A.J.

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(A unit of Laxmi Memorial Educational trust®)
KottaraChowki, Mangaluru – 575006

MANUFACTURING PROCESS
BME302
Credits: 04

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 VISION AND MISSION STATEMENT OF AJIET

Vision of the Institute

To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their
profession and competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.

Mission of the Institute

o To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value education

and make the students socially responsible.
o To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence in
both faculty and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge
base.
o To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective
industry- institute partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.
o To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the
engineering professionals.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Vision of the Department

To create globally competent and self-reliant mechanical engineers adaptive to an

interdisciplinary environment contributing to society through development, authority and
entrepreneurship.

Mission of the Department

M 1. To offer high quality graduate program in the field of Mechanical Engineering with
value education to the students and make them responsive to societal needs.
M 2. To nurture the students with a global outlook for a sustainable future with high
moral and ethical values.
M 3. To strengthen collaboration with industries, academia and research organizations
to enrich learning environment, thus enhance research and entrepreneurship
culture.
M 4. To create awareness about the need of interdisciplinary applications through
alumni industry-institution interactions.

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 PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

Prepare graduates with mathematical, scientific and engineering skills to

PEO1
design and develop energy efficient systems for sustainable development.

Excel graduates with high level of technical competency combined with research
PEO2 and complex problem-solving ability to generate innovative solutions in
Mechanical and multi-disciplinary areas.

PEO3 Equip graduates with modern tools, technology and advanced software’s for
deliberating engineering solutions.

Inculcate graduates with strong foundation in academic excellence, soft skills,

PEO4
leadership qualities, professional ethics, and social concerns and understand the
need for lifelong learning for a successful professional career.

PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
PO1 fundamentals, and specialization in Mechanical Engineering for the solution of complex
engineering problems.
Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
PO2 engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
PO3
consideration for public health and safety, and cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
PO4 research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
PO5 modern engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modelling to complex
engineering activities, with an understanding of the limitations.
The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
PO6 assess societal, health, safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice
Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
PO7 solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
PO8
norms of the engineering practice.
Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
PO9
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.

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 Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with the society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
PO10
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
PO11 theengineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environment.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
PO12
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1 Apply the knowledge of modern engineering tools to design and analyze the
products and process related to Mechanical Engineering systems
PSO2 Develop technical and interpersonal skills pertinent to mechanical and allied
engineering for careers in industry, academia and government organizations.

COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
CO1 Describe the casting processes and study of important molding process
CO2 Explain the concept of melting furnaces and metal mould castings.

CO3 Understand the different metal forming processes.

CO4 Understand operating principles of conventional and advanced welding processes.
Understand the weldability, thermal aspects in welding and also to study the allied
CO5
joining processes used in manufacturing
Conduct experiments to measure the properties of molding sand and Analyse the
CO6
theoretical and experimental concepts in foundry, forging and welding models.

P P P P P P P P P
PO PO PO PS PS
CO O O O O O O O O O
10 11 12 O1 O2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 2
CO1

1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 2
CO2

1 - - - - - - - - - - 1 - 2
CO3

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CO4

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CO5

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 MODULE -1

INTRODUCTION & BASIC MATERIALS USED

IN FOUNDRY

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Introduction

The word ‘Manufacturing’ is derived from the Latin, manus = hand and factus = made, that
is, the literal meaning is ‘‘made by hand’’.

Definition

• Manufacturing process basically deals with the conversion of raw materials to end or
useful material.

CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESS

The various processes available for manufacturing a product can be put into anyone of the
four categories mentioned below:

(i) Casting

(ii) Forming

(iii) Machining and

(iv) Joining

1. Casting Processes. Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually

poured into a mould, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify. The solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the
mould to complete the process.

[Link] Forming processes are particular manufacturing processes which make use of
suitable stresses (like compression, tension, shear or combined stresses) which cause plastic
deformation of the materials to produce required shapes. During forming processes no material
is removed, i.e. they are deformed and displaced.

[Link] Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of material from a work
piece, it covers several processes, which we usually divide into the following categories:
Cutting, generally involving single-point or multipoint cutting tools, each with a clearly defined
geometry. Abrasive processes, such as grinding.

[Link] Joining processes involve assembling or joining two or more parts together to form
a single component of the desired shape and size. They are further classified into two categories
based on the type of joint:

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i. Temporary joining process

In these processes, the joint obtained is temporary. The assembled parts can be separated
easily without damage to them. Example Bolt and nut, soldering, brazing, adhesive bonding
etc.

ii. Permanent joining process

• In these processes, the joint obtained will be such that, the connected parts have to be
broken in order to separate them. Example; Welding and riveting.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDRIES

a) Based on the type of metal being cast

• Ferrous foundry: Deals with iron based metal. Here the foundry produces only
ferrous alloy castings ex: Cast irons, steel, ductile iron.
• Non-ferrous foundry: The foundry produces only non-ferrous alloy castings ex: Al-
alloys, Cu-alloys, and Mg-alloys etc. Here metal other than Iron is processed

b) Based on the nature of foundry

• Jobbing foundry: Produces small quantity of castings as and when orders are
received by different customers. Here castings are produced against job orders. There
is no set pattern of production.
• Captive foundry: Produces castings to its own requirement. Only castings required
for internal needs are produced.
• Mechanized foundry: Produces large number of castings of repetitive nature using
equipment and machinery. Very good control over the product quality is assured

c) Based on the total tonnage of castings produced

• Small sized foundry: Produces small sized castings up to few hundred kilograms
single piece ex: 20-50T/Month production.
• Medium sized foundry: Produces medium sized castings up to thousand kilograms
ex: 50-100T/Month Production.
• Large sized foundry: Produces heavy castings weighing several tons, ex:1000T/
Month Production

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d) Based on the type of mould used

• Sand casting foundries: Here sand is used for making the mould. Each mould is used
for one casting only. Small to very huge castings can be produced.

• Die casting foundries or Permanent mould casting foundries: Here metal is used
for making the mould- cast iron, steel, copper are used for making the moulds. These
moulds can be used repeatedly for producing several thousands of castings. Hence the
name permanent mould castings assigned to these. Size of the castings is limited to
few hundred kilograms.

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE SELECTION OF A CASTING ALLOY

The important factors that influence the choice of casting alloy are:

1. High temperature resistance

2. Low melting point
3. Cost
4. Hardness
5. Density
6. Machinability
7. Weldability
8. Brazability
9. Abrasion resistance
10. Corrosion resistance
11. Oxidation resistance
12. Resistance to crack propagations
13. Thermal conductivity

INTRODUCTION TO CASTING PROCESS

Casting or Founding is one of the oldest manufacturing process that has been practiced for over
5000 years.

Pre-historic man found copper and shaped it to use as a weapon (arrowhead) for his defence.
Later he found that weapons could be easily made by melting and pouring copper in moulds
(cast) than they could be beaten (forged) to size and shape.

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Progress in civilization made man to discover different metals and process for casting them
.Casting or Founding is one of the oldest manufacturing process that has been practiced for
over 5000 years.

Pre-historic man found copper and shaped it to use as a weapon (arrowhead) for his defence.
Later he found that weapons could be easily made by melting and pouring copper in moulds
(cast)

Progress in civilization made man to discover different metals and process for casting them.
Casting involves melting metal and pouring it into a mould cavity whose shape resembles the
shape of the desired object, and then allowing the molten metal to solidify in the cavity.

The solidified part is taken out of the mould, cleaned and finished to make it suitable for use.
Casting is not restricted to metals. Glass and plastics can also be cast using a variety of
processes.

Also, products ranging from a few millimetres to meters and a few grams to several tons can
be cast efficiently and economically thereby making it a versatile method for shaping objects.
Casting which was once practiced as an art has emerged to a science, and a major
manufacturing process to shape objects

TERMS INVOLVED IN CASTING

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Following are a few important terms involved in casting process.

a) Mould box (flask) : It is usually a metallic frame used for making and holding a sand mould.
The mould box has two parts: the upper part called cope, and the lower part called drag
b) Parting line/parting surface: It isthe zone of separation between cope and drag portions of
the mould in sand casting.
c) Sprue: It is a vertical passage through which the molten metal will enter the gate, and then
into the mould cavity.
d) Pouring basin: The enlarged portion of the sprue at its top into which the molten metal is
poured.
e) Gate/ingate: It is a short passageway which carries the molten metal from the runner/sprue
into the mould cavity.
h) Riser: A riser or feed head is a vertical passage that stores the molten metal and supplies
(feed) the same to the casting as it solidifies.
i) Mould cavity: The space in a mould that is filled with molten metal to form the casting
upon solidification.
j) Core: A core is a pre-formed (shaped) mass of sand placed in the mould cavity to form
hollow cavities in castings.
k) Core print: It is a projection attached to the pattern to help for support and correct location
of core in the mould cavity.
l) Ladle: It is usually made from graphite or silicon carbide, and is used to hold molten metal
during pouring.

STEPS INVOLVED IN SAND CASTING PROCESS

The basic steps in making a casting include:
a) Pattern making
b) Mould preparation (including gating and risering)
c) Core making
d) Melting and Pouring
e) Cleaning and Inspection
(a) Pattern making
• A pattern is a replica of an object to be cast.
• It is used to prepare a cavity into which the molten metal is poured

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 • A skilled pattern maker prepares the pattern using wood, metal, plastic or other
materials with the help of machines and special tools Many factors viz., durability,
allowance for shrinkage and machining etc., are considered while making a pattern.

(b) Mould preparation (including gating and risering)

• Mould preparation involves forming a cavity by packing sand around a pattern
enclosed in a supporting metallic frame called flask (mould box)
• When the pattern is removed from the mould, an exact shaped cavity remains into
which the molten metal is poured.
• Gating and risering are provided at suitable locations in the mould.

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 Gating - Passage through which molten metal flows and enter the mould cavity.
 Risering – A reservoir of molten metal connected to the mould cavity to supply additional
so as to compensate for losses due to shrinkage, as the metal solidifies

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(c) Core making
• In some cases, a hole or cavity is required in the casting.
• This is obtained by placing a core in the mould cavity.
• The shape of the core corresponds to the shape of the hole required.
• The mould is cleaned, finished and made ready for pouring molten metal

(d) Melting and Pouring

• Metals or alloys of the required composition are melted in a furnace and then transferred
(poured) into the mould cavity.
• Many factors viz., temperature of molten metal, pouring time, turbulence etc., should
be considered while melting and pouring

(e) Cleaning and Inspection

After the molten metal has solidified and cooled, the rough casting is removed from the mould,
cleaned and dressed (removing cores, adhered sand particles, gating and risering systems, fins,

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blisters etc., from the casting surface) and then sent for inspection to check for dimensions or
any defects like blow holes, cracks etc

ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS

1. Components are produced to near final shape
2. Casting is one step process
3. Any type of metal or alloy can be easily casted
4. Any size or shape can be easily produced
5. Uniform properties can be obtained throughout castings
6. Castings are cheaper than components made from other process
7. Process can be easily adopted to automation and mass production

LIMITATIONS OF CASTING PROCESS

1. Directional properties is difficult to achieve in the castings
2. Casting process is labor intensive
3. Some internal defects like pores, cracks cannot be easily eliminated
4. More number of variables involved hence more attention is needed

PATTERN
A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted). It is embedded in moulding sand
and suitable ramming of moulding sand around the pattern is made.
The pattern is then withdrawn for generating cavity (known as mould) in moulding sand. Thus
it is a mould forming tool

Functions of pattern
a) A pattern is used to prepare a cavity whose shape resembles the shape of the desired object.

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b) Patterns help to position a core in the mould. They are provided with projections known as
core prints that helps for support and correct location of the core in the mould cavity. Figure
depicts the use of core print.
c) Patterns help to establish the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
d) In some cases, gating and risering are incorporated in the pattern itself. Hence, patterns
support gating and risering system also.

TYPES OF PATTERN
Some of the commonly used patterns are listed below
a) Single piece pattern
b) Split pattern
c) Loose piece pattern
d) Match plate pattern
e) Gated pattern
f) Sweep pattern
g) Skeleton pattern
(h)Follow board pattern
(i)Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
(j) Segmental pattern
(k)Cope and drag pattern

(a) Single piece pattern

• Single piece pattern also called solid pattern, is the simplest type made in one piece
without any joints, partings or loose pieces.
• It is suitable for simple shape and large size castings.

(b) Split pattern

• Split pattern also called cope and drag pattern, is made in two halves/pieces.
• One half of the pattern is moulded in the cope box while the other half in the drag box.
• Both the halves are aligned or assembled together with the help of dowel pins.

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 • Split types are required for those patterns that are difficult to withdraw from the mould
and also for castings with curved surfaces.

(c) Loose piece pattern

• Patterns with complex shapes cannot be made in one piece, as it is difficult to
withdraw from the mould.
• In such cases, two or more loose pieces are assembled together to form a single
pattern.

(d) Match plate pattern

• A match plate is a thin flat plate on either side of which each half of a number of split
patterns with different size and shape are attached.
• On one side of the match plate there is cope impression and on the other side is the drag
impression.
• The match plate is provided with runner and gates and is placed between the cope and
the drag box.
• After ramming the cope and drag with moulding sand, the match plate is removed, the
cope and drag are assembled and made ready for pouring.
• Match plate patterns are used in machine moulding process.

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(e) Gated pattern
• Gated patterns are used when parts to be cast are of simple shape and produced in
large quantities (mass production).
• In this type, a number of patterns are attached to a single runner by means of gates.
• Generally, patterns are made from metals to remain stronger so that they can be
reused to prepare many moulds.
• Gated patterns provide many advantages like rapid moulding, reduction in skilled
labour, mass production and eliminating errors while cutting gates and runners

(f) Sweep pattern

• Sweep patterns are used for preparing large circular shaped moulds by revolving a
sweep(wooden board) attached to the spindle
• One edge of the sweep is attached to the spindle, While the other edge has a contour of
the casting desired .
• The sweep pattern and the spindle located at the center of the mould are removed after
the desired shape of cavity ts obtained .
• Sweep patterns are preferred for large castings with circular and symmetrical shapes.

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(g) Skeleton pattern
• A skeleton pattern is prepared by joining pieces of wood to form an outline of the
pattern to be made. • In other words, it is just the skeleton of the desired shape of the
casting (like the skeleton of a human body).
• The skeleton pattern is then filled with loam sand and rammed.
• A strickle board is used to remove the excess sand to give the desired shape.
• Skeleton patterns are used to produce large castings in small quantities

(h)Follow board pattern

When the use of solid or split patterns becomes difficult, a contour corresponding to the exact
shape of one half of the pattern is made in a wooden board, which is called a follow board and
it acts as a moulding board for the first moulding operation

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(i)Three-piece or multi-piece pattern
A multi-piece pattern, which can include a three-piece pattern, is used in casting when the
shape of the desired casting is too complex to be made from a single or two-piece pattern. These
patterns are divided into multiple parts (three or more) to facilitate removal from the mold after
the sand is packed around them

(j) Segmental pattern

Patterns of this type are generally used for circular castings, for example wheel rim, gear blank
etc. Such patterns are sections of a pattern so arranged as to form a complete mould by being
moved to form each section of the mould. The movement of segmental pattern is guided by the
use of a central pivot

(k)Cope and drag pattern

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In this case, cope and drag part of the mould are prepared separately. This is done when the
complete mould is too heavy to be handled by one operator. The pattern is made up of two
halves, which are mounted on different plates.

PATTERN MATERIAL

1. Wood
Well-seasoned Teak wood is used. Wood is the most popular and commonly used
material for pattern making. It is cheap, easily available in abundance, repairable and
easily fabricated in various forms using resin and glues. It is very light, soft smooth
surface. It absorbs moisture. It can be used to produce smaller number of castings.
2. Metal
Metallic patterns are preferred when the number of castings required is large enough to
justify their use. These patterns are not much affected by moisture as wooden pattern.
The wear and tear of this pattern very less and hence possesses longer life. Moreover,
metal is easier to shape the pattern with good precision, surface finish and intricacy in
shapes

3. Plastic
Plastics are getting more popularity now a days because the patterns made of these
materials are lighter, stronger, moisture and wear resistant, non-sticky to moulding
sand, durable and they are not affected by the moisture of the moulding sand. Moreover,
they impart very smooth surface finish on the pattern surface. These materials are
somewhat fragile, less resistant to sudden loading and their section may need metal
reinforcement.
4. Plaster
This material belongs to gypsum( calcium sulphate CaSO4) family which can be easily
cast and worked with wooden tools and preferable for producing highly intricate
casting. The main advantages of plaster are that it has high compressive strength and is
of high expansion setting type which compensate for the shrinkage allowance of the
casting metal.
5. Wax
It possess low melting point. Wax can be reused. Patterns made from wax are excellent
for investment casting process. The materials used are blends of several types of waxes,

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 and other additives which act as polymerizing agents, stabilizers, etc. The commonly
used waxes are paraffin wax, carnauba wax, and bees-wax

FACTORS EFFECTING SELECTION OF PATTERN MATERIAL

1. Number of castings to be produced. Metal pattern are preferred when castings are required
large in number.
2. Type of mould material used.
3. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish required.

PATTERN ALLOWANCES
• Although a pattern is the replica of the object to be cast, it is slightly enlarged in size for a
few reasons.
• This increase in size of the pattern is called allowance, and is essential to all patterns, which
helps to produce a good quality mould, and hence a casting.
• The various allowances provided on the pattern include:
a) Shrinkage allowance
b) Machining allowance
c) Draft allowance, and
d) Distortion allowance
e)Rapping or shaking allowance:

a) Shrinkage allowance
All metals used for casting shrink after solidification in the mould and, therefore, the pattern
must be made larger than the required casting. The pattern size is increased by an amount equal
to the shrinkage of specific metal from its melting point to room temperature. This is known as
shrinkage allowance or contraction allowance. It is the correction for solidification shrinkage
of the casting and its contraction during cooling to room temperature.

b) Machining allowance
This allowance is provided on the pattern if the casting is to be machined. This allowance is
given in addition to shrinkage allowance. The amount of this allowance varies from 1.6 to
12.5mm which depends upon the type of casting metal size, shape of casting, method of
casting used, and method of machining

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c) Draft allowance
It is a taper which is given to all the vertical walls of the pattern for easy and clean withdrawal
of the pattern from the sand without damage the mould cavity. It may be expressed in
millimeters per meter on a side or in degrees. The amount of taper varies with the type of
patterns

d)Distortion allowance:
This allowance is provided on pattern used for castings of such design in which the contraction
is not uniform throughout.

e) Rapping or shaking allowance:

This allowance is provided in the pattern to compensate for the rapping of the mould because
the pattern is to be rapped before removing it from the mould. In small and medium -Silica
sized casting, these allowances can be neglected.

SAND MOULDING

TYPES OF BASE SAND

• Sand, due to its high refractoriness, and also being inexpensive, is the primary and basic
material used for preparing moulds.
• Nearly 90 - 95% of the moulding sand mixture is occupied by sand and the remaining
being binder and additives.
• Sand, usually referred to as base sand has many sources and compositions. But all sands
have their common origin in the fact that they are granular material resulting from the
disintegration or crushing of rocks. Four basic types of sand are discussed below:
a) Silica sand
b) Olivine sand
c) Chromite
d) Zircon

(a) Silica sand

• Silica sand is essentially silicon dioxide (SiO2 ) found in nature on the bottoms and
banks of rivers, lakes and seashore.

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 • Silica deposits tend to have varying degree of organic and mineral contaminants like
limestone, magnesia, soda and potash that must be removed prior to its use, otherwise
which affect castings in numerous ways.
• Silica sand is available in plenty, less expensive and possess favorable properties that
are essential to make a good casting.
• But its high thermal expansion leads to certain casting defects; the reason for which not
being used in steel foundries.
• However, silica sand when mixed with certain additives like wood flour, cereals (corn
flour), saw dust etc., defects can be eliminated.
• These additives burn by the heat of the molten metal thereby creating voids that can
accommodate the sand expansion.
(b) Olivine sand
• Olivine sand is typically used in non -ferrous foundries.
• With its thermal expansion (0.0083"/inch) about half of that of silica sand (0.018"/inch)
makes it suitable for production of steel castings also. But the high cost restricts its wide
use.
(c) Chromite
• This is African sand with cost being much higher compared to other sands.
• Due to its superior thermal characteristics, it is generally used in steel foundries for both
mould and core making.
(d) Zircon
• Zircon or Zirconium silicate possesses most stable thermal properties of all the above
discussed sands.
• The choice for this type of sand arises when very high temperatures are encountered,
and refractoriness becomes a consideration.
• But the major disadvantage is that, zircon has trace elements of Uranium and Thorium
which is hazardous in nature thereby restricting its use in foundries.

REQUIREMENTS OF BASE SAND

For producing a good casting the sand has to fulfill the following
• Base sand should be sub angular grain shape
Sand grains may have different shapes like angular,sub angular or [Link] angular sand
grains have edges and corners formed due to the erosive action over a period of [Link] the

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grains are sub angular then they will offer better surface for the clay to coat and develop proper
bonding.
• Should have good grain
Sand to be suitable for moulding the size of the grains should not be too fine or too coarse but
should be composed of various sizes. Too fine sand grains improve surface finish of the casting.
Whereas too coarse sand results in rough surface on the casting. Coarse sand allows mould
gases to escape easily and fine sand restrict easy gas flow. Hence a proper mixture of the
different grain size is desired for better casting properties.
• Should have high refractoriness
Sand should be able to withstand high temperatures without fusing. This is called high
refractoriness. Better quality casting surfaces is realized with sand having high refractoriness.
High refractory sand permits castings of high melting point metals and alloys.
• Should have low impurities
Impurities in base sand reduce the properties appreciably. Especially the fusion temperature is
decreased. It will not have sufficient resistance against high temperature of the metal. Hence
the impurity level in the sand must be as low as possible.
• Should have low expansion characteristics
All materials expand when heated .Even sand grains undergo expansion is the sand grains
expand appreciably then the mould made by such sand cannot accommodate expansion and
will show cracks on the surface. Hence the expansion characteristics of sand should be as low
as possible.
• Should be thermally stable
When sand grains are heated and cooled subsequently the sand will expand and then contract.
During this period the sand should not disintegrate or decompose at high temperatures of the
metal. It should not fuse also. This property is called as thermal stability

TYPES OF SAND MOULDS

Moulds prepared with sand are called sand moulds or temporary moulds, as they are broken
for removing the casting.
(*When mould is prepared with metal, it is called metallic moulds or permanent moulds) The
different types of sand moulds are:

1) Green sand mould

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2) Dry sand mould
3) Skin dried sand mould, and
4) No-bake sand mould

1) GREEN SAND MOULD

• The word green has nothing to do with the colour, but signifies that the moulding sand
is in the moist state at the time of metal pouring.
• The main ingredients of green sand are silica sand, clay and moisture (water).
• Additives may be added in small amounts to obtain desired properties of mould/casting.
• Nearly 60% of the total castings are prepared from green sand moulds.
• A typical composition of green sand mixture include 90% sand, 7% binder, and 3%
clay.
Advantages of green sand moulds
• Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
• Suitable for mass production
• Least expensive
• Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture
Disadvantages of green sand moulds
• Moulds/cores prepared by this process lack in permeability, strength and stability.
• They give rise to many defects like porosity, blow holes etc., because of low
permeability and lot of steam fon11ation due to their moisture content.
• Moulds/cores cannot be stored for appreciable length of time.
• Not suitable for very large size castings.
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of castings produced are not satisfactory.
• Difficult to cast thin and intricate shapes.
• Mould erosion which is common in green sand moulds is another disadvantage.

2) DRY SAND MOULD

• The word dry signifies that the mould is dry or free from moisture at the time of metal
pouring.
• The absence of moisture makes dry sand moulds to overcome most of the disadvantages
of green sand moulds
• A dry sand mould is prepared in the same manner as that of green sand mould, i.e., by
mixing silica sand, clay and water.

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 • The entire mould/core is then dried (baked) in ovens to remove the moisture present in
them. • Also, baking hardens the binder thereby increasing the strength of moulds/cores.
• The temperature and duration of baking ranges from 200 - 450°F and from a few
minutes to hours respectively, depending on the type of metal being poured, and size of
the casting.
Advantages of Dry sand mould
• Strength and stability of moulds is high when compared to green sand moulds.
• Baking removes moisture and hence, defects related to moisture are eliminated.
• Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance of castings.
Disadvantages of Dry sand mould
• Consumes more time, labour and cost due to baking process. Hence, not suitable for
mass production.
• Not suitable for large and heavy size castings, as they are difficult to bake.
• Capital cost of bake ovens. • Under baked or over baked moulds/cores is another
disadvantage .
3) SKIN DRIED SAND MOULD
• A skin dried mould is an intermediate type of mould having some characteristics of
both green sand and dry sand mould.
• The skin dried mould is produced in a manner similar to the green sand mould, but prior
to closing the mould for pouring molten metal, every interior surface of the mould
cavity is sprayed with a additional binder like molasses, or lignin sulfate, and dried with
a gas torch or heating lan1ps to a depth of about 10- 25mm.
• This result in smooth , moisture free, and a hard skin on the mould surface.
• Skin dried mould is used for producing medium and heavy sized castings.
Advantages of Skin dried sand mould
• Process eliminates surface moisture and hence moisture related defects.
• Improves dimensional accuracy and surface finish due to firm (hard) mould surface
Disadvantages of Skin dried sand mould
• A skin dried mould must be poured soon after drying, else, the moisture present behind
the skill dried depth will migrate back to the mould surface defeating the purpose.
• Expensive and consumes more time for preparing moulds.
• Lower production rate.

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4) NO-BAKE SAND MOULD
• A no-bake or self-setting sand mould is one that does not require baking .
• The main ingredients of no-bake sand are silica sand, binder (resin type), hardener and
a catalyst or accelerator (If necessary).
• The bonding strength developed in moulds/cores is by means of a self-setting chemical
reaction between the binder and the hardener.
• In some cases, a catalyst or an accelerator is added to speed up the chemical reaction.
Advantages of No-bake sand mould
• Higher strength - about 50 to 100 times that of green sand moulds.
• Patterns can be stripped within a few minutes after ramming, which is not possible in
other types of sand moulds.
• Moulds/cores can be stored for longer periods.
• Highly simplified moulding . Hence, reduced need for skilled labour.
• Better dimensional accuracy and stability.
• Improved casting quality with increased freedom from detects.
• Surface finish is excellent. In many cases, castings can be used in as-cast condition
without machining.
Disadvantages of No-bake sand mould
• Use of resins and catalysts causes lot of environmental problems both within (i.e.,
during mixing and pouring) and outside (dumped sand) the foundries.
• Resins and catalysts are expensive.
• Unsafe to human operators.
• Due to high strength and hardness of moulds/cores, sand reclamation (reuse) is a
slightly difficult process.

MOULDING SAND MIXTURE INGREDIENTS FOR DIFFERENT SAND MIXTURES

• A moulding sand is a mixture of base sand, binder and additives.
• The present section discusses the ingredients of moulding sand tor green sand and no-
bake sand mixture only.
• Ingredients for dry sand mixture and skin dried sand is similar to that of green sand
a) Ingredients for Green Sand Mixture Green sand mixture is composed of base sand, binder,
moisture and additives.

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• Base sand
✓ Silica sand is used as the base sand. It possesses favourable properties, is inexpensive
and can be reused many number of times.
✓ The amount of silica sand added may vary from 85-92% depending on the
requirements.
• Binder
✓ Bentonite (clay binder) is the widely used binder for bonding sand particles.
✓ It is activated in the presence of water. A best bond between the sand particles can be
obtained with bentonite varying from 6 - 12 %, and water 3 - 5 %.
• Additives
✓ Additives are added in small quantities to develop certain new properties, or to enhance
the existing properties of moulding sand. Sea coal, silica flour, wood flour and iron
oxide are a few commonly used additive
b) Ingredients for No-bake sand mixture
Of all the various no-bake sand mixture, viz., Furan system, Phenolic urethane system, Alkyd
system, sodium silicate binder system etc., ingredients of ‘alkyd binder system’ which is one
of the most widely used in Indian foundries is discussed below
• Base sand
Silica sand is used as the base sand
• Binder
✓ The alkyd binder system consists of three parts : Part A (binder), Part B (hardener) and
Part C (catalyst).
✓ Part A (Binder): The binder is an alkyd resin which is obtained by reacting linseed oil
with a polybasic acid like iso-pthalic and solvents like turpentine, kerosene or mineral
spirit to improve flowability. Its addition ranges from 2 – 5% based on weight of sand
✓ Part B (Hardener): The hardener is a reacted product between cobalt/lead salts and
napthanic acid. Its addition ranges from 5 - 10% based on weight of binder.
✓ Part C (Catalyst): Methylene-diphenyi-Di-isocyanate commonly known as MDI is
used as catalyst to speed up the chemical reaction. Its addition ranges from 20 -25%
based on weight of binder.
METHODS USED FOR SAND MOULDING
The various sand moulding methods are:
a) Bench moulding
b) Floor moulding

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c) Pit moulding and
d) Machine moulding

a) Bench moulding
• Bench moulding is preferred for small jobs and is carried out on a bench of convenient
height.
• The moulder (mould maker) prepares the mould manually while standing.
b) Floor moulding
• Floor moulding is preferred for large size moulds that cannot be carried out on benches.
• In most of the foundries, moulding is carried out on floors irrespective of the size of
jobs.
c) Pit moulding
• Large castings that cannot be accommodated in mould box (flasks) are made in pits dug
on the floor. Refer figure .
• The pit forms the drag part of the mould, and a separate cope box is placed above the
pit.
• The mould maker enters the pit and prepares the mould.
• The cope is rammed using dry sand with risers placed at suitable locations.
• The walls of the pit are lined with brick, and the bottom is covered with moulding sand
with connecting vent pipes to the floor level for easy escape of hot gases.
• A crane is used for handling the cope box and carrying out other operations

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b) Machine moulding
• In bench, floor and pit moulding, all the operations viz., ramming, withdrawing pattern,
rolling flasks etc., are done manually by mould makers.
• But when large number of castings are to be produced, manual operations consumes
more time and also, accuracy and uniformity of moulding varies.
• To overcome this difficulty machine moulding is used.
The operations performed by machines include:
✓ Ramming moulding sand : By jolt machine or jolt squeeze machine.
✓ Rapping the pattern: Patterns are rapped in the sand with vibrators that are operated
electrically or by compressed air.
✓ Removal of pattern: By raising or lowering the mould, or by raising or lowering the
pattern.

BINDERS
• The sand used for preparing moulds is a mixture of silica sand, binder and additives in
suitable proportions.
• A hard mould is a primary requirement in making any casting, and binders serve the
purpose. • A binder is a material used to produce cohesion or bind the sand particles
(silica sand) together thereby imparting strength to the sand
• Clay binders (Bentonites) are the most widely used for bonding moulding sands. But,
clay activates or tends to bind sand particles only in the presence of water (moisture).
• The amount of water added to clay should be based on experimental trials because, if
too little water is added, the sand will lack strength as the bond between the sand
particles is low.
• On the other hand, too much water causes sand to reach semi-liquid state thereby
making it unsuitable for moulding.
• In other words, for a given percentage of clay, there is an optimum percentage of water
that gives favorable properties to the moulding sand.
• For a good moulding sand, clay may vary in the range 6 - 12 % and moisture from 3 -
5 %.

TYPES OF BINDERS USED IN MOULDING SAND

Binders are classified into two types:
a) Organic binders and

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b) Inorganic binders.
Organic group of binders include:
• Dextrin -made from starch.
• Molasses -a by-product of sugar industry.
• Cereal binders -gelatinized starch and gelatinized flour.
• Linseed oil - a vegetable oil.
• Resins - Urea formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde etc.
Inorganic group of binders include:
• Clay binders -Bentonite, Fire clay etc.
• Portland cement.
• Sodium silicate etc

ADDITIVES
• Additives are generally added to develop certain new properties, or, to enhance the existing
properties of the moulding sand.
• They do not form a compulsory constituent to the moulding sand. However, its addition
improves the quality of the moulding sand and hence the casting obtained.
Note: Additives do not impart any binding qualities
A few commonly used additives and their functions are described below.
Coal dust
• Fine powdered coal added to moulding sand.
• Improves surface finish of casting and reduces sand fusion by forming a reducing
atmosphere at mould-metal interface.
Sea coal
• Finely ground soft coal (bituminous coal) added in small quantities.
• On heating, it produces gases that form a thin carbon layer, preventing metal penetration
and improving surface finish.
Wood flour
• Finely powdered wood added to sand.
• Increases collapsibility, reduces expansion defects, and improves venting by creating
voids after burning out.
Silica flour
• Very fine silica powder.

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 • Fills voids between sand grains, increasing hot strength and reducing metal penetration.
Used especially in core making.

TYPES OF MOULDING SAND

Sands which are used to make mould is called moulding sand. Almost every manufacturing
industries uses moulding sand to make moulds
The various types of moulding sand are
1. Green sand
2. Dry sand
3. Loam sand
4. Parting sand
5. Facing sand
6. Backing sand
7. System sand
8. Core sand
1. Green Sand
❑ Green sand is a mixture of silica sand and clay. It constitutes 18 % to 30 % clay and 6
% to 8 % water.
❑ The water and clay present is responsible for furnishing bonds for the green sand.
❑ It is slightly wet when squeezed with hand. It has the ability to retain the shape and
impression given to it under pressure.
❑ It is easily available and has low cost.
❑ The mould which is prepared in this sand is called green sand mould.
❑ It is commonly used for producing ferrous and non-ferrous castings
2. Dry Sand
❑ After making the mould in green sand, when it is dried or baked is called dry sand.
❑ It is suitable for making large castings.
❑ The moulds which is prepared in dry sand is known as dry sand moulds.
❑ If we talk about the physical composition of the dry sand, than it is same as that of the
green sand except water.
3. Loam Sand
❑ It is a type of moulding sand in which 50 % of clay is present.
❑ It is mixture of sand and clay and water is present in such a quantity, to make it a thin
plastic paste.

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 ❑ In loam moulding patterns are not used.
❑ It is used to produce large casting.
4. Parting Sand
❑ Parting sand is used to prevent the sticking of green sand to the pattern and also to
allow the sand on the parting surface of the cope and drag to separate without
clinging.
❑ It serves the same purpose as of parting dust.
❑ It is clean clay free silica sand.
5. Facing Sand
❑ The face of the mould is formed by facing sand.
❑ Facing sand is used directly next to the surface of the pattern and it comes in direct
contact with the molten metal, when the molten metal is poured into the mould.
❑ It possesses high strength and refractoriness as it comes in contact with the molten
metal.
❑ It is made of clay and silica sand without addition of any used sand.
6. Backing Sand
❑ Backing sand or flour sand is used to back up facing sand.
❑ Old and repeatedly used moulding sand is used for the backing purpose.
❑ It is also sometimes called black sand because of the addition of coal dust and burning
when it comes in contact with the molten metal.
7. System Sand
❑ In mechanical sand preparation and handling units, facing sand is not used. The sand
which is used is cleaned and reactivated by adding of water, binder and special
additives. And the sand we get through this is called system sand.
❑ System sand is used to fill the whole flask in the mechanical foundries where machine
moulding is employed.
❑ The mould made with this sand has high strength, permeability and refractoriness
8. Core Sand
❑ The sand which is used to make core is called core sand.
❑ It is also called as oil sand.
❑ It is a mixture of silica sand and core oil. Core oil is mixture of linseed oil, resin, light
mineral oil and other binding materials.
❑ For the sake of economy, pitch or flours and water may be used in making of large
cores.
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PROPERTIES OF MOULDING SAND
1. Permeability: - It is that property of sand which permits the steam and other gases to pass
through the sand mould. When hot metal is poured into the sand mould, it evolves a great
amount of steam and other gases while coming in contact with the moist sand. If these gases
do not escape completely through the mould, the casting will contain gas holes and pores
2. Plasticity: - It is that property of sand due to which it flows to all portions of the moulding
box or flask and acquires a predetermined shape under ramming pressure and retains this shape
when the pressure is removed.
3. Adhesiveness: - It is the property of the sand due to which it adheres or clings to the sides
of the moulding box. Good sand must have sufficient adhesiveness so that heavy sand masses
can be successfully held in the moulding box or flask with- out any danger of its falling out
when the flask is removed.
4. Cohesiveness: - It is that property of sand due to which the sand grains stick together during
ramming.
5. Refractoriness: - It is that property of the sand which enables it to resist high temperature
of the molten metal without breaking down or fusing.
6. Flow ability: - It is that property of sand due to which it behaves like a fluid so that, when
rammed, it flows to all portions of a mould and distributes the ramming pressure evenly. Flow
ability increases with decrees in green strength and de- crease in grain size. It also varies with
the moisture content.
7. Collapsibility: - It is that property of the sand due to which the sand mould collapses
automatically after the solidification of the casting in order to allow free construction of the
metal

CLASSIFICATION OF MOULDING MACHINES

When large number of castings is to be produced, hand moulding consumes more time,
labour and also accuracy and uniformity in moulding [Link] overcome this difficulty,
machines are used for [Link] on the methods of ramming, moulding machines are
classified as follows:
• Jolt machine
• Squeeze machine
• Jolt-squeeze machine
• Sand slinger

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1. Jolt Machine

A jolt machine consists of a flat table mounted on a piston-cylinder arrangement and can be
raised or lowered by means of compressed air. In operation, the mould box with the pattern
and sand is placed on the table. The table is raised to a short distance and then dropped down
under the influence of gravity against a solid bed plate. The action of raising and dropping
(lowering) is called 'Jolting’. Jolting causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and
around the pattern. The number of 'jolts' may vary depending on the size and hardness of the
mould required. Usually, less than 20 jolts are sufficient for a good moulding. The disadvantage
of this type is that, the density and hardness of the rammed sand at the top of the mould box is
less when compared to its bottom portions.

2. Squeeze Machine
In squeeze machine, the mould box with pattern and sand in it is placed on a fixed table as
shown in figure flat plate or a rubber diaphragm is brought in contact with the upper surface of
the loose sand and pressure is applied by a pneumatically operated piston. The squeezing action
of the plate causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and around the pattern.
Squeezing is continued until the mould attains the desired density. In some machines, the
squeeze plate may be stationary with the mould box moving upward. The disadvantage of
squeeze machine is that, the density and hardness of the rammed sand at the bottom of the
mould box is less when compared to its top portions.

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[Link] Squeeze Machine
Jolt squeeze machine combines the operating principles of 'jolt' and 'squeeze' machines
resulting in uniform ramming of the sand in all portions of the moulds• The machine makes
use of a match plate pattern placed between the cope and the drag box.• The whole assembly
is placed on the table with the drag box on it. The table is actuated by two pistons in air
cylinders, one inside the other. One piston called 'Jolt piston' raises and drops the table
repeatedly for a predetermined number of times, while the other piston called 'squeeze piston'
pushes the table upward to squeeze the sand in the flask against the squeeze plate. In operation,
sand is filled in the drag box and jolted repeatedly by operating the jolt piston. After jolting,
the complete mould assembly is rolled over by hand.• The cope is now filled with sand and by
operating the squeeze piston, the mould assembly is raised against the squeeze plate. By the
end of this operation, the sand in the mould box is uniformly packed.• The match plate is now
vibrated and removed. The mould is finished and made ready for pouring.

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4. Sand slinger

A sand slinger is an automatic machine equipped with a unit that throws sand rapidly and with
great force into the mould box. Figure shows a sand slinger. Sand slinger consists of a rigid
base, sand bin, bucket elevator, belt conveyor, ramming head (sand impeller) and a swinging
[Link] operation, the pre-mixed sand mixture from the sand bin is picked by the bucket elevator
and is dropped on to the belt conveyor. The conveyor carries the sand to the ramming head,
inside which there is a rotating impeller having cup shaped blades rotating at high speeds
(around 1800 rpm).

STUDY OF MOULDING PROCESSES

Sand moulds are prepared either manually using hand tools or using specialized machines
depending on the size of the casting. The various methods of sand moulding process are:

1) Green Sand Mould:

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 • It signifies that the moulding sand is in green state or moist state.
• Green sand moulding is the most widely used process for casting both ferrous and
non-ferrous metals.
• Nearly 60% of the castings are prepared from green sand mould.
• Green sand consists of 85–95% silica sand, 6–10% bentonite binder, 2–5% water, and
additives are mixed together to prepare the green sand mixture.
• Moulds are normally prepared by moulding machine or hand moulding. Soon after the
mould is prepared and casting are made.

Procedure:
• The pattern is placed on the drag box and filled with green sand mixture and rammed
manually till its top surface. Initially, parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern surface to
avoid sand sticking to the pattern.
• The drag box is now inverted so that the pattern faces the top and the parting sand is
sprinkled over the mould surface of the drag box.
• The cope box is placed on the top of the drag box and the sprue and risers are placed in
suitable locations. The green sand mixture is rammed to the level of cope box.
• The sprue and risers are removed from the mould, the cope box lifted and placed aside,
and the pattern in the drag box is withdrawn. Gates are cut using hand tools to provide
passage for the flow of molten metal.
• The mould cavity is cleaned and finished. Cores, if any, are placed in the mould to
obtain a hollow region in the casting.

44 | P a g e
 • The cope is now placed on the drag box and aligned with the help of pins. Vent holes
are made to allow the escape of gases from the mould during pouring. The mould is
made ready for pouring.
Advantages:
• Least expensive method.
• Sand can be reused many times after reconditioning with clay and moisture.
• Preferred for simple, small and medium size castings.
• Suitable for mass production.
Disadvantages:
• Mould prepared is lack in permeability
• Not suitable for large sized casting
• Difficult to cast thin and in complex shape
• Cannot be stored for longer time
• Surface finish and dimensional accuracy of casting are not accurate

2) Dry Sand Mould:

• It signifies that moulding sand is in dry state or free from moisture
• Dry sand consists of base sand, clay, water, and other additives like Dextrin, Molasses
etc. This imparts strength to the mould
• Mould is prepared in the same manner as green sand mould
• The entire mould is dried or baked in oven to remove moisture present in it
• Temperature of baking is around 200–300°C, duration of baking is few min/hr
depending on size of casting
Advantages:
• Moulds are stronger than green sand mould
• Better surface finish and surface tolerance
• Used in small & medium sized casting

Disadvantages (of Dry Sand Mould):

• Not suitable for mass production
• Large and heavy casting are difficult to bake
• Consume more time and capital cost is high because of baking process
• Under baked or over baked moulds s another disadvantage.

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3) Core Sand Mould:

• It is the process in which complete mould is prepared by assembling a number of core

blocks together.
• Core blocks are prepared by mixing silica sand and baked in oven to obtain greater
strength.
• Mould box is filled with backing sand near the walls.
• Cores are set and packed tightly in position against the backing sand.
• Mould cavity is formed along with gating and risers. Molten metal is poured into
closed moulds.
Advantages:
• Intricate and highly complex shapes can be cast
• Good surface finish and dimensional tolerance can be obtained
• Heavy casting can be produced
Disadvantages (of Core Sand Mould):
• Process is expensive because of cost of binders, baking equipment, time consumed,
and labour involved.
4) Carbon Dioxide Sand Mould:

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 • CO₂ mould is also known as Sodium Silicate Sand Mould (Na₂SiO₃).
• It is one of the widely used methods for making moulds and cores. In this process,
sodium silicate is used as binder.
• Suitable proportion of silica sand and 4–6% of sodium silicate are mixed together to
obtain the sand mixture, and mould is prepared as usual.
• CO₂ gas is passed through the mould and sand particles bind immediately due to the
release of silica gel:

• Mould is dried to remove traces of moisture.

• Molten metal is poured into mould and casting is produced.
Advantages (of CO₂ Sand Mould):
• Operation is faster, moulds and cores can be used immediately after processing
• Eliminates baking ovens
• Semi-skilled labourers can be used
Disadvantages (of CO₂ Sand Mould):
• Collapsibility of the sand is poor and additives are used to improve it
• Reclamation of sand is poor
• Moulds are more expensive compared to other process.
5) Cement Bonded Sand Mould:
• A cement bonded mould is prepared by mixing base sand + 8–12% cement and 4–8%
water
• Water is necessary for the hydration reaction of the cement to take place
• Mould is prepared the same as green sand mould
Advantages:
• Cement, which is used as binder, is cheap and environmentally friendly
• Good surface finish and accurate casting can be obtained
• Small and large size casting can be produced
Disadvantages:
• Sand reclamation is poor
• Slow curing time is the major drawback of this mould
6) Sweep Moulding Process:

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 • In sweep moulding, the mould cavity is formed as the pattern sweeps the sand all
around the circumference
• The process is used for producing circular, symmetrical castings using wheel

• Here mould is prepared with the help of sweep pattern and by using either green sand
/ loam sand or Na₂SiO₃ sand
• Sweep pattern consists of thin wooden piece which is attached to the spindle with
hinges
• Mould box is placed around the spindle and it is in central position
• Moulding sand is packed into the box and rammed well approximately around the
area of pattern
• Spindle is rotated slowly so that wood piece sweeps into the mould box generating the
required shape of the mould
• The cope box is rammed with green sand. Suitable gating and risering is provided
• Molten metal is poured into the mould and required casting can be made
Advantages:
• Symmetrical casting can be made
• Small and heavy castings can be produced
Disadvantages:
• Process is slow
• Requires skilled operators for producing quality casting
• Primarily suitable for symmetrical bodies

7) Shell Moulding Process:

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 • Shell moulding is a special moulding process used for producing steel castings.
• Sand mixture consists of silica sand and 3–4% of thermosetting resin (binder).
• A metallic pattern is heated around 200 to 250°C and coated with releasing agent in
order to prevent shell or Layer of sand formed, in the latter stage sticking to the pattern.
• The metallic pattern having the shape of the desired casting is made in one half form
from low carbon steel material.
• The sand mixture is dumped on the heated metal pattern – this layer of sand or shell is
formed on the pattern.
• Now shell along with pattern is heated in oven about 2–3 min to make shell strong.
• Shell is ejected out from the pattern. Similarly, another half of the shell is prepared.
Two halves are joined together to form a mould cavity.
• The complete shell is kept in a mould box and packed with backing sand.
• Molten metal is poured into the mould and casting is made.

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Advantages:
1. Better surface finish and dimensional tolerance
2. Intricate and
3. Machining can be eliminated
4. Semi-skilled operate the process easily
5. Shell can be stored for longer time
Disadvantages:
1. Initially, shell has to be prepared so it is time consuming
2. Size and weight range of casting is limited

PLASTER MOULD
• Plaster mould is a specialised moulding process for the manufacture of non-ferrous
alloy castings; especially aluminium alloy can be used.
• Industrial part such as valves, tooling, gears and lock components may be
manufactured by plaster mould casting process.

Steps involved in the Process

• Plaster material used for moulding process consists of (70–80%) of plaster of Paris
and (20–30%) additives such as talc, MgO, cement, lime and glass fibres in order to
improve setting time, strength, permeability.
• Generally, plaster of Paris & additives are added to water and mixed to form slurry.
Plaster of Paris + Water
CaSO4⋅½H2O+3/2H2O → (Slow Mixing) → Slurry → CaSO₄·2H₂O + Heat ↑
Initially the surface of the pattern is sprayed with a thin film of compound like stearic acid in
order to prevent the plaster form sticking to the pattern.
• Immediately slurry poured around the pattern & allowed to settle for about 20 to 30
minutes.
• Crystals of plaster take place due to the hydration process. Then pattern is tapped &
stripped to obtain one half of the mould cavity.

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 • Similarly, another half of the mould is prepared in a same manner.
• Both the mould halves are baked in an oven from 120°C to 260°C to remove any
excess water & produce a strong mould.
• The hot moulds are quickly assembled together and made ready for pouring.
• After molten metal has solidified, plaster is broken from cast part and washed out.
Advantages
1. Process gives 100% dimensionally accurate and good surface finish on casting.
2. It can produce thin sections with complex shape.
3. Excellent replication on pattern details.
4. Minimizes residual stresses and distortion on casting.
Disadvantages
1. The process is suitable for only low melting point casting alloys (i.e., minimum
working temp: 1200°C).
2. Possibility of sudden release of H₂O causes blowholes in casting.
3. Plaster cannot be reused.
Investment Moulding Process
• It is a special form of sand moulding and used to produce multiple small castings at a
time.
• Sand mixture is a refractory slurry consisting of a mesh sand, a binder (ethyl silicate),
accelerator (HCl), and water.
Step 1: Die and Pattern Making
• The required shape of the pattern is prepared by injecting molten wax into metallic
die; after solidifying, the pattern is taken out from the die.

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 • Number of patterns are attached onto a common sprue with necessary gate to form
cluster.
Step 2: Pre-coating wax pattern
• The cluster is coated by dipping into a refractory slurry. The coated cluster is
sprinkled with silica sand and allowed to dry.
• The process of dipping and coating is repeated until a solid shell of desired thickness
(8–10 mm) is formed.
Step 3: De-waxing
• Now shell placed in inverted position and heated in oven about 1100°–1200°C. The
wax melts and drops down, leaving a mould cavity that will be filled later by the
molten metal.

Step 4: Melting and pouring

• The mould is placed/shell in a mould box/flask supported with a backing material and
liquid material is poured to obtain required casting.
• After casting, the shell is broken and the required casting is separated from sprue and
gating.
Advantages
1. All metals and alloys can be cast.
2. Good surface finish and dimensional tolerance.
3. Wax can be reused.
Disadvantages

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 1. Process is expensive.
2. It requires more processing steps.
3. Size and weight range of casting is limited.

CORES
A core is a pre-formed (shaped) mass of sand placed in the mould cavity to form hollow cavities
in castings.
• The core defines a volume or location in a mould cavity where the molten metal will not flow
into. Refer figure
• When molten metal is poured into the mould, it surrounds the core filling the cavity.
• After solidification, the casting is removed from the mould, with the core still at the center
of the solidified casting. The core when knocked out leaves a void or cavity in the casting.

Types of Core
[Link] can be classified based on the type of sand used:
a) Green sand core
b) Dry sand core
c) No-bake sand core
1) Green Sand Core
• It is composed of silica sand + clay binders + moisture and additives.
• It is simple core. Sand is in moisture state at the time of core making.
• Preparation of green sand core is similar to green sand mould.
2) Dry Sand Core
• It is composed of silica sand and binders.
• Binders may be sodium silicate + esters, Portland cement, linseed oil, mineral oil etc.

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 • Preparation of dry sand core is similar to dry sand mould (baked in oven to remove
moisture present in core).

3) No-Bake Sand Core

• It is composed of silica sand + binders + additives. Binders are synthetic resins.
• Phenol formaldehyde for bonding silica sand.
• Along with binder, a hardener and catalyst is added to having a chemical reaction
with binder due to which bonding takes place.

[Link] can be classified based on the position of the core:

a) Horizontal Core
• When core is placed horizontally in the mould, it is known as horizontal core.
• The core prints are provided at both ends of the core.
• Core prints help to support core and correctly position it in the mould cavity.

b) Vertical Core
• When core is placed vertically in the mould, it is known as vertical core.
• Core is placed in both cope and drag box.

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c) Balance Core
• It is one that balanced/supported from one end only.
• It is used when casting required to have one opening and other end is closed.

d) Drop Core
• It is used when the axis of the desired hole does not lie in parting line of the mould.
• Core is placed above or below the parting line of mould.

e) Ram-up Core
• When a core is to be placed in an unraisable position. It is difficult to place it after
ramming the mould.
• The core used in this case called ram-up core.
• It is one which is placed in the location along with the pattern before ramming the
mould.

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f) Kiss core
• In some cases, patterns cannot be provided with core prints, and hence, no seat will be
available as a rest for the core.
• In such cases, the core is held in position between the cope and the drag by the pressure
exerted from the cope on the drag. Such a core is called a kiss core and is shown in figure

Method of Core Making

Core making consists of following operations:
1. Core sand preparation
2. Core making
3. Core baking
4. Core finishing
5. Inspection
1) Core Sand Preparation
• It means mixing the core sand, binders, additives, and water homogeneously to obtain
uniform strength.
• It is done manually or by using mechanical mixture.

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2) Core Making

• Core making is done by making use of core box.

• Prepared core sand mixture is filled into the core box and then excess sand is struck
off.
• Core box is inverted over a core plate and rammed for compaction using wooden
mallet.
• Core box is withdrawn slowly and leaving core on the core plate.
3) Core Baking
• Core is baked in a oven in order to dry away the moisture present in it.
• It also hardens the binders there by imparting strength to core.
• Temperature 200°C - 400°C, time few minutes to hours.
4) Core Finishing
• In finishing operation fins, loose sand particles are removed from core surface.
• Coated with refractory material to improve refractoriness.
5) Inspection
• Core is checked for accurate dimensions and cleanliness.
Concept of Gating and Riser System
Gating System
Definition:
The gating system is a means of regulating molten metal into the mould cavity. Proper gating
ensures smooth and complete filling of mould cavity.
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 • Controls the flow of molten metal.
• It includes the entire channel through which molten metal enters into the mould
cavity.
Function/Importance of Gating System
1. Ensure molten metal fills mould cavity completely.
2. Avoid turbulence during pouring.
3. Avoid mould erosion & sand inclusion.
4. Minimise shrinkage & absorption of mould gases.
5. Minimise aspiration effect & oxidation of molten metal.

Elements of Gating System

Sprue
• It is vertical passage through which molten metal flows from pouring basin to runner
is called down spure.
• Sprue is tapered in cross section ,larger end connected to top and smaller end
connected to runner
Pouring Cup
• Enlarged portion of the sprue at its top into which molten metal is poured is called
pouring cup.
• It is conical in shape.
• The main function is to transfer the molten metal from ladle to the sprue with
minimum turbulence and splash.

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Runner
• It is a horizontal passage through which molten metal flows into the gate.
• Cross section of runner may be square/taper and its length is very larger compared to
width.
Runner Extension
• It is a small portion of the runner that extends beyond its last ingate and is used to trap
slag in the molten metal.
Ingate
• It is a short passage through which molten metal from the runner enters into mould
cavity.
• Gates are vary in number and depends upon size of the casting and solidification of
molten metal.
Types of Gatings / Gates
According to position of gates in the mould cavity:
1. Top gating
2. Bottom gating
3. Parting gating
4. Horn gating
1) Top Gate
• It is so called because molten metal from the top gate is directly fed into the mould
cavity.
• Top gate is advantageous because molten metal remains at top of the casting.
• Hence it provides directional solidification from casting towards the gate and it
serves as riser too.

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 • Top gate is disliked because it causes splashing of molten metal and creates lot of
turbulence in ladle as well as air and metal oxide entrapped in the mould cavity itself.

2) Bottom Gate
• It is so called because molten metal enters the mould cavity from bottom of the
mould.
• It minimises turbulence and erosion in the mould cavity but provides unfavourable
temperature gradient and does not support directional solidification.
• Since the metal at the bottom of mould remains hot and metal in the mould cavity
loses its heat.

3) Parting Gate
Parting gate is the most commonly used gate and is a compromise between top and bottom
gate.

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• The gate is provided at the parting line of the mould as shown in figure 2.13(a).
• In some cases, parting gates are provided with a choke that controls the rate of metal flow
and, skim bob that restricts slag, dirt or sand particles from entering into the mould cavity.
Refer figure 2.13 (b).
• The molten metal will be trapped in the upper part of the skim bob due to its curvature.

4) Horn Gate
• It is a type of bottom gate that resembles the horn.
• This type of gate, which is a part of the pattern with smooth curves and progressive
change in dimension, is designed to minimise mould erosion and oxidation of molten
metal.
• However, horn gate is prone to jet effect.
This is because the end of the horn gate leading to mould cavity has the smallest
section that can produce jet/fountain effect during entry of molten metal into mould
cavity.

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 • This can be minimised with the use of reverse horn gate as shown in figure.

Concept of Risering
Definition
• A Riser / Feeder head is a vertical passage that stores the liquid metal and supplies
same to the casting as it solidifies.
• As molten metal flows into the mould cavity through the gating system, it fills the
cavity then rises up through the riser till the top.
• At this moment pouring of molten metal is stopped. However, during solidification
the metal in the mould cavity gets shrinkage and hence there will be no additional
metal to be supplied into the cavity to compensate for shrinkage.
• Now, riser comes to use to accomplish the required task.
• Thus liquid metal in the riser flows into the cavity, thereby compensating shrinkage
effect.
• Riser continuously feeds liquid metal to the casting until it has completely solidified
Note:
If the molten metal does not appear in riser, then it signifies the molten metal is insufficient to
fill the mould cavity.

Principle of Riser
1) Mould without Riser
• Fig (a): It is clear that at the end of solidification shrinkage defect is formed due to
insufficient molten metal.

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2) Mould with Riser
• Fig (b): It is clear that by providing a riser, shrinkage defect is shifted from casting to
riser, hence casting is free from shrinkage defect.

Functions of Riser
a) Functions of riser is to supply the molten metal to solidifying casting and eliminate
shrinkage cavity.
b) It should establish necessary temperature gradient to promote the directional solidification.
c) It should solidify last than the casting.
d) It should permit minimum wastage of metal.
e) It should permit easy escape of air and gases.

Types of Riser
Basically riser can be classified as:
1. Open riser
2. Blind riser

1. Open Riser
• In this type, the top surface of the riser will be open to the atmosphere.
• An open riser is usually placed on the top of the casting as shown in figure 2.14 or at
the parting surface of the mould as shown in figure 2.13(a).
• Gravity and atmospheric pressure causes the liquid metal in the riser to flow into the
solidifying casting.
• But, when a certain thickness of the liquid metal on the top surface of the riser
solidifies, the atmospheric pressure will no longer be effective in feeding the molten
metal.
• However, open riser is commonly used in foundries..

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Advantages
a) It is easy to mould.
b) It is suitable for all types of casting.

2) Blind Riser
A blind riser as shown in figure 2.15 is one which is completely enclosed in the mould and not
exposed to the atmosphere.
• Due to this, the metal in the riser cools slower and thus stay liquid longer promoting
directional solidification.
• In blind risers, the liquid metal is fed to the solidifying casting under the force of gravity
alone.
• Hence, when shrinkage occurs in the blind riser, a partial vacuum is developed in the riser.
Due to this vacuum, the pressure due to gravity is also reduced.
• For efficient functioning of the blind riser, it is essential to make a provision to keep the riser
open to the atmosphere to enable atmospheric pressure to exert feeding pressure on the liquid
metal.
• This is achieved by inserting a core of permeable sand at the top of the blind riser as shown
in figure 2.15.

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Advantages
a) It is smaller than open riser.
b) It can be easily removed from casting.
c) It can be easily located anywhere around the casting.
Disadvantages
a) It is suitable only to steel casting.
b) It is difficult to mould.

Question Bank
Module-1
1. What is Pattern? Explain the following patterns used in sand casting:
i) Split pattern
ii) Match plate pattern
iii) Sweep pattern
2. Sketch and Explain Jolt type moulding machine.
3. Illustrate the different steps involved in shell moulding process.
4. Explain how to determine the amount of clay present in the foundry sand.
5. Define manufacturing process. Classify manufacturing process.
6. Define pattern and explain with a neat sketch any four pattern allowances.
7. With a neat sketch explain Jolt machine.
8. Discuss briefly the requirements of base sand in sand mould preparation.
9. List the commonly mixed ingredients in moulding sand. Illustrate the properties
contributed by each of them to the sand mould.
10. What is core? List the different types of cores.
11. Define Casting. List the steps involved in making a sand casting.
12. Briefly discuss the importance of binders and additives in sand moulding.
13. Enlist and explain in detail various allowances given to the pattern and reasons to
provide the allowances.
14. Differentiate between gravity and pressure die casting.
15. With a neat sketch, explain the working of the Jolt machine.
16. With a neat sketch, explain continuous casting process and mention its merits and
demerits.
17. Define a gating system. Explain with sketches types of gating system.
18. Explain with a neat sketch CO₂ moulding process.

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 19. Define pattern and explain with a neat sketch any four pattern allowances.
20. Explain in detail the procedure to determine grain fineness number of greens and in
foundry lab.
21. Explain the various processes available for manufacturing a product with an example
for each process.
22. Explain the classification of Metals used in Foundry. Name the factors that determine
the selection of a casting alloy.
23. Name the types of base sand used in moulding? What are requirements of base sand?
24. Explain concept of Gating? What are open and blind risers?
25. What is pattern? Classify the types of pattern, explain any one pattern used in casting
with sketch.
26. List the types of base sand and explain the requirement of base sand.
27. Explain the jolt machine and squeeze machine used in moulding process with sketch.
28. Discuss the CO₂ moulding process with neat sketch and list advantages and
disadvantages.
29. List the different types of patterns. Explain match plate pattern with a neat sketch.
30. Briefly discuss the importance of binders and additives in sand moulding.
31. With a neat sketch explain Jolt type of Molding machine.
32. With a neat sketch explain shell moulding process.
33. What is core? Explain the need of core.
34. Draw a neat sketch of gating system showing all the elements.
35. Define pattern and explain with neat sketches any four pattern allowances.
36. Explain with a neat sketch sand slinger.
37. Explain with a neat sketch investment moulding process.
38. Explain in detail the procedure to determine the permeability number of green sand in
foundry lab.

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