiple transformations g (t ) → Ag 
 a 
Scale first

A multiple transformation can be done in steps

amplitude
t  t − t0 
g (t ) ⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
→ Ag (t ) ⎯t→t
⎯⎯
scaling, A /a
→ Ag   ⎯t→t
⎯⎯ −t 0
→ Ag 
 a  a 
The sequence of the steps is significant
amplitude
t   t − t0 
→ Ag (t ) ⎯ ⎯⎯→ Ag (t − t 0 ) ⎯ ⎯⎯
g (t ) ⎯ ⎯⎯⎯ scaling, A t→t −t 0
→ Ag  − t 0   Ag  t→t /a
a   a 

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions
 t − t0 
Simultaneous scaling and shifting g (t ) → Ag 
 a 

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Simultaneous scaling
and shifting, Ag (bt − t0 )

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

() (( ) )
If g 2 t = Ag1 t − t0 / w what are A, t0 and w?

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Height +5 → −2  A = −0.4 , g1 t → −0.4 g1 t () ()

Width +6 → +2  w = 1 / 3  −0.4 g1 t → −0.4 g1 3t () ()
Shift left by 5/3  t0 = −5 / 3  −0.4 g (3t )→ −0.4 g (3(t + 5 / 3))
1 1

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

() ( )
If g 2 t = Ag1 wt − t0 what are A, t0 and w?

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

Height +5 → −2  A = −0.4  g1 t → −0.4 g1 t () ()

Shift left 5  t = −5  −0.4 g (t )→ −0.4 g (t + 5)
0 1 1

Width +6 to +2  w = 3  −0.4 g (t + 5)→ −0.4 g (3t + 5)

1 1

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

()
If g 2 t = Ag1 w t − t0 ( ( )) what are A, t 0
and w?

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

()
Height +5 → −3  A = −0.6  g1 t → −0.6 g1 t ()
Width +6 → −3  w = −2  −0.6 g (t )→ −0.6 g (−2t ) 1 1

Shift Right 1/2  t = 1 / 2  −0.6 g (−2t )→ −0.6 g (−2 (t − 1 / 2 ))

0 1 1

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

() ( )
If g 2 t = Ag1 t / w − t0 what are A, t0 and w?

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Shifting and Scaling Functions

()
Height +5 → −3  A = −0.6  g1 t → −0.6 g1 t ()
Shift Left 1  t = −1  −0.6 g (t )→ −0.6 g (t + 1)
0 1 1

Width +6 → −3  w = −1 / 2  −0.6 g (t + 1)→ −0.6 g (−2t + 1)

1 1

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Differentiation

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Integration

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Even and Odd Signals

Even Functions Odd Functions

g (t ) = g (−t ) g (t ) = − g (−t )

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Even and Odd Parts of Functions

g (t ) + g (−t )
The even part of a function is g e (t ) = .
2
g (t ) − g (−t )
The odd part of a function is g o (t ) = .
2
A function whose even part is zero is odd and a function
whose odd part is zero is even.
The derivative of an even function is odd and the derivative
of an odd function is even.
The integral of an even function is an odd function, plus a
constant, and the integral of an odd function is even.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Even and Odd Parts of Functions

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Products of Even and Odd Functions

Two Even Functions

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Products of Even and Odd Functions

An Even Function and an Odd Function

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Products of Even and Odd Functions

An Even Function and an Odd Function

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Products of Even and Odd Functions

Two Odd Functions

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Integrals of Even and Odd Functions

a a a

 g (t )dt = 2  g (t )dt
−a 0
 g (t )dt = 0
−a

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Integrals of Even and Odd Functions

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Periodic Signals
If a function g(t) is periodic, g (t ) = g (t + nT )where n is any integer
and T is a period of the function. The minimum positive value of T
for which g (t ) = g (t + T ) is called the fundamental period T0 of the
function. The reciprocal of the fundamental period is the fundamental
frequency f0 = 1 / T0 .

A function that is not periodic is aperiodic.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Sums of Periodic Functions
The period of the sum of periodic functions is the least common multiple of
the periods of the individual functions summed. If the least common multiple
is infinite, the sum function is aperiodic.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Example
Find the fundamental frequency of the following continuous signal
x(t) = cos(10πt/3) + sin(5πt/4) for t in seconds.

The frequencies and periods of the two terms are, respectively,

ω1 = 10π/3, f1 = 5/3, T1 = 3/5
ω2 = 5π/4, f2 = 5/8, T2 = 8/5

The fundamental period T0 is the LCM of T1 and T2 :

T0 = LCM(T1, T2) = LCM(3/5, 8/5) = 24/5 sec.

The fundamental frequency f0 = 1/ T0 = 5/24 Hz.

The fundamental frequency in rad/sec, ω0 = 2π f0 = 5π/12 rad/sec.

Note: we can rewrite x(t) = cos(8(5πt/12)) + sin(3(5πt/12)),

where the two terms are the 3rd and the 8th harmonic of the fundamental
frequency ω0 .
Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.
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 Signal Energy and Power

The signal energy of a signal x (t ) is



 x (t )
2
Ex = dt
−

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Signal Energy and Power

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Signal Energy and Power

  t + 1 
Find the signal energy of x (t ) =  2 rect (t / 2 ) − 4 rect    u (t + 2 )
  4 
  2
  t + 1 
 x (t ) dt =  ( )   u (t + 2 ) dt
2
Ex =  2 rect t / 2 − 4 rect 
− −  4 
 2
  t + 1 
Ex =   2 rect (t / 2 ) − 4 rect    dt
−2 
 4 

 2  t + 1  t + 1 
Ex = −2  4 rect 2
(t / 2 ) + 16 rect   − 16 rect (t / 2 )rect    dt
4 4 
  
 t + 1  t + 1
Ex = 4  rect (t / 2 )dt + 16  rect   dt − 16  rect (t / 2 )rect   dt
−2 −2
 4 −2
4
1 1 1

Ex = 4  dt + 16  dt − 16  dt = 8 + 48 − 32 = 24
−1 −2 −1

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Signal Energy and Power

Some signals have infinite signal energy. In that case

It is more convenient to deal with average signal power.
The average signal power of a signal x (t ) is
T /2
1
 x (t ) dt
2
Px = lim
T → T
−T /2

For a periodic signal x (t ) the average signal power is

1
Px =  x (t ) dt
2

T T
where T is any period of the signal.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Signal Energy and Power

A signal with finite signal energy is

called an energy signal.

A signal with infinite signal energy and

finite average signal power is called a
power signal.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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 Signal Energy and Power

Find the average signal power of a signal x (t ) with fundamental

period 12, one period of which is described by
x (t ) = ramp (−t / 5 ) , − 4  t  8
8 0
1 1 1
 x (t )  ramp (−t / 5 ) dt =  (−t / 5 ) dt
2 2 2
Px = dt =
T T 12 −4 12 −4
0 − (−64 / 3) 16
0
1 t2 1 0
Px =  dt = t / 3 = =  0.0711
3

12 −4 25 300 −4 300 225

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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Summary

◼ The term “continuous” and the term “continuous-time” mean

different things.
◼ A CT impulse, although very useful in signal and system
analysis, is not a function in the ordinary sense.
◼ Many practical signals can be described by combinations of
shifted and/or scaled standard functions and the order in which
scaling and shifting are done is significant.

Ref: Signals and Systems – M. J. Roberts, 2012 Machine Intelligence Lab.

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