Transportation Engineering

Course Code –CE-422

Contact Hours -3+3

Dr Hassan Mujtaba
 Rails

• Rails provide a smooth path for the movement

of trains at high speed.
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 Functions of Rails
• The rails provide a level, smooth and continuous
surface for the movement of trains.
• The friction between the wheels of the train and the
rail is about 20% of the friction between the
pneumatic tyres and the roads.
• The rail serves as a lateral guide for the running of
wheels.
• The rail bear the stresses developed due to
– vertical loads transmitted to it through axles
– wheels of the rolling stock, due to braking forces
and thermal stresses
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 Functions of Rails
• The rail transmits the heavy load of the rolling
stock etc. to the larger area of the formation
through sleepers and ballast.
• Distribute the load over wider area of the
ballast

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Rail X-section

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 Types of Rail Section
• Double Headed
• Bull Headed
• Flat Footed

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 Double Head
• The original rails used were double headed
made of I section or dumb-bell section.
• The idea being that when the top of the double
headed rail was worn, the rail could be
inverted and re-used.
• Such rails are supported on chairs, which rest
on sleepers.
• It was found that the lower head was dented by
the chairs and could not be re-used
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Double Headed

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 Bull Headed
• The bull headed rails has more metal added to
the head, which permit more resistance to
wear.
• The lower face was of sufficient size to be able
to bear the stresses, which are induced in it by
the moving load.

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Bull Headed

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 Flat Footed Rail
• A flat footed rail is of an inverted T shape.
• The advantage of these rails lies in the fact that
they are stronger than the bull headed rails and
no chairs are necessary and the foot of the rail
is spiked direct to sleeper.

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 Head

Foot
Flat Footed Rail 12
Comparison of Flat footed and Bull headed Rail
Sections
• Alignment- the B.H rail keeps better alignment
of the track than the F.F rail.
• Lateral Stability – the F.F rails provide more
lateral stability than the B.H rail.
• Cost- F.F rails are less costly.
• Flat footed rails are easier to lay and require
less no of fastening.

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Comparison of Flat footed and Bull headed Rail
Sections
• Maintenance of F.F rail is easier.
• The fastenings attached with the F.F rail have
a greater tendency than the B.H rails to get
loose, particularly if they are laid on wooden
sleepers.

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 Weight of the Rail Sections

• A rail is designated by its weight per yard.

Thus, a 90 lbs rail is a rail weighing 90 lbs per
yard of its length.
Weight of the rail is governed by
• Axle loads
• Gauge of the track
• Maximum speed which is permitted
• Sleeper Density
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 Weight of the Rail Sections

• As a rule on a BG track, a rail may be expected

to carry an axle load 560 times the weight of
the rail per yard.
• Heavier sections proved to be economical in
the long run as it has longer life and less
maintenance.
• Stability of heavier sections will be more and
chances of buckling of the track are less.

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 Weight of the Rail Sections

• It results is smooth riding.

• Also, when a loaded wheel moves over the rail
it depresses the rail and if the rail is light as
compared with the load, it has to bear the
greater is the depression. The wheel has to be
dragged out continuously of such depression
and as a result power of locomotive is wasted.

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 Length of the Rail Sections

• As the rail joint is the weakest part of the track

structure, its strength being about one half that
of rails, so it is desirable to use as long rails as
possible.
• Wear and tear of vehicles is decreased and
comfort of the passengers in increased by the
longer rails, as the number of blows
experienced at the joints by a moving vehicle
are diminished.

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 Length of the Rail Sections

The length of the rail is however governed by

• Lengths, which can be produced at reasonable
cost by the manufacturer.
• Handling
• Transportation
• If a defect is found in a rail, a much longer
length has to be wasted in renewal than in case
of short rails.
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 Length of the Rail Sections

• In Pakistan, the length of the rail used is 20’ –

42’.
• The standard lengths of rails are 42’ for BG
and 39’ for MG track.
• The shortest length of the rail, which may be
used in the track, is that, which is not shorter
than the longest wheel base of the wagon. i.e
the distance between two adjacent axles which
is 12 ft.
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 Fish Plates

• The function of a fish plate is to hold two rails

together accurately, evenly and firmly in place
with reference to surface and alignment.
• It absorbs the blows which the ends of rails
receive when the wheel negotiate the gap at the
joints.
• The material used for making the fish plates is
same as that of rails.

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 Fish Plates

• The shape of the fish plate is such that they fit

under the side of rail head and on top of rail
foot.
• Fish plates are designed such that it gives
maximum support to the rail ends and also
allow the free expansion and contraction of the
rails.
• For this reason the contact surface of the fish
plate and the rails are cleaned and lubricated.
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Fish Plates
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 Fish Plates

• The length of the fish plate is 18”.

• Two fish plates are used at each joint, one on
each side of the rail
• Fish plates are usually provided with 4 holes.
• Spring washers are used to prevent the bolts
from getting loose.
• Diameter of 1 bolt,  = 1”
Diameter of hole in fish plate, f = 1” + 1/16”
• Diameter of hole in rail, r = 1” + ¼ ” 24
Fish Plates

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 Requirements of Fish Plate

• It should hold the two rails at the same level

and in the same straight line
• It should permit easy change of rail whenever
this may be necessary.
• It should as far as possible has same strength
and same stiffness as that of rail.
• Their shape should be such that free movement
of rail for expansion or contraction should not
be checked.
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 Types of Joints

• Joints w.r.t position of joints on track

• Joints w.r.t position of sleepers
Types of joints w.r.t position of joints on track
• Square Joints
• Staggered Joints

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 Square Joint

• When the joint in one rail is exactly opposite

to the joint in the other parallel rail, it is called
square joint.
• It is common in straight tracks.
• On curves, the centrifugal force, tend to push
the track out and at the joint effect is more,
resulting in the formation of kinks.

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 Staggered Joint
• When joint in one rail is not exactly opposite to the
joints of the other parallel rail, then it is called
staggered joint. The joint of one rail is kept facing the
center of the opposite rail.
• With staggered joints, the number of hammer blows
at the joints are doubled but the intensity is halved.
• On curves, staggered joints are preferred since it not
only reduces the possibility of kink formation but also
reduces the vertical movement of wheels at the joints.
• The number of sleepers is also increased by one in
case of staggered joints. 29
Staggered Joint

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 Types of joints w.r.t position of Sleepers

• Supported Joints
• Suspended Joints
• Bridge Joints

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 Supported Joint

• When the joint is directly supported over the sleeper,

it is called supported joint. Only one sleeper is
supporting the joint.
• Sometimes, an elastic pad is fixed between the rails
and sleepers to absorb the shocks.
• If a long bearing plate 3’6” or 4’ is used, then three
sleepers may be used to support the joint. The
objection to this is, if any of outer sleeper get loose
undue load will be on the central sleeper and if
central sleeper get loose it will be converted into a
very weak suspended joint. 32
 Suspended Joint
• In suspended joints, the ends of the rails are
suspended between the two sleepers.
• The load is distributed equally between the two
sleepers.

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Suspended Joint

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35
 Bridge Joint
• Bridge joint is similar to the suspended joint, but the
sleeper at the joint have to be notched so that foot of
the rails at the end is supported on a bridge or length
of metal, which rest on the two sleepers.
• With bridge allow the bridge to be fitted or the joint
sleeper have to be laid at a lower level than the
remaining sleeper.

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37
 Wear of the Rails
Wear of the rails may be divided into three
categories
• Wear on top or head of rail
• Wear at the ends of rail
• Wear on the sides of head

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 Wear on top or Head of Rail
• The top surface of rails gets direct impact of
the load from the wheels and hence abrasion,
grounding and corrosion add to the wearing of
surface.
• Sometimes the metal from the top flow
towards the sides and if it projects towards the
gauge end it disturb the gauge.
• A rail head becomes worn due to abrasive
action of the moving wheel.

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Wear on top or Head of Rail

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 Wear on top or Head of Rail
• Impact of the moving load due to which head of
rail gets battered and chipped.
• Grinding action of sand or dust particles between
the wheels and the rails.
• During starting or stopping of train. At time if
starting wheel are just slipping, the metal in the
rail head is burnt due to much heat or when
brakes are applied and sliding takes place wear
occurs.
• Wear is also increased by any looseness between
rails and sleeper and also due to loose packing of
ballast.
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 Wear on top or Head of Rail
• Gradient especially with curves the resistance is very
much increased.
• Corrosion of rails on tracks adjoining to sea and
corrosion due to the action of the acids contained in
the refuse falling from the trains, reduce the section
of the rail.
Remedy
• Use special alloy steel.

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 Wear on the sides of Head
This type of wear occurs along curved tracks.
• On curves, due to centrifugal force the gauge
end face of the outer rails is rubbed by the
flanges.
• Also the vehicle on the curve, do not bend to
the shape of curvature. The head of the outer
rail bends towards the gauge face therefore is
hit by the flanges of the wheels
• On curve, the outer wheel has to cover more
distance but since wheel are rigidly fixed so
inner wheel slides over the rail causing the
wear of the rail. 43
 Wear on the Side of Head

Remedies
• Use curves with larger radii if possible.
• Lubricating the side of the rail head
• Exchange of inner and outer rails on the curves
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 Remedies
• If the curves are sharper than 8 degrees in BG
Use check rails and for MG 14 degrees or
above. The flange of the wheel is between the
main rail and check rail so check rail will be
worn out.

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 Wear at the end of Rails
• This type of wear will be at the joints due to hammer
blows which the end of the rail receives when the
wheel jumps the gap between the two rails.
• Also the ends of the rails are battered.
• The surface of contact between rails and sleepers are
worn and the effect of blow is increased.
Remedy
• Proper maintenance of joints
• Make the fitting tight
• Minimize the joints
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 Measuring wear of Rails
Rail wear is determine by
• By measuring the actual weight and comparing it
with the standard weight.
• Profile of worn out rail is compared with the standard
profile. The reduction in the cross-sectional area
compared to the original x-sectional area to obtain %
loss of weight.

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 Rail Corrugations
• Sometimes due to defects in laying of the track or due
to poor maintenance of the track, or due to steep
gradient resulting in sudden application of brakes, the
head of the rails develop a wavy surface. Rails which
develop this defect are called corrugated rails.
• When train passes over such rails a roaring noise is
created and for this reason these rails are known as
roaring rails.

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 Location of Rail Corrugations
These defect generally develop in the following rails
locations
• At starting and termination point of the track due to
braking action.
• In long tunnels due to presence of humidity
• On yielding formations or rails laid on soft material
like brick ballast.
• The only remedy for rail corrugation is to grind the
corrugation with special machines.

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 Hogging of Rail
• The battering action of the wheel over the ends of the
rails results in the rails getting bent and deflected at
the ends.
• The loose packing under the joint or the loose fish
plates are primarily responsible for the development
of this defect.

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 Hogging of Rail
To rectify this defect any of the following may be
adopted
• Cutting of the end of the rail by power saw.
• Replacing the hogged rail by the new one.
(Uneconomical)
• The worn out ends of the rails may be improved by
welding.
• By use of dehogging machine.

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 Buckling of Rail
• When the expansion joint is inadequate or the joint is
very tight, free movement of the rails due to
temperature changes is prevented. This result in the
rails gets buckled.
Remedial measures to prevent buckling
• Joint should not prevent expansion and contraction of
rails
• The surface of contact between fish plates and rails
should be lubricated.
• If rails are welded either steel sleepers should be
provided or rails should be properly anchored. 52
 Rail Failures
• Horizontal cracks- this defect occurs at the rail ends
where worn out fish plates are used for joining or the
ballast is not properly packed. The crack develops
due to shearing stresses at the critical section. i.e the
junction between rail head and web.

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 Rail Failures
• Horizontal Fissures- it is caused due to defective rail
head. The rail develop horizontal crack.

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 Rail Failures
• Split Web- this is horizontal crack between the bolt
holes in the web. It may propagated from the strained
bolt hole. The crack may be horizontal or vertical
radiating from the bolt hole.
• Transverse Fissures- this is a manufacturing defect. It
starts from the centre of head and spread round the
head.

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 Rail Failures
• Flow Metals in head- rail head get widened as the
metal is forced out.
• Split Head- this is also a manufacturing defect
indicated by a crack on the top.
• Crushed Head- head get sagged or flattened. This is
due to skidding, slipping or due to weak end support.
• Square or angular crack- when rail breaks through a
vertical plane, the crack formed is known as square or
angular.

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 Rail Failures
Split Head

Square or Angular
Crack
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 Creep of Rails
• Creep is the longitudinal movement of rails in the
track
Causes of Creep
• Wave motion set up in the track by a moving train.
• Expansion and contraction of the rails due to
temperature.
• Starting, accelerating and slowing down or stopping
of a train. Rails of a track tend to creep backward,
when the train starts. Rails creep in the forward
direction when brakes are applied.
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 Creep due to Wave Motion
• Wave motion set up in the track by a moving train.
Portions of the rail immediately under the wheels of
the train are depressed slightly due to load on the
wheels.

• As the wheels move, the depression move with them,

the previous depressed portion springing back to their
original level. This wave motion tends to move the
rail forward with the train.

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 Creep due to Wave Motion
• The pitch and depth of the waves is governed by the
condition of the formation, the stiffness of the track,
the weight of the rails, the spacing of the sleepers, the
quality and quantity of the ballast, the condition of
drainage and the standard of maintenance.

• Creep is reduced by increased stiffness of the track,

stability of soil in formation and angular ballast,
which interlocks well and reduce wave motion.

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 Factors governing the Magnitude and
Direction of Creep
• Alignment of Track - Creep is found to be greater on
the curves than on straights.
• Grade of Track – Creep is found to be more on the
down grade.
• Direction of the heaviest traffic- For places connected
to seaport, wagons are carrying more load. Creep is
found to be more in the direction heavier wagons are
moving.
• Condition of Formation – Creep is more in the newly
constructed formation.
• Weight of the rail section – Creep is found more in
the lighter section. 61
 Factors governing the Magnitude and
Direction of Creep
• Creep is not constant at a point nor it does vary at a
uniform rate.
• Nor do the two rails of the track creep by the same
magnitude.
• The direction and magnitude of creep cannot be
predicted, both rails may creep in one direction or in
opposite directions.

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 Results of Creep
• Widening of gaps- at some places the rail joints open
beyond their limits and the intensity of hammer blows
increases resulting in greater stresses in the fish plates
and bolts. At some places, joints get jammed
preventing the expansion, which results in the
buckling of the rail.
• The sleepers are moved out of square and out of
position and consequently the gauge and alignment of
the track is disturbed.
• Points and crossings get distorted and it is very
difficult to keep them back to correct gauge or to
correct alignment. 63
 Results of Creep
• Widening of gaps- at some places the rail joints open
beyond their limits and the intensity of hammer blows
increases resulting in greater stresses in the fish plates
and bolts. At some places, joints get jammed
preventing the expansion, which results in the
buckling of the rail.
• The sleepers are moved out of square and out of
position and consequently the gauge and alignment of
the track is disturbed.

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 Methods to correct Creep
• Pull Back Method
• Creep Anchors
Pull Back Method
• The track to be pulled back is inspected and the extent of
pulling back necessary at various places is noted. The point
from which to start is also determined; usually the starting
point is at widely opened rail joints.
• Pulling back should be regulated in such a way that rail joints
are made central over the sleepers. It is not enough only to
obtain the necessary expansion gaps but also position of one
rail joint relative to the joint on opposite side of the rail must
also be maintained.
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 Pull Back Method
• Fish plates or fish bolts at one end of the rail are
removed and at the other end are loosened. Fittings,
which hold the rail with sleepers are also made loose.
The rail is then pushed backed by using a lever rod.

• Mechanical devices are also used for this purpose.

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 Creep Anchors or Anti Creepers
• After pulling back, there is no guarantee that the rails
will not creep again. In fact, they start creeping
immediately after pulling back.
• Creep is prevented or reduced by devices known as
anchors or anti-creepers. Anchors are fastened to the
foot of the rail by means of spring grip and bear
against the side of the sleepers. When the rails tend to
creep, they have to drag the sleepers also through the
ballast and the ballast offer sufficient resistance to
prevent the creep of rails.
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 Number of Creep Anchors
• Minimum no = 2 in one rail panel
• Maximum no = 2 * No of sleepers in one rail panel
• Creep anchors should resist the stresses due to the
creep of the rails.

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 Bearing Plates
• They are simply the metallic plates. They are placed
between the foot of the rail and sleepers, in-order to
minimize injury to the wooden sleeper.
Functions of Bearing Plates
• Protect the wooden sleeper
• Distribute the load over wider area of the wooden
sleeper
• Reduce the maintenance

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 Bearing Plates

• The shape of the bearing plate is rectangular,

made of mild steel, cast iron or wrought iron.
• The size of the bearing plate is 9” * 10 ” *
3/8”.
• It has 4 holes for a spike

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