SCIENCE PROUD MUSOMA

COMPLEMENT TOPICS IN PHYSICS

&
COMPETENCE BASED APPROACH

FOR O’LEVEL STUDENTS

©Eng. Francis M. John 2021

SCIENCE PROUD MUSOMA PHYSICS FORM 3&4

Contents
REFLECTION OF LIGHT FROM CURVED MIRRORS .............................................................................................. 2
REFRACTION OF LIGHT ................................................................................................................................... 19
THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD ............................................................................................. 26
THERMAL EXPANSION .................................................................................................................................... 39
TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY .................................................................................................................... 56
MEASUREMENTS OF THERMAL ENERGY ......................................................................................................... 67
VAPOUR AND HUMIDITY ................................................................................................................................ 84
CURRENT ELECTRICITY .................................................................................................................................... 93
WAVES ......................................................................................................................................................... 127
ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION ........................................................................ 162

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REFLECTION OF LIGHT FROM CURVED MIRRORS

Introduction
When a parallel beam of light rays falls on a plane mirror, it is reflected as a parallel beam. So, a plane
mirror changes only the direction of incident light rays, it does not ‘converge’ or ‘diverge’ the parallel
rays of light (To bring the parallel rays of light ‘closer together’ is called ‘to converge’ the light rays
whereas ‘to spread out’ the parallel rays of light is called ‘to diverge’ the light rays).
A spherical mirror is that mirror whose reflecting surface is the part of a hollow sphere of glass. The
spherical mirrors are of two types:
1. Concave mirrors, and
2. Convex mirrors.
A concave mirror is that spherical mirror in which the reflection of light takes place at the concave
surface (or bent-in surface). In a concave mirror, the concave reflecting surface has been marked A. The
other surface B, having short, oblique lines is the nonreflecting surface. The inner shining surface of a
steel spoon is an example of concave mirror

Figure 1: Concave mirror

A convex mirror is that spherical mirror in which the reflection of light takes place at the convex surface
(or bulging-out surface). In a convex mirror, the convex reflecting surface has been marked B. The other
surface A having short, oblique lines is the non-reflecting surface. The backside of a shining steel spoon
is an example of convex mirror.

Figure 2: Convex mirror

Principle of curved mirrors

A spherical mirror (concave mirror or convex mirror) works on the reflection of light.

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Terminologies used in studying reflection of light in curved mirrors

1. Center of curvature (C)
Centre of curvature of a spherical mirror is the centre of the hollow sphere of glass of which the
mirror is a part. The centre of curvature of a mirror is represented by the letter C. In Figure (a),
C is the centre of curvature of the concave mirror and in Figure (b), C is the centre of curvature
of the convex mirror. The centre of curvature is not a part of the mirror. It lies outside the
reflecting surface of the mirror. It should be noted that the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
is in front of it but the centre of curvature of a convex mirror is behind it.

Figure 3: Common features described by curved mirrors

2. Radius of curvature (r)
The radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the radius of the hollow sphere of glass of which
the mirror is a part.
The distance CP from figure 3 is the radius of curvature of the mirrors. The radius of curvature
of a mirror is represented by the letter r.
3. Pole of the mirror (P)
Pole of the mirror is the centre of a spherical mirror. In other words, the middle point of a
spherical mirror is called its pole represented by letter P. The pole of a spherical mirror lies on
the surface of the mirror.
4. Principal axis
Principal axis is the unlimited and straight line passing through the centre of curvature and pole
of a spherical mirror. In figure 3, is the represented by the line XY. The principal axis is normal
(or perpendicular) to the mirror at its pole.
5. Aperture of the mirror
Aperture of the mirror is that portion of a mirror from which the reflection of light actually takes
place. The aperture of a spherical mirror is represented by the diameter of its reflecting surface.
In Figure 3, the distance MM is the aperture of the mirror. In fact, the aperture of a mirror
represents the size of the mirror.
6. Principal focus (F) of a concave mirror

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The principal focus of a concave mirror is a point on its principal axis to which all the light rays
which are parallel and close to the axis, converge after reflection from the concave mirror.
Since all the reflected light rays actually pass through the focus (F) of a concave mirror,
therefore, a concave mirror has a real focus. The focus of a concave mirror is in front of the
mirror. Since a concave mirror converges a parallel beam of light rays, it is also called a
converging mirror.

Figure 4: A concave mirror bring together a beam of light

7. Focal length (f) of the concave mirror
The focal length of a concave mirror is the distance between its pole and principal focus.
In Figure 4, P is the pole of the concave mirror and F is the principal focus, so the distance PF is
the focal length of this concave mirror. The focal length of a mirror is denoted by the letter f.
8. Principal focus (F) of a convex mirror
The principal focus of a convex mirror is a point on its principal axis from which a beam of light
rays, initially parallel to the axis, appears to diverge after being reflected from the convex mirror.
It should be noted that the reflected rays do not actually pass through the focus (F) of a convex
mirror, therefore, a convex mirror has virtual focus. Also, the focus of a convex mirror is situated
behind the mirror.

Figure 5: Convex mirror spread out the coming beam of light

9. Focal length (f) of the convex mirror

The focal length of a convex mirror is the distance from the pole P to its principal focus F. Thus,
in Figure, the distance PF is the focal length of the convex mirror.

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NOTE
A plane mirror neither converges parallel rays of light nor diverges them. The focal length of a plane
mirror can be considered to be ‘infinite’ or ‘infinity’ (which means very, very great or limitless).
Relationship between Radius of Curvature and Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror
For a spherical mirror having small aperture, the principal focus (F) lies exactly mid-way between the
pole (P) and centre of curvature (C). So, the focal length of a spherical mirror (a concave mirror or a
convex mirror) is equal to half of its radius of curvature.
If f is the focal length of a spherical mirror and r is its radius of curvature, then;
𝒓
𝒇=
𝟐
RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY CONCAVE MIRRORS
An image is the likeness of an object formed under certain conditions.
When an object is placed in front of a concave mirror, an image is formed. The image is formed at that
point where at least two reflected rays intersect (or appear to intersect).
1. A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a concave mirror, passes through its focus
after reflection from the mirror.

Figure 6: Ray diagram for rule 1

2. A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror is reflected back along
the same path (because it strikes the mirror normally or perpendicularly). The arrow pointing
from left to right indicates the direction of incident ray and the arrow pointing from right to left
indicates the direction of reflected ray.

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Figure 7: Ray diagram for rule 2

3. A ray of light passing through the focus of a concave mirror becomes parallel to the principal
axis after reflection.

Figure 8: Ray diagram for rule 3

4. A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a concave mirror is reflected back making the same
angle with the principal axis. Here a ray of light AP is incident at the pole P of the concave mirror
making an angle of incidence i with the principal axis. It gets reflected along the direction PH
such that the angle of reflection (r) is equal to the angle of incidence (i).

Figure 9: Ray diagram for rule 4

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FORMATION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF IMAGES BY A CONCAVE MIRROR

The type of image formed by a concave mirror depends on the position of object in front of the mirror.
We can place the object at different positions (or different distances) from a concave mirror to get
different types of images. For example, we can place the object;
i. Between the pole (P) and focus (F)
ii. At the focus (F)
iii. Between focus (F) and centre of curvature (C)
iv. At the centre of curvature (C)
v. Beyond the centre of curvature (C), and
vi. At far-off distance called infinity.

Figure 10: Different points where an object can be located

1. Image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed between pole and focus of the
mirror (Object between P and F)
When an object is placed between the pole (P) and focus (F) of a concave mirror, the image
formed is:
i. Behind the mirror
ii. Virtual and erect, and
iii. Larger than the object (or magnified).

Figure 11: Object between P and F

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2. When the object is placed at the focus of a concave mirror (Object at F)

When an object is placed at the focus of a concave mirror, the image formed is:
i. At infinity
ii. Real and inverted, and
iii. Highly magnified (or highly enlarged).

Figure 12: Object at F

When a lighted bulb is placed at the focus of a concave mirror reflector, the diverging light rays of
the bulb are collected by the concave reflector and then reflected to produce a strong, parallel-sided
beam of light. This explains the use of concave reflectors in torches, car head-lights, and search
lights to produce a strong beam of light (which travels a considerable distance in the darkness of
night).

Figure 13: Concave reflector in a torch

3. When the object is placed between focus and centre of curvature (Object between F and C).
When an object is placed between the focus (F) and centre of curvature (C) of a concave mirror,
the image formed is:
i. Beyond the centre of curvature
ii. Real and inverted, and
iii. Larger than the object (or magnified).

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Figure 14: Object between C and F

4. When the object is placed at the centre of curvature of a concave mirror (Object at C).
When an object is placed at the centre of curvature (C) of a concave mirror, the image formed
is:
i. At the centre of curvature (C)
ii. Real and inverted, and
iii. Same size as the object.

Figure 15: Object at C

5. When the object is beyond the centre of curvature of the concave mirror (Object beyond C).
When an object is placed beyond the centre of curvature (C) of a concave mirror, the image
formed is:
i. Between the focus and centre of curvature
ii. Real and inverted, and
iii. Smaller than the object (or diminished).

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Figure 16: Object beyond C

6. When the Object is at Infinity
When an object is at infinity from a concave mirror, the image formed is:
i. At the focus (F)
ii. Real and inverted, and
iii. Much smaller than the object (or highly diminished).

Figure 17: Object at infinity

Uses of concave mirrors

1. Concave mirrors are used as shaving mirrors to see a large image of the face.
This is because when the face is held within the focus of a concave mirror, then an enlarged
image of the face is seen in the concave mirror. This helps in making a smooth shave. For the
same reason, concave mirrors are used as make-up mirrors.
2. Concave mirrors are used by dentists to see the large images of the teeth of patients.
This is because when a tooth is within the focus of a concave mirror, then an enlarged image of
the tooth is seen in the concave mirror. Due to this, it becomes easier to locate the defect in the
tooth. The concave mirrors used by dentists are very small in size. They are fitted in a frame with
a long handle.

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3. Concave mirrors are used as reflectors in torches, vehicle head-lights and search lights to
get powerful beams of light.
This is because when a lighted bulb is placed at the focus of a concave reflector, then the concave
reflector produces a powerful beam of parallel light rays. This helps us see things up to a
considerable distance in the darkness of night. Concave reflectors are also used in room heaters.
The concave reflectors of room heaters direct heat rays into the whole room.
4. Concave mirrors are used as doctor’s head-mirrors to focus light coming from a lamp on
to the body parts of a patient (such as eye, ear, nose, throat, etc.) to be examined by the
doctor.
5. Concave dishes are used in TV dish antennas to receive TV signals from the distant
communications satellites.
The concave dish collects a lot of TV signals and focusses them on to an antenna (or aerial) fixed
at its focus, so as to produce strong signals to run the television.
6. Large concave mirrors are used in the field of solar energy to focus sun’s rays for heating
solar furnaces.
This can be explained as follows: The solar furnace is placed at the focus of a large concave
reflector. The concave reflector focuses the sun’s heat rays on the furnace due to which the solar
furnace gets very hot. Even steel can be melted in this solar furnace.
SIGN CONVENTION FOR SPHERICAL MIRRORS
These days New Cartesian Sign Convention is used for measuring the various distances in the ray
diagrams of spherical mirrors (concave mirrors and convex mirrors). According to the New Cartesian
Sign Convention
a. All the distances are measured from pole of the mirror as origin.
b. Distances measured in the same direction as that of incident light are taken as positive.
c. Distances measured against the direction of incident light are taken as negative.
d. Distances measured upward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as positive.
e. Distances measured downward and perpendicular to the principal axis are taken as negative.

Figure 18: New Cartesian sign conversion

Important conclusions from New Cartesian sign conversion

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1. Since an object is always placed to the left side of a mirror, therefore, the object distance (u) is
always negative.
2. If an image is formed behind a concave mirror (to the right side), the image distance (v) is
positive but if the image is formed in front of the mirror (on the left side), then the image distance
will be negative.
3. In a convex mirror, the image is always formed on the right hand side (behind the mirror), so the
image distance (v) for a convex mirror will be always positive.
4. The focus of concave mirror is in front of the mirror on the left side, so the focal length of a
concave mirror is considered negative (and written with a minus sign, say, –10 cm). On the other
hand, the focus of a convex mirror is behind the mirror on the right side, so the focal length of a
convex mirror is positive
5. The height of an object is always considered positive.
6. If an image is formed above the principal axis, its height is taken as positive and if an image is
formed below the principal axis, then its height is taken as negative. Now, we know that all the
virtual images are erect and are formed above the principal axis, so the height of all the virtual
and erect images is considered positive. On the other hand, all the real images are inverted and
they are formed below the principal axis, so the height of all the real and inverted images is taken
as negative.
MIRROR FORMULA
Object distance (u) is the distance of an object from the pole of a mirror.
Image distance (v) is the distance of image from the pole of a mirror.
Focal length (f) is the distance of focus from the pole of a mirror.
There is a relationship between the object distance, image distance and focal length of a spherical mirror
(concave mirror or convex mirror). This relationship is given by the mirror formula as;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= +
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗
Proof!
Consider the ray diagram below. From the figure, considering three rays, it shows the image A’B’ of
the object AB formed by a concave mirror.
Consider the two right-angled triangles A’B’F and MPF be similar;

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Figure 19: Proof of mirror formula

B′ A′ B′ F B′ A′ B′ F
= or = (PM = AB) … … … … 𝑖
PM PF BA FP
Since ∠𝐴𝑃𝐵 = ∠𝐴′ 𝑃𝐵′ , the right angled triangles A’B’P and ABP are also similar. Therefore,
B′ A′ B′ P
= … … … … … … 𝑖𝑖
BA BP
Comparing equations i and ii

B′ F B′ P − FP B′ P
= = … … … … … 𝑖𝑖𝑖
FP FP BP
Applying sign conversion and substitute the distances
B’P= -v
FP= -f
BP = -u
−v + f −v
=
−f −u
v−f v
=
f u
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
On rearranging you get, = + proved!!
𝒇 𝒖 𝒗

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The mirror formula has three values in it. If any two values are known, the third value can be calculated.
The known values should be put in this formula with their proper signs but no sign should be given to
the unknown value to be calculated. Its proper sign will come by itself by calculations. The proper signs
of the known values of u, v or f can be found by using New Cartesian Sign Convention for spherical
mirrors. Another point to be noted is that the mirror formula can be applied to both type of spherical
mirrors.
Linear magnification produced by mirrors
The size of image formed by a spherical mirror depends on the position of the object from the mirror.
The image formed by a spherical mirror can be
1. Bigger than the object,
2. Equal to the object or
3. Smaller than the object.
4. The size of the image relative to the object is given by the linear magnification.
Linear magnification is the ratio between the heights of image formed to the height of an object. It is
also given as the ratio of the image distance to the object distance as measured from the mirror.
It is represented by the letter, m
𝒗 𝒉𝒊
𝒎= =
𝒖 𝒉𝒐
Whereby;
m is magnification
v is image distance
u is object distance
hi is image height
ho is object height
RULES FOR OBTAINING IMAGES FORMED BY CONVEX MIRRORS
1. A ray of light which is parallel to the principal axis of a convex mirror, appears to be coming
from its focus after reflection from the mirror.

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Figure 20: Rule 1 for convex mirror

2. A ray of light going towards the centre of curvature of a convex mirror is reflected back along
the same path.

Figure 21: Rule 2 for convex mirror

3. A ray of light going towards the focus of a convex mirror becomes parallel to the principal axis
after reflection.

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Figure 22: Rule 3 for convex mirror

4. A ray of light which is incident at the pole of a convex mirror is reflected back making the same
angle with the principal axis.

Figure 23: Rule 4 for convex mirror

It should be noted that a convex mirror has its focus and centre of curvature behind it. Since no real rays
of light can go behind the convex mirror, all the rays shown behind the convex mirror are virtual (or
unreal) and hence they have been represented by dotted lines. In fact, no actual rays can pass through
the focus and centre of curvature of a convex mirror.

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FORMATION OF IMAGE BY A CONVEX MIRROR

Whatever be the position of object in front of a convex mirror, the image formed by a convex mirror is
always behind the mirror, it is virtual, erect and smaller than the object (or diminished).

Figure 24: Image formed by a convex mirror

Uses of Convex Mirrors

1. Convex mirrors are used as rear-view mirrors in vehicles (like cars, trucks and buses) to see the
traffic at the rear side (or back side)

Figure 25: Convex mirror used as driving mirror

2. Big convex mirrors are used as ‘shop security mirrors

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Figure 26: Convex mirror used for security in shops

How to Distinguish Between a Plane Mirror, a Concave Mirror and a Convex Mirror without
Touching Them
We can distinguish between these mirrors just by looking into them, that is, by bringing our face close
to each mirror, turn by turn. All of them will produce an image of our face but of different types. A plane
mirror will produce an image of the same size as our face and we will look our normal self. A concave
mirror will produce a magnified image and our face will look much bigger (like that of a giant!). A
convex mirror will produce a diminished image and our face will look much smaller (like that of a small
child!).

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REFRACTION OF LIGHT
A medium is a transparent substance in which light travels. Air, glass, certain plastics, water, kerosene,
alcohol, etc., are all examples of medium. Different media are said to have different optical densities.
Types of media
1. Optically denser medium
2. Optically rarer medium
Optically denser medium is the type of medium in which the speed of light is lower compared to
another medium
Optically rarer medium is the type of medium in which the speed of light is higher compared to another
medium.
Introduction to refraction
When light travels in homogeneous medium, it follows a straight line path but as light passes obliquely
from one transparent medium to another, it deviates from its original path. This bending of light (change
in the path of light) is called refraction of light.
Refraction of light is the phenomenon of change in the path of light as it passes obliquely from one
transparent medium to another
The deviation of light occur because light travel at different speeds in different media.
Terms used in studying refraction of light
1. Incident ray is the ray of light directed from a source towards the point of incidence
2. Refracted ray is a ray of light which move away from the point of incidence
3. Point of incidence is the point at the boundary of two different medium where refraction occur
4. Normal line is an imaginary line passing through the point of incidence perpendicular to the two
given different medium
5. Ange of incidence (i) is the angle formed between the incidence ray and the normal towards the
point of incidence
6. Angle of refraction (r) is the angle formed between the refracted ray and the normal away from
the point of incidence

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Figure 27: Phenomenon of refraction

It has been found that:
1. When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, it bends towards the normal
(at the point of incidence).
2. When a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, it bends away from the normal
(at the point of incidence).
3. When light falls on the glass slab normally or perpendicularly, no refraction occur.
Case 1
A ray of light AO going from air (a rarer medium) into glass (which is a denser medium). In this case,
the incident ray AO gets refracted at point O and bends towards the normal ON and goes in the direction
OB inside the glass slab. Thus, when a ray of light goes from air into glass, it bends towards the normal
(at the point of incidence). In this case, the angle of refraction (r) is smaller than the angle of incidence
(i).
Water is also an optically denser medium than air, so when a ray of light goes from air into water, it
bends towards the normal. Thus, the refraction of light on going from air to water is similar to the
refraction of light from air to glass.

Figure 28: Light moving from rarer to denser medium

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Case 2
A ray of light AO going from glass (a denser medium) into air (which is a rarer medium). In this case,
the incident ray AO gets refracted at point O and bends away from the normal ON in the direction OB.
Thus, when a ray of light goes from glass into air, it bends away from the normal (at the point of
incidence).
In this case the angle of refraction (r) is greater than the angle of incidence (i). Please note that water is
also optically denser than air, so when a beam of light travelling in water enters into air, it bends away
from the normal.
Please note that a parallel-sided glass slab is also called rectangular glass block.

Figure 29: Light travelling from denser to rarer medium

Generally;
When a ray of light goes from a rarer medium to a denser medium, its speed decreases or it slows down.
On the other hand, when a ray of light goes from a denser medium to a rarer medium, then its speed
increases or it speeds up. So, we can now say that a ray of light travelling from a rarer medium to a
denser medium slows down and bends towards the normal but when a ray of light travels from a denser
medium to a rarer medium, it speeds up and bends away from the normal.
Case 3
If the incident ray falls normally (or perpendicularly) to the surface of a glass slab, then there is no
bending of the ray of light, and it goes straight.

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Figure 30: When light falls normally to the medium

Effects of refraction of light

The refraction of light produces many effects which can be easily observed in our day to day life. We
will now describe some of the important effects of the refraction of light. It is due to the refraction of
light that:
a. A stick (or pencil) held obliquely and partly immersed in water appears to be bent at the
water surface.
When a straight stick is partly immersed in water and held obliquely to the surface, it appears to
be bent at the point where it enters water. This apparent bending of the stick is due to the
refraction of light when it passes from water into air. When a pencil is partly immersed in water
and held obliquely to the surface, the pencil appears to bend at the water surface (when viewed
from the side). This apparent bending of the pencil is due to the refraction of light when it passes
from water into air.

Figure 31: Bending of a stick when view from water

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b. An object placed under water appears to be raised.

When the coin is under water then due to refraction of light, a virtual image of the coin is formed
nearer to the water surface. And since the virtual image of coin which we see, is nearer to the
water surface, so the coin appears to rise on adding water in the basin. Thus, it is due to the
refraction of light that a coin placed at the bottom of a container appears to rise as the container
is slowly filled with water.

Figure 32: Raising of an object (coin) when immersed in water

c. A pool of water appears to be less deep than it actually is.

When we look into a pool of water, we do not see the actual bottom of the pool, we see a virtual
image of the bottom of the pool which is formed by the refraction of light coming from the pool
water into the air. And since the image of the bottom of the pool is formed nearer to us, we feel
that the pool is less deep. From this discussion we conclude that the bottom of a pool of water
appears raised due to refraction of light. And the pool of water appears to be less deep than it
actually is. We should be careful while entering a swimming pool because the water in it will be
deeper than it appears to be.

Figure 33: Raising of a bottom of the water pool due to refraction

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d. When a thick glass slab is placed over some printed matter, the letters appear raised when viewed
from the top.
e. A lemon kept in water in a glass tumbler appears to be bigger than its actual size, when viewed
from the sides.
Laws of refraction of light
The phenomenon of refraction of light takes place according to the following three laws
1. The incidence ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the refracted ray all lie on the same
plane
2. When light goes from one medium to another, the frequency of light does not change. However,
the velocity and wave length of light changes
3. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction is constant for the
two media (also called Snell’s law)
i.e.
sin 𝑖
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1μ2
sin 𝑟
The value of the constant sin i/ sin r for a ray of light passing from air into a particular medium is called
the refractive index of that medium.
Please note that since the refractive index is a ratio of two similar quantities (the sines of angles), it has
no units. It is a pure number. The refractive index of a substance does not depend on the angle of
incidence.
The refractive index of a medium gives an indication of the light-bending ability of that medium. For
example, the refractive index of glass is greater than the refractive index of water, therefore, the light
rays bend more on passing from air into glass than from air into water.
The refractive index depends on the nature of the material of the medium and on the wavelength (or
colour) of the light used. The value of refractive index of a substance is a characteristic property of that
substance which can be used to identify it.
The following table shows the value of refractive indices for different medium

Medium Refractive index (µ) Medium Refractive index (µ)

1. Air 1.0003 8. Benzene 1.50
2. Ice 1.31 9. Crown glass 1.52
3. Water 1.33 10. Carbon disulphide 1.63
4. Alcohol 1.36 11. Dense flit glass 1.65
5. Sulphiric acid 1.43 12. Ruby 1.71
6. Kerosene 1.44 13. Sapphire 1.77
7. Turpentine 1.47 14. Diamond 2.42

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Types of refractive indices

1. Relative refractive index
2. Absolute refractive index
Relative refractive index is the refractive index measured when light is going from one medium (other
than vacuum or air) to another medium.
Absolute refractive index is the refractive index measured when light is going from vacuum/air to
another medium.

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THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

Introduction
The optical instruments such as cameras, microscopes, telescopes, film projectors and spectacles, etc.,
work on the refraction of light through various types of artificial lenses (man-made lenses) made of
transparent glass.
The human eye works on the refraction of light through a natural convex lens made of transparent
living material and enables us to see things around us. Our eye is the most important optical instrument
gifted to us by God. Without eye, all other optical instruments would have no value at all.
THE HUMAN EYE
The main parts of the human eye are: Cornea, Iris, Pupil, Ciliary muscles, Eye lens, Retina and Optic
nerve (see Figure 1). The eye-ball is approximately spherical in shape having a diameter of about 2.5
cm. We will now describe the construction and working of the eye.
Construction of the Eye
The front part of the eye is called cornea. It is made of a transparent substance and it is bulging outwards.
The outer surface of cornea is convex in shape. The light coming from objects enters the eye through
cornea. Just behind the cornea is the iris (or coloured diaphragm). Iris is a flat, coloured, ring-shaped
membrane behind the cornea of the eye. There is a hole in the middle of the iris which is called pupil of
the eye. Thus, pupil is a hole in the middle of the iris. The pupil appears black because no light is
reflected from it.

Figure 34: The human eye

The eye-lens is a convex lens made of a transparent, soft and flexible material like a jelly made of
proteins. Being flexible, the eye-lens can change its shape (it can become thin or thick) to focus light on
to the retina. The eye-lens is held in position by suspensory ligaments. One end of suspensory ligaments
is attached to the eye-lens and their other end is attached to ciliary muscles.

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Ciliary muscles change the thickness of eye-lens while focusing. The focal length of eye-lens can be
changed by changing its shape by the action of ciliary muscles. In this respect an eye differs from a
camera. The focal length of the convex lens used in a camera is fixed and cannot be changed but the
focal length of the convex lens present inside the eye can be changed by the action of ciliary muscles.
The retina is a screen on which the image is formed in the eye. The retina of an eye is just like the film
in a camera. The retina is a delicate membrane having a large number of light sensitive cells called ‘rods’
and ‘cones’ which respond to the ‘intensity of light’ and ‘colour of objects’ respectively, by generating
electrical signals.
At the junction of optic nerve and retina in the eye, there are no light sensitive cells (no rods or cones)
as a result no vision is possible at that spot. This is called blind spot. Thus, blind spot is a small area of
the retina insensitive to light where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Working of the Eye
The light rays coming from the object kept in front of us enter through the cornea of the eye, pass through
the pupil of the eye and fall on the eye-lens. The eye-lens is a convex lens, so it converges the light rays
and produces a real and inverted image of the object on the retina. The image formed on the retina is
conveyed to the brain by the optic nerve and gives rise to the sensation of vision.
The retina has a large number of light-sensitive cells. When the image falls on the retina then these light-
sensitive cells get activated and generate electrical signals. The retina sends these electrical signals to
the brain through the optic nerve and gives rise to the sensation of vision.
Although the image formed on the retina is inverted, our mind interprets the image as that of an erect
object. As far as physics is concerned, the eye consists of a convex lens (called eye-lens) and a screen
(called retina). The eye-lens forms a real image of the objects on the retina of the eye and we are able to
see the objects. The human eye is like a camera. In the eye, a convex lens (called eye-lens) forms a real
and inverted image of an object on the light-sensitive screen called retina whereas in a camera, the
convex lens (called camera-lens) forms a real and inverted image of an object on the light sensitive
photographic film.
The Function of Iris and Pupil
The iris controls the amount of light entering the eyes. The iris automatically adjusts the size of the pupil
according to the intensity of light received by the eye. If the amount of light received by the eye is large
(as during the day time), then the iris contracts the pupil (makes the pupil small) and reduces the amount
of light entering the eye on the other hand, if the amount of light received by the eye is small (as in a
dark room or during night), the iris expands the pupil (makes the pupil large) so that more light may
enter the eyes.
Thus, the iris regulates (or controls) the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of the
pupil. The iris makes the pupil ‘expand’ or ‘contract’ according to the intensity of light around the eye.
If the intensity of the outside light is low, then the pupil expands to allow more light to enter the eye.

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On the other hand, if outside intensity of light is high, then the pupil contracts so that less light enters
the eye.

Figure 35: Change of pupil size of the human eye

NOTE
The adjustment of the size of the pupil takes some time. For example, when we go from a bright light to
a darkened cinema hall, at first we cannot see our surroundings clearly. After a short time our vision
improves, and we can see the persons sitting around us. This is due to the fact that in bright sunlight the
pupil of our eye is small. So, when we enter the darkened cinema hall, very little light enters our eye
and we cannot see properly. After a short time, the pupil of our eye expands and becomes large.

Rods and Cones

Rods are the rod-shaped cells present in the retina of an eye which are sensitive to dim light. Rods are
the most important for vision in dim light (as during the night). We can see things to some extent in a
dark room or in the darkness of night due to the presence of rod cells in the retina of our eyes.
Nocturnal animals (animals which sleep during the day and come out at night) like the owl have a large
number of rod cells in their retina which help them see properly during the night when there is not much
light. In fact, our night vision is relatively poor as compared to the night vision of an owl due to the
presence of relatively smaller number of rod cells in the retinas of our eyes. Rod cells of the retina,
however, do not provide information about the colour of the object.

Figure 36: An owl-nocturnal animal

Cones are the cone-shaped cells present in the retina of an eye which are sensitive to bright light (or
normal light). The cone cells of our retina also respond to colours. In other words, cone cells cause the
sensation of colour of objects in our eyes. The cone-shaped cells of the retina make us see colours and
also make us distinguish between various colours. Cone cells of the retina function only in bright light.

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The cones do not function in dim light. This is why when it is getting dark at night, it becomes impossible
to see colours of cars on the road.
Distant objects and nearby objects from the point of view of light rays received from our eyes
i. The rays of light coming from a distant object (at infinity) are parallel to one another when they
reach the eye. Actually, the rays of light given out by the distant object are diverging in the
beginning but they become parallel when they reach the eye after travelling a large distance.
The parallel rays of light coming from a distant object need a convex eye-lens of low converging
power to converge them or focus them to form an image on the retina of the eye. The convex
eye-lens of low converging power is the one having a large focal length and it is quite thin.

Figure 37: Distant object rays coming to the human eye

ii. The rays of light coming from a nearby object are diverging (or spreading out) when they reach
the eye. The diverging rays coming from a nearby object need a convex eye-lens of high
converging power to converge them or focus them to form an image on the retina of the eye.
The convex eye-lens of high converging power is the one having a short focal length and it is
quite thick. Keeping these points in mind, it will now be easy for us to understand the power of
accommodation of the eye.

Figure 38: Nearly object rays coming to the human eye

Accommodation
When the eye is looking at a distant object, the eye is said to be unaccommodated because it is the
relaxed state of the eye but when the eye-lens becomes more convex to focus the nearby objects, the eye
is said to be ‘accommodated’.
Accommodation is the ability of an eye to focus the distant objects as well as the nearby objects on the
retina by changing the focal length (or converging power) of its lens. An eye can focus the images of
the distant objects as well as the nearby objects on its retina by changing the focal length (or converging

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power) of its lens. The focal length of the eye-lens is changed by the action of ciliary muscles. The
ciliary muscles can change the thickness of the soft and flexible eye-lens and hence its focal length
which, in turn, changes the converging power of the eye-lens

Figure 39: An eye focusing at a distant object

Figure 40: An eye focusing at a nearly object

The maximum “accommodation” of a normal eye is reached when the object is at a distance of about 25
cm from the eye. After this the ciliary muscles cannot make the eye-lens thicker (or more convex). So,
an object placed at a distance of less than 25 cm cannot be seen clearly by a normal eye because all the
power of accommodation of the eye has already been exhausted. Thus, a normal eye has a power of
accommodation which enables objects as far as infinity and as close as 25 cm to be focused on the retina.
The power of accommodation of the eye for a person having normal vision (normal eyesight) is about 4
diopters.

Range of Vision of a Normal Human Eye

“Far point” of the eye is the farthest point from the eye at which an object can be seen clearly. The far
point of a normal human eye is at infinity. This means that the far point of a normal human eye is at a
very large distance

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“Near point” of the human eye is the nearest point up to which the eye can see an object clearly without
any strain. Or is the minimum distance at which an object must be placed so that a normal eye may see
it clearly without any strain. It is also known as the least distance of distinct vision.
The near point of a normal human eye is at a distance of 25 centimeters from the eye. The least distance
of distinct vision for a normal human eye is about 25 centimetres. For example, to read a book clearly
and comfortably without putting a strain on the eyes, it must be held at a distance of 25 centimetres from
our eyes. If we try to read a book by holding it very close to our eyes, we will feel a lot of strain on the
eyes and the image of printed matter of the book will also look blurred.
Exercise 1: Short answers type questions
1. What kind of lens is present in the human eye?
2. Name two parts of the eye which refract light rays (or bend light rays).
3. Name the part of the eye :
a. Which controls the amount of light entering the eye.
b. On which the image is formed.
c. Which changes the focal length of eye-lens.
4. What is the name of
a. The curved, transparent front surface of the eye?
b. The light-sensitive layer in the eye?
5. Where is the image formed in a human eye?
6. What is the function of the lens in the human eye?
7. What job does the pupil of the eye do?
8. How does the eye adjust to take account of an increase in brightness?
9. Name that part of the eye which is equivalent to the photographic film in a camera.
10. Name the part of the retina which is insensitive to light.
11. Which part of the eye contains cells which are sensitive to light?
12. Name two types of cells in the retina of an eye which respond to light.
DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION
Sometimes the eye of a person cannot focus the image of an object on the retina properly. In such cases
the vision of a person becomes blurred and he cannot see either the distant objects or nearby objects (or
both) clearly and comfortably. The person is said to have a defect of vision. The defects of vision are
also known as defects of eye.
There are three common defects of vision (or defects of eye). These are:
1. Myopia (Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness)
2. Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness or Far-sightedness)
3. 3. Presbyopia.
They are caused by the incorrect refraction of light rays by the eye-lens. These defects of vision can be
corrected by using suitable spherical lenses (convex lenses or concave lenses).

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Myopia (Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness)

Myopia (or short-sightedness) is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the distant objects
clearly (though he can see the nearby objects clearly). For example, a child having the defect called
myopia (or short-sightedness) and sitting on the back benches in the class cannot read the writing on
blackboard clearly though he can read his book comfortably. The far point of an eye suffering from
myopia is less than infinity. Such a person can see clearly only up to a distance of few metres (or even
less).
The defect of eye called myopia (or short-sightedness) is caused:
i. Due to high converging power of eye-lens (because of its short focal length), or
ii. Due to eye-ball being too long.
An eye suffering from myopia, the ciliary muscles attached to the eye-lens do not relax sufficiently to
make the eye-lens thinner to reduce its converging power. So, due to the greater converging power of
the eye-lens in myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of the retina and hence the
eye cannot see it clearly.
In the eye suffering from myopia, the eye-ball is too long due to which the retina is at a larger distance
from the eye-lens. This condition also results in the formation of the image of a distant object in front
of the retina (even though the eye-lens may have correct converging power).
The parallel rays of light coming from the distant object O (at infinity) are converged to form an image
I in front of the retina due to which the eye cannot see the distant object clearly.

Figure 41: In Myopic eye, the image is formed in front of the retina and not on the retina

Figure 42: In Myopic eye, the far point F is less than infinity

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Figure 43: Correction of Myopia

Numerical example: The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm in front of the eye. What is the nature
and power of the lens required to correct the defect?
Solution
The defect called myopia is corrected by using a concave lens. So, the person requires concave lens
spectacles. We will now calculate the focal length of the concave lens required in this case. The far point
of the myopic person is 80 cm. This means that this person can see the distant object (kept at infinity)
clearly if the image of this distant object is formed at his far point (which is 80 cm)

Object distance, u =  (Infinity)

Image distance, v = – 80 cm (Far point, in front of lens)
Focal length, f =? (To be calculated)
Using the lens formula
1 1 1
= +
𝑓 𝑢 𝑣
1 −1 1
= −
𝑓 ∞ 80
1 1
=0−
𝑓 80
𝑓 = −80 𝑐𝑚
Thus, the focal length of the required concave lens is 80 cm. Please note that the focal length of, – 80
cm is equal to 80 m/100 or – 0.8 m. Now,
1
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑃 =
𝑓 (𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)

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𝟏
𝐏= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 𝐃
−𝟎. 𝟖
The power of concave lens required is, –1.25 diopters.

Hypermetropia (Long-sightedness or Far-sightedness)

Hypermetropia (or long-sightedness) is that defect of vision due to which a person cannot see the nearby
objects clearly (though he can see the distant objects clearly). For example, a person having the defect
Hypermetropia cannot read a book clearly and comfortably though he can read the number of a distant
bus clearly.
The near-point of a hypermetropic eye is more than 25 centimetres away. Such a person has to hold the
reading material (like a book or newspaper) at an arm’s length, much beyond 25 cm from the eye for
comfortable reading. Please note that hypermetropia is just the opposite of myopia.
The defect of eye called hypermetropia (or long-sightedness) is caused
i. Due to low converging power of eye-lens (because of its large focal length), or
ii. Due to eye-ball being too short.
Due to the low converging power of eye-lens in an eye suffering from hypermetropia, the image of
nearby object is formed behind the retina and hence the eye cannot see it clearly. An eye suffering from
hypermetropia, the eye-ball is too short due to which the retina is at a smaller distance from the eye-
lens. This condition also results in the formation of the image of a nearby object behind the retina (even
though the eye-lens may have correct converging power).

Figure 44: In hypermetropic eye, the image of a nearly object is lying at the normal point, N (at 25 cm)
is formed behind the retina

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Figure 45: The near point N’, of hypermetropic eye is farther away from the normal near point N

Figure 46: Correction of Hypermetropia

Numerical example
The near point of a hypermetropic eye is 1 m. What is the nature and power of the lens required to
correct this defect? (Assume that the near point of the normal eye is 25 cm).
Solution
The eye defect called hypermetropia is corrected by using a convex lens. So, the person requires convex
lens spectacles. We will first calculate the focal length of the convex lens required in this case. This
hypermetropic eye can see the nearby object kept at 25 cm (at near point of normal eye) clearly if the
image of this object is formed at its own near point which is 1 metre here.
Object distance, u = –25 cm (Normal near point)
Image distance, v = –1 m = –100 cm And
Focal length, f =? (To be calculated)
From lens formula
1 1 1
= −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
1 1 1
=− +
𝑓 100 25

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100
𝑓= = 33.3 𝐷
3
𝟏
𝐏=
𝐟(𝐦𝐞𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐬)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷=+ =𝟑𝑫
𝟑𝟑
The power of convex lens required is +3.0 diopters.
Presbyopia
Presbyopia is that defect of vision due to which an old person cannot see the nearby objects clearly due
to loss of power of accommodation of the eye. For example, an old person having presbyopia cannot
read a book or newspaper comfortably and clearly without spectacles.
Presbyopia occurs in old age due to the gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and diminishing
flexibility of the eye-lens. The near-point of the old person having presbyopia gradually recedes and
becomes much more than 25 centimetres away. Actually, presbyopia is a special kind of hypermetropia.
Presbyopia is the hypermetropia (or long-sightedness) caused by the loss of power of accommodation
of the eye due to old age. Presbyopia defect is corrected in the same way as hypermetropia by using
spectacles having convex lenses.

Figure 47: Spectacles having bi-focal lenses

Cataract
Cataract is the medical condition in which the lens of the eye of a person becomes progressively cloudy
resulting in blurred vision.
Cataract develops when the eye-lens of a person becomes cloudy (or even opaque) due to the formation
of a membrane over it. Cataract decreases the vision of the eye gradually. It can even lead to total loss
of vision of the eye. The vision of the person can be restored after getting surgery done on the eye having
cataract. The opaque lens is removed from the eye of the person by surgical operation and a new artificial
lens is inserted in its place. Please note that the eye-defect called ‘cataract’ cannot be corrected by any
type of spectacle lenses.

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WHY DO WE HAVE TWO EYES FOR VISION AND NOT JUST ONE
1. Having two eyes gives a wider field of view.
A human being has a horizontal field of view of about 150° with one eye open but with two eyes
open, the field of view becomes 180°. Thus, having two eyes gives a wider field of view. This means
that with two eyes open, we can see a much larger area in front of us (than can be seen with only
one eye).

Figure 48: Human have got two eyes front while rabbit has two eyes side by side

The human beings have two eyes at the front of their head, so their field of view is limited to about
180°. Some animals, however, have their two eyes located on the opposite sides of their head. Those
animals who have two eyes on the opposite sides of their head have the widest possible field of view.
They can see much larger area around them than the human being can see. The animals of prey (like
rabbit, deer, chicken, fish, etc.) have their two eyes on the opposite sides of their heads so that they
can see their enemies (predators) in a very large area around them and try to escape from them. A
domestic animal having its two eyes on the opposite sides of the head is horse.
2. Having two eyes enables us to judge distances more accurately.
Our two eyes are a few centimetres apart from each other. Due to this, the two eyes see the same
object from two slightly different angles and send two slightly different images of the same object
to the brain. The brain combines these two slightly different images to build a three-dimensional
picture of the object which enables us to judge the distance of the object more accurately.

Figure 49: Two eyes front judges the distance clearly

This will become clear from the following example. Let us take two sharpened pencils, one in each
hand. Stretch the arms forward and try touching the tips of pencils first with one eye open and then
with both eyes open. We will find that it is difficult to touch the tips of two pencils with one eye
open but it is much more easy when both the eyes are open.
This is because with both the eyes open, we can judge the distances of the pencil tips more
accurately. Human beings (and all other animals having their eyes at the front of their head) are said

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to have stereoscopic vision (or stereopsis) which gives the perception of depth. All the predators
(like tiger, lion, etc.) have their eyes at the front of head so that they can judge the distance of their
prey accurately and catch them easily.

The Gift of Vision (inside message)

There are millions of blind people in our country who cannot see at all. The eyesight of most of these
blind people can be restored if they are given the eyes donated by other persons after their death. In this
way, our eyes can live even after our death. In fact, our two eyes can give eyesight to two blind persons
(each getting one eye), and make them see this beautiful world. Some of the important points to be noted
about the donation of eyes are the following:
1. Any person of any age or sex (male or female) can donate eyes. People who wear spectacles or have
undergone cataract operations can also donate eyes. Even the persons having ailments such as
diabetes (sugar), hypertension (blood pressure) and asthma can donate eyes. But they should not
have any communicable diseases. The persons who were infected with or died because of diseases
such as AIDS, hepatitis B or C, rabies, leukemia, tetanus, cholera, meningitis, or encephalitis,
however, cannot donate eyes.
2. After the death of the person (who had registered for eye donation), the eye bank should be informed
immediately. This is because eyes must be removed within 4 to 6 hours of a person’s death.
3. The doctors of the eye bank team will remove the eyes at the home of the dead person or at the
hospital. It takes only 10 to 15 minutes to remove the eyes. There is no disfigurement of the face in
this process.
4. The eye bank distributes the donated eyes to various eye hospitals where these are transplanted in
the blind people through surgical operation.
5. Those donated eyes which are not suitable for transplantation, are used for doing research and for
teaching purposes in medical colleges.
We can, even today, make a pledge in writing, with the eye bank of our area that (God forbid) whenever
we die our eyes should be removed and given to the blind persons to light up their dark world ! We
should be grateful to God that he has given us the gift of vision to see this wonderful world. Let us pass
on this priceless gift of vision to our less fortunate blind brothers and sisters by registering our name for
eye donation

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THERMAL EXPANSION
Introduction
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. Temperature of a body is measured by an
instrument called thermometer. Temperature is a basic physical quantity and is measured in degree
Celsius (℃) or kelvin (K).
Kelvin as the SI unit of temperature is a scalar quantity.
Thermal expansion and contraction
All substances increase in size when heated. This increase in size of a substance is called expansion. On
the other hand, when a substance is cooled it decrease in size and this decrease in size of a substance is
called contraction.
Thermal expansion and contraction in solids
Thermal expansion and contraction in solids can be demonstrated using a ball and ring experiment. The
set apparatus are as shown below;

Figure 50: Ball and ring experiment

Figure 51: Heating in ball and ring experiment

Note: the ball should pass through the ring when both are at room temperature, when the ball is heated,
it will not go through the ring but when left to cool for sometimes it goes through

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What can be the reason??

Why solids expand when heated?
The molecules of a solid are closely packed together and are continuously vibrating in their fixed
positions. When a solid is heated, the molecules gain more kinetic energy and therefore make larger
vibrations about their fixed positions. This increase in vibration means that the molecules collide with
each other with larger forces and the molecules increase and so the solid expand.

Linear Expansivity
Is the measure of the tendency of a particular material to expand when heated. Example, Aluminium
expand more than iron thus, Aluminium has higher Expansivity than iron.

Material Linear Expansivity (𝐊 −𝟏 )𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟔

Aluminium 26
Brass 19
Copper 16.8
Iron 12
Concrete 11
Steel 11
Glass 9

The knowledge of linear Expansivity values is applied in the designing of materials to ensure that they
are able to operate well under varying thermal conditions.
Ordinary glass expands at higher rate than Pyrex glass. When hot water is poured into a tumbler made
of glass it break but does not break in Pyrex glass.
Concrete and steel are reinforced together because they are of the same linear Expansivity. Hence cannot
crack under varying thermal conditions.
Linear Expansivity is the increase in length per unit length of the substance when a temperature rises
by 1℃ or 1 K. It is denoted by letter, α
𝐈𝐧𝐜𝐫𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡
i.e. 𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝛂 = 𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡𝐱𝐫𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞

𝒍𝟐 − 𝒍𝟏
𝐋𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝛂 =
𝒍𝟏 𝐱∆𝐓
Area Expansivity or coefficient of superficial (β)
Is the fractional change in area per its original area per degree change in temperature

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Change in area
β=
Original area x change in temperature
𝐀 − 𝐀𝟎
𝛃= K −1
𝐀𝟎 𝐱 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
𝛃 = 𝟐 𝐱 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 (∝)

Volume Expansivity (𝛾)

Is the fraction change in volume per original volume per degree change in temperature
Change in volume
γ=
Original volume x change in temperature
𝐕 − 𝐕𝟎
𝛄= K −1
𝐕𝟎 𝐱 (𝐓𝟐 − 𝐓𝟏 )
𝛄 = 𝟑 𝐱 𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐚𝐫 𝐞𝐱𝐩𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 (∝)

Derivation of the relationship between 𝜶, 𝛃 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝛄

Take a cube of length L0 at 0℃ then the area of one of its face is A0 = L20 and the volume isV0 = L30 .

Figure 52: Derivation of area and volume expansion

Area at ℃ is A0 = L20
Area at t℃ will beAt = L2t
Length at t℃ isLt = L0 (1 + αt).
Area at t℃ At = L2t = (L0 (1 + αt) )2

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At = L20 (1 + 2αt + α2 t 2 )
Neglecting highest terms
At = L20 (1 + 2αt)
At = A0 (1 + 2αt)
Comparing with
At = A0 (1 + βt)From the formula of area Expansivity

𝛃 = 𝟐𝛂 Proved!!!
Volume at 0℃ isV0 = L30
Volume at t℃ will be Vt = (L0 (1 + αt) )3
Vt = L30 (1 + 3αt + 3α2 t 2 + α3 t 3 )
Neglecting highest powers
Vt = L30 (1 + 3αt)
Vt = V0 (1 + 3αt)
Comparing with
Vt = V0 (1 + γt) From the formula of volume expansion

𝛄 = 𝟑𝛂 Proved!!!

Bimetallic strip
Brass and steel are used to make the bimetallic strip as shown below

Figure 53: Bi metallic strips under test

On heating the bimetallic strip, brass expands more than steel. The brass thus becomes longer than the
steel for the same temperature range. Hence, the bimetallic strip bends with brass on the outside of the
curve as shown above.

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On cooling, the brass contracts more than the steel. It therefore becomes shorter than the steel and thus
ends up being on the inner side of the curve as shown above.
Applications of expansion and contraction in solids
1. Railway lines: Gaps are left between the rails. Expansion for the rails is provided by overlapping the
plane ends using overlapping joints as shown in the photo below

Figure 54: Gaps in rail ways

If these gaps for the expansion are not provided then during hot weather, the rails may buckle out, bend
and cause derailment of the train leading to destruction and accidents.
2. Steam pipes: Pipes carrying steam from boilers are fitted with loops or expansion joints to allow
pipes to expand and contract easily when steam passes through and when it cools down

Figure 55: Bending of steam pipe

3. Telephone wires: They are loosely fixed to allow for contraction and expansion. During cold
weather, they contract and when it is warm they expand. Telephone or electricity wires appears to
be shorter and taut in the morning. However, in hot afternoons, the wires appears longer and
slackened.
4. Steel bridge: In bridges made of steel girders, one end is fixed and the other end placed on rollers to
allow for expansion as shown below

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Figure 56: Flexibility left in steel bridges

5. Rivets: Thick metal plates, sheets and girders in ships are joined together by means of rivets. The
rivets is fitted when hot and then hammered flat. On cooling it contracts, pulling the two firmly
together as shown below

Figure 57: Rivets

6. Electric thermostat: A thermostat is used to maintain a steady temperature in some devices such as
electric iron box, refrigerators, fire alarms and flashing unit for indicator lamp in motor cars.
Expansion and contraction in liquids
Liquids expands as solids do when heated and they do contracting when cooled as also occur in solids.
The experiment \al setup below can be used to demonstrate expansion of liquids.

Figure 58: Expansion of liquid

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A glass flask is filled with coloured water and heated as shown above.
Observation:
Immediately the level of coloured water on the tube drops slightly at first and then starts rising
Explanation
The initial fall of the level of water is due to the expansion of the glass flask which gets heated first. The
water starts expanding when heat is finally reaches it and it rises up the tube. Note that, water expands
fast than glass.
Question: explain why there is a drop in the level of water initially followed by a steady rise in the level
of water.
Different liquids expands more than others for a given temperature example, methylated spirit expands
more than water. Ether > Benzene > Alcohol > water

Figure 59: Comparison of expansion of different liquids

Anomalous (unusual) expansion of water

Solids, liquids and gases expand when heated and contract when cooled. Water however, shows an
anomalous behavior in that it contracts when its temperature raised from 0℃ to about 4℃. When ice is
heated from say -20℃, it expands until its temperature reaches 0℃ and it melts with no change in
temperature. The melting is accompanied by contraction. The water formed will still contract as its
temperature rises from 0℃

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Figure 60: Anomalous expansion of water

Above 4℃, the water expands with increase in temperature. Since volume of a given mass of water is
minimum at 4℃, water at this temperature has maximum density, slightly higher than 1 g/cm3. A sketch
of the variation of density with temperature is;
At the melting point of water 0℃, there is a drastic increase in the volume, resulting in a large decrease
in density as the ice forms.
Effects of Anomalous expansion of water
 Freezing of lakes and ponds: water in the lake and ponds usually freezes at winter. Ice is less dense
than water and it floats on water. Since ice is a bad conductor of heat it insulates the water below
against heat losses to the cold air above. Water remains at 4℃ being the most dense, remain at the
bottom of a lake while ice being less dense floats on layers of water at different temperatures as
shown below

Figure 61: Freezing of lakes and ponds

Fish and other aquatic animals and plants can therefore survive by living in the liquid layers below
the ice.
 Icebergs: since the density of ice (0.92 g/cm3) is slightly less than that of water, it floats with
only a small portion above the water surface. The rest and the bigger portion rests under water.
A big mass of such submerged ice is known as an iceberg. It poses a great danger to ships as
navigators cannot see the submerged part.

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 Weathering of rocks: when water is in a crack in a rock freezes, it expands. The expansion breaks
the rock into small pieces.
 Water pipes: water pipes bursts when the water flowing through the pipes freezes.
Expansion and contraction in gases
The experiment below demonstrates expansion of air
Invert the flask with glass tube dipped into the water as shown

Figure 62: Expansion in gases

Warm the flask with your hands for some time and note what happens. Remove your hands and let the
flask cool while the tube is still inserted in water.
Observation and explanation
When the flask is warmed the level of water column inside the glass tube drops indicating air expands.
When the flask is warmed further, some bubbles are seen at the end of the glass tube. On cooling the air
inside the flask contracts and water rises up the glass tube.
Expansion of gases was firstly discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1592 however, faults was highly
associated with his discovery and in 1665, Robert Boyle made a study of the way the volume of gases
are altered with pressure when temperature is kept constant. Later on the full study about gases
expansion was made by considering the following relations
1. The relation between volume and pressure at constant temperature (Boyle’s law)
2. The relation between volume and temperature at constant pressure (Charles’s law)
3. The relation between pressure and temperature at constant volume (Pressure or Gaussac’s law)

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Boyle’s law
Is the rule which govern the relationship between volume and pressure at constant temperature
It states that “At constant temperature, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is inversely proportional
to its pressure”
1
V∝
P

Figure 63: Pressure versus volume

1
P=k
V

Figure 64: Pressure versus inverse of volume

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PV = k
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐

Charles’s law
Is the rule that govern the relationship between volume and temperature at constant pressure
It states that “At constant pressure, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly proportional to
its absolute temperature”
V∝T

Figure 65: Volume of gases versus temperature

V = kT
𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐

Pressure law
Is the rule that govern the relationship between pressure and temperature at constant volume
It states that “the pressure of a fixed mass of a gas at volume is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature”
P∝T

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Figure 66: Effect of temperature scale on pressure-temperature graph

P = kT
𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐

GENERAL GAS EQUATION

Is an equation that combines all gas laws in a single rule, it is written as
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
Proof
It is proved from Boyle’s and Charles’s laws
Boyle’s law
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
Let V2 be V
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐏𝟐 𝐕 … … … … . . 𝐢

Charles’s law
𝐕𝟏 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
Let V1 be V

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𝐕 𝐕𝟐
= … … … … . . 𝐢𝐢
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
𝐕𝟐
𝐕=( ) 𝐓 … … … 𝐢𝐢𝐢
𝐓𝟐 𝟏
Substituting equation (iii) into equation (i)
𝐕𝟐
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 = 𝐏𝟐 ( )𝐓
𝐓𝟐 𝟏
Re-arranging
𝐏𝟏 𝐕𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐕𝟐
=
𝐓𝟏 𝐓𝟐
Proved!!!

MEASURING TEMPERATURE: THERMOMETERS

A thermometer is an instrument used for measuring temperature. There are various types of
thermometers in use but the common ones are;
1. Liquid in glass thermometer
2. Clinical thermometer
3. Six’s thermometer
Liquid-in-glass thermometer
A liquid in glass thermometer commonly in use is mercury or coloured alcohol as the thermometric
substance.
The volume of liquid changes uniformly with the change in temperature. The liquid in the bulb must
have the following characteristics
i. Be easy seen (visible)
ii. Expands or contracts uniformly and by a large amount over small change in temperature
iii. Not stick to the inside of the tube (shouldn’t not wet inside of the tube)
iv. Have wide range of temperature
Thermometric liquid
The most commonly used is mercury and alcohol. Mercury freezes at 39℃ and boils at 357℃ while
alcohol freezes at -115℃ and boils at 78℃. Alcohol is therefore suitable for measuring temperature
below -39℃.
Properties of alcohol and mercury as thermometric liquids

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Alcohol Mercury
Low boiling point, 78℃ High boiling point, 357℃
Relatively low melting point, -115℃ Relatively higher melting point, -39℃
Poor thermal conductor Good thermal conductor
Expands slightly irregularly Expands regularly
Wet glass Do not wet glass
Coloured to make it visible Opaque and silver

Reasons for water being not used as a thermometric liquid

i. It is transparent
ii. It sticks to the sides of a glass(it wets glass)
iii. Its expansion is not uniform
iv. It has high specific heat capacity
v. Its freezing and boiling points are 0℃ and 100℃ respectively so the temperature range is less
vi. It is bad conductor of heat
vii. Its expansion per unit degree of raise in temperature is less
viii. It evaporates under vacuum conditions
ix. It is not easily obtainable in pure form
Temperature scale
A scale of temperature is obtained by selecting two temperatures known as fixed points. The range
between these two points is divided into of equal divisions. On the Celsius scale; the lower fixed point
is the temperature of pure melting ice and is taken as 0℃. The impurities in the ice would lower its
melting point. Upper fixed point is the temperature above water boiling at normal atmospheric pressure
of 760 mmHg and is taken as 100℃.
Temperature of boiling water itself is not used because any impurities in water would raise its boiling
point. The temperature of steam is not affected by impurities in water. When these points have been
marked, the range between them is divided into 100 equal divisions. Each division is called degree.
Features of a common thermometer
The common features of a common laboratory thermometer are as shown below

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Figure 67: Parts of a liquid in glass thermometer

Bulb carries the liquid in the thermometer. It has a thin glass wall for effective heat transmission between
the liquid and body whose temperature is taken.
Capillary bore- liquid expands and contracts along the capillary tube. It is narrow for high degree of
accuracy.
Glass stem- is a thick wall surrounding the capillary bore. It also serves as magnifying glass for easy
reading of scale.
Kelvin and Celsius scales
They are the common used temperature scales. The Celsius scale has a fixed point at 0℃ and 100℃. In
Kelvin scale, the temperature of pure melting ice is 273K while that of pure boiling water at normal
atmospheric pressure is 373K.
The lowest temperature in the Kelvin scale (0K) is referred as absolute zero. This is the temperature at
which the energy of particles in the material is zero.

Changing temperature scales

100℃ 212℉

θ℃ θ℉

0℃ 32℉

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100 − 0 θ−0
=
212 − 32 θ − 32

𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝛉℃
=
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝛉℉ − 𝟑𝟐

Clinical thermometer
A clinical thermometer is an instrument used to measure the temperature of a human body. It uses
mercury as its thermometric substance and has a narrow constriction in the tube just above the bulb. The
diagram of a clinical thermometer is as shown below

Figure 68: Clinical thermometer

The constriction prevents the mercury level from falling down when it contracts with the human body.
The clinical thermometer has short scale of temperature from 35℃ to 43℃ spread over its entire level.
This is because the human body temperature falls slightly above or below 37℃ which is the temperature
of normal and healthy person.
TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. A brick (30 cm x 18 cm x 10 cm) is at 20℃. If the brick is heated to a temperature of 150℃, what
will be its new dimensions? (The coefficient of linear expansion of concrete is1.2 x 10−5 K −1 ).
2. An iron plate at 20℃ has a hole of radius 8.92 mm in the center. An iron rivet with radius of 8.95 mm
at 20℃ is to be inserted into the hole. To what temperature must the plate be heated for the rivet to fit
into the hole? (Linear Expansivity of iron is1.24x 10−5 K −1 )
3. A brass plate has a hole whose radius is too small for an iron rivet to fit in. Explain two ways the rivet
can be made to fit in the hole.

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4. A steel tower has height of 324 m at a temperature of 18℃. How tall is the tower on a day when a
temperature is 35℃?
5. A uniform glass tube, sealed at one end contains a column of air trapped by a small pellet of mercury.
The length of the air column is 145 mm at 17℃. Find (a) the length of the air column at 47℃, (b) the
temperature at which the air column is 132 mm long.
6. A gas at a temperature of 27℃ occupies a volume of 500 cm3 at a pressure of 102000 Pa. if its
temperature increases to 127℃ and its volume to 800 cm3, what is the new pressure?
7. In an experiment to investigate the variation of pressure of a gas with temperature (at constant volume)
the following results were obtained:

Temperature (℃) 20.0 26.4 35.0 42.2 55.0 68.4 78.5 90.0
Pressure (mmHg) 815 833 857 877 912 949 977 1009
Plot a graph of pressure against temperature and use it to find a value for the absolute zero of temperature
i.e. produce your graph backwards to find the temperature for which it gives zero pressure.
8. A glass flask of volume 200 cm3 is just filled with mercury at 20℃. How much mercury will overflow
when the temperature of the system is raised to 100℃? The coefficient of volume expansion of the glass
is1.2𝑥 10−5 ℃−1 .
9. A glass flask whose volume is exactly 1000 cm3 at 0℃ is filled level full of mercury at this
temperature. When flask and mercury are heated to 100℃, 15.2 cm3 of mercury overflow. If the
coefficient of volume expansion of mercury is 0.000182 per Celsius degree, compute the coefficient of
linear expansion of the glass.
10. At a temperature of 20℃, the volume of a certain glass flask, up to a reference mark on the stem of
the flask, is exactly 100 cm3. The flask is filled to this point with a liquid whose cubical coefficient of
expansion is120 𝑥 10−5 ℃−1 , with both flask and liquid at 20℃. The linear coefficient of expansion of
the glass is8𝑥10−6 ℃−1 . The cross section of the stem is 1 mm2 and can be considered constant. How
far will the liquid rise or fall in the stem when the temperature is raised to 40℃?
11. A metal rod 30.0 cm long expands by 0.075 cm when its temperature is raised from 0℃ to 100℃.
A rod of different metal of the same length expands by 0.045 cm for the same rise in temperature. A
third rod also 30.0 cm long, is made up of pieces of each of the above metals placed end-to-end and
expands 0.065 cm between 0℃ and 100℃. Find the length of each portion of the composite bar.
12. Explain why water is not used as thermometric liquid

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TRANSFER OF THERMAL ENERGY

1.0 Introduction
From experience, a cold canned drink left in a room warms up and a warm canned drink left in a
refrigerator cools down. This is accomplished by the transfer of energy from the warm medium to the
cold one. The energy transfer is always from the higher temperature medium to the lower temperature
one, and the energy transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same temperature.
Heat is the form of energy that can be transferred from one system to another as a result of temperature
difference.
Heat transfer is the science that deals with the determination of the rates of such energy transfers.
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system undergoes a process from
one equilibrium state to another, and it gives no indication about how long the process will take. But, in
practice we are more concerned about the rate of heat transfer (heat transfer per unit time) than we are
with the amount of it.
Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states and changes from one equilibrium state to another while,
heat transfer deals with systems that lack thermal equilibrium, and thus it is a non-equilibrium
phenomenon.
The basic requirement for heat transfer is the presence of a temperature difference. There can be no
net heat transfer between two bodies that are at the same temperature. The temperature difference is the
driving force for heat transfer.
The rate of heat transfer in a certain direction depends on the magnitude of the temperature gradient (the
temperature difference per unit length or the rate of change of temperature) in that direction. The larger
the temperature gradient, the higher the rate of heat transfer.
Mathematically;
∆𝛉
𝐐∝ ………𝐢
∆𝐋
𝐐 ∝ 𝐀 … … … 𝐢𝐢
∆𝛉
𝐐∝𝐀 … … … 𝐢𝐢𝐢
∆𝐋
General applications of heat transfer
i. The human body is constantly rejecting heat to its surroundings.
ii. Human comfort is closely tied to the rate of this heat rejection (we try to control this heat transfer
rate by adjusting our clothing to the environmental conditions).

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iii. Ordinary household appliances are designed, in whole or in part, by using the principles of heat
transfer example the heating and air-conditioning system, the refrigerator and freezer, the water
heater, the iron, and even the computer, the TV, and the DVD player.
iv. The optimal insulation thickness in the walls and roofs of the houses, on hot water or steam
pipes, or on water heaters is again determined on the basis of a heat transfer analysis with
economic consideration.
1.2 Heat and Other Forms of Energy
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic, potential, electrical, magnetic,
chemical, and nuclear energies.
Total energy (E): Is the sum of all forms of energy existing in a given system.
Microscopic energy: Is the forms of energy related to the molecular structure of a system.
Internal energy (U): is the sum of all microscopic forms of energy associated in a given system
International units of energy are
i. British thermal unit (BTU): is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 lbm of water at
60°F by 1°F.
ii. Calorie (Cal): is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water at 14.5°C by
1°C.
iii. Joule: Is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of water by one
degree Celsius.
Conversions
1 kJ = 1000 J
1 BTU = 1.055056 kJ
1 Cal = 4.1868 J
Internal energy may be viewed as the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the molecules.
Sensible energy or Sensible heat: portion of the internal energy of a system associated with the kinetic
energy of the molecules.
The internal energy is also associated with the intermolecular forces between the molecules of a system.
These are the forces that bind the molecules to each other, and, as one would expect, they are strongest
in solids and weakest in gases. If sufficient energy is added to the molecules of a solid or liquid, they
will overcome these molecular forces and simply break away, turning the system to a gas.
Latent energy or latent heat: Is the internal energy associated with the phase of a system

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Enthalpy (h): is the sum of internal energy and flow energy that involve pressure or volume change of
a system.
1.3 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
Heat can be transferred in three different modes: conduction, convection, and radiation. All modes of
heat transfer require the existence of a temperature difference, and all modes are from the high-
temperature medium to a lower-temperature one. Below we give a brief description of each mode.
1.3.1 Heat transfer by Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent
less energetic ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take place in solids,
liquids, or gases.
In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their
random motion. In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the
energy transport by free electrons.
The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the medium, its thickness,
and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature difference across the medium.
Factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by thermal conduction
i. Insulation: The thicker the insulation, the smaller the heat loss. Wrapping a hot water tank with
glass wool (an insulating material) reduces the rate of heat loss from the tank.
ii. Temperature difference: A hot water tank loses heat at a higher rate when the temperature of
the room housing the tank is lowered.
iii. Geometry (surface area): the larger the tank, the larger the surface area and thus the rate of
heat loss.
Equation governing heat transfer by conduction is
∆𝛉
𝐐 = 𝐤𝐀 ………𝐢
∆𝐋
Where

k is thermal conductivity of material (W/mK)

A is surface area of material (m2)
∆L is thickness of material (m)
∆θ is temperature difference (K)
Q is rate of heat transfer (W)
Generally;
(𝐀𝐫𝐞𝐚)(𝐓𝐞𝐦𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞 𝐝𝐢𝐟𝐟𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞)
𝐑𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐧𝐬𝐟𝐞𝐫 𝛂
𝐭𝐡𝐢𝐜𝐤𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬

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Thermal conductivity is the measure of the ability of the material to conduct heat

DISCUSSION QUESTION 1
The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made of a flat
layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k = 0.8 W/mK. The temperatures of the inner and the
outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be 15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10
hours. Determine (a) the rate of heat loss through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to
the home owner if the cost of electricity is TSh.16/kWh.

Figure 69: Illustration picture

Applications of heat transfer by thermal conduction

i. Cooking vessels are made up of metal to efficiently transfer heat to the food being prepared while
their handles are plastic or wood that stay much cooler
ii. Heat sink is attached to some electronic devices like computers to protect them from high
temperature which can damage the device
iii. Aluminium is used in making motor engines, pistons and cylinders because of its low heat
density and high thermal conductivity
iv. Bad conductors are mainly used for insulation purpose. Example jacket we wear during cold
weather
v. Bottoms of cooking pots needs periodic cleaning to remove layers of soot which impede the flow
of heat
vi. Fiberglass is used under roofs of buildings to prevent heat loss in cold areas
vii. Sawdust, which is poor conductor of heat is used for lagging hot-water pipes
Minimizing heat loss by conduction
 The use of insulation

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1.3.2 Heat transfer by convection

Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is
in motion, and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid
motion, the greater the convection heat transfer.
Types of thermal convection
i. Forced convection is the one in which the fluid is forced to flow over the surface by external
means such as a fan, pump, or the wind example AC system
ii. natural (or free) convection is the type of convection in which the fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces that are induced by density differences due to the variation of temperature in
the fluid example warming of boiled water

Figure 70: Illustrative diagram

One important property of fluids is that they rise when heated. That’s because the molecules spread out
and move apart when they get hot. The hot fluid becomes less dense and rises up. Cooler fluid is less
dense and so it sinks down. This up-and-down motion creates what are called convection currents.
Convection currents are circular movements of heated fluids that help spread the heat.
Convection currents explain why the air is hotter at the top of a room and cooler at the bottom. Convection currents
also explain why water is warm at the top of the ocean, but gets colder as you swim deeper.

Factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by thermal convection

i. Heat transfer coefficient (h): is not a property of the fluid. It is an experimentally determined
parameter whose value depends on all the variables influencing convection such as the surface
geometry, the nature of fluid motion, the properties of the fluid, and the bulk fluid velocity.
ii. Temperature difference: A hot water tank loses heat at a higher rate when the temperature of
the room housing the tank is lowered.

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iii. Surface area: the larger the tank, the larger the surface area and thus the rate of heat loss.

Equation governing heat transfer by convection is

𝐐 = 𝐡𝐀(𝐓𝐬 − 𝐓𝐟 )
Where;
h is the convection heat transfer coefficient in W/m2·K
A is surface area (m2)
𝐓𝐬 is surface temperature (K)
𝐓𝐟 is temperature away from the surface (K)
Q is rate of heat transfer (W)

DISCUSSION QUESTION 2
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends across a room at 15°C, as shown in Fig 3. Heat is
generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating, and the surface temperature of the wire is measured
to be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and electric current through the wire are
measured to be 60 V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat transfer by radiation, determine the
convection heat transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer surface of the wire and the air in
the room.

Figure 71: Illustrative wire

Applications of heat transfer by convection

i. Land and sea breezes: As the Sun shines down on an area of land, it heats the air above the ground. That
warm air rises. As it rises, cooler air moves in to take the place at the bottom. This moving cooler air
creates…wind! Wind happens all over Earth because Earth heats unevenly. There are always colder parts
and warmer parts. The wind blows from the cooler parts of Earth to the warmer parts.

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Figure 72: Land-sea breeze

ii. Domestic hot water supply

Figure 73: Hot water system in domestic bathrooms

iii. Air conditioners

Minimizing heat loss by thermal convection
 Vacuuming: is the removal of any fluid medium within which convectional currents move
example in vacuum flask.
1.3.3 Heat transfer by thermal radiation

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Heat from the sun to the earth reaches us by radiation. Thermal radiation is the heat transfer through
vacuum.

All bodies absorb and emit radiation. The higher the temperature of the object, the greater the amount
of radiation. A body emitting thermal radiation can also emit visible light when it is hot enough. An
electric bulb in a room produces both light and radiant heat. The radiant heat is absorbed by the material
in the room, which in turn give out radiant heat of lower energy.

Nature of radiant heat

To demonstrate the radiant heat, consider light rays travelling from the sun light to hand lens as shown;

Observation

When light rays are focused onto the paper, it burn out.

Explanation

Radiant heat like light can be concentrated to a point using a hand lens. Thermal radiation is a wave like
light and can be reflected. Because of the nature of production, radiant heat is electromagnetic wave
which causes heating effect in objects that absorbs it. Radiation can also be described as the flow of heat
from one place to another by means of electromagnetic waves.

Emission and absorption of radiation

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To compare radiation from different surfaces (shiny and black surfaces), consider the set up below

The two surfaces are heated to a certain temperature say 80℃. The temperatures of the two tins taken
after sometimes.

Observation

After sometime, it is noted that the temperature recorded by TB is lower than that recorded by TS.

Explanation

The experiment shows that the black surfaces are better emitters than shiny surfaces. A graph of
temperature against time for temperatures recorded by each thermometer.

The graph shows water in a shiny tin lost heat less rapidly than the blackened tin (good emitter).

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Black surfaces are good absorbers of radiant heat also good emitters while poor absorbers of heat are
also poor emitters. Poor emitters of heat are also good reflector.

Applications of thermal radiation

1. Kettles, cooking pan and iron boxes have polished surfaces to reduce heat loss through
radiation.
2. Petrol tanks are painted silvery bright to reflect away as much heat as possible.
3. Houses in hot areas have their walls and roofs painted with bright colours to reflect away heat
while those in cold areas have walls and roofs painted with dull colours.
4. In solar concentrators, the electromagnetic waves in form of radiant heat are reflected to
common point (focus) by a concave reflector. The temperature at this point can be sufficiently
high to boil water as shown

5. A greenhouse effect. A greenhouse effect has a grass root through which radiant heat energy
passes from the sun. This heat is absorbed by objects in the house, which emits radiation of lower
energy that cannot penetrate through glass. Due to cumulative effect of that, temperature of the
houses increases substantially. Greenhouses are used in providing appropriate conditions for
plants in cold regions.

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Note: carbon dioxide and other air pollutants in the lower layers of the atmosphere show the
same properties of glass, raising the temperature on the earth’s surface on earth to dangerous
levels.
6. Solar heater. Solar heater uses solar energy to heat water. Solar heater consists of a cooled
blackened copper pipe on an insulating surface. Radiant heat from the sun passes through glass
and is absorbed by black copper pipes that contain water which is heated up. Copper pipes are
used because they are good conductors and they are painted black to increase their absorbing
power. Lower energy emitted after absorption of radiant energy does not escape because it cannot
penetrate the glass. The temperature of the air above the pipe thus increases boosting the heating
of water. A good insulating material is used as the base.
7. Thermos flask (vacuum flask). A thermos flask is designed such that heat transfer by
conduction, convection and radiation between the contents of the flask and its surrounding is
reduced to a minimum. The vacuum is a double walled glass vessel with vacuum in the space
between the walls. This minimizes the transfer of heat by conduction and convection. The inside
of walls, in the vacuum side is silvered to reduce heat loss by radiation. The felt pads on the sides
and at the bottom support the vessel vertically. The heat loss by evaporation from the liquid
surface is prevented by a well-fitting cork.

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MEASUREMENTS OF THERMAL ENERGY

Introduction:

When heat is transferred from one body to another, the body which loses heat has its temperature
lowered while that which gains heat has its temperature raised.

TERMS USED

Heat capacity, C: Is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass of
𝐐 J
substance by one kelvin. i.e. 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 = ∆𝛉 , K . Hence, the SI unit of heat capacity is joule per

kelvin (JK −1 ).

Specific heat capacity, 𝐂𝐱 : Is the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a unit
𝐐 J
mass of a substance by one kelvin. i.e. Cx = , . Where x denotes a substance name. Hence, the
𝐦∆𝛉 kgK

SI unit of specific heat capacities is joules per kilogram per kelvin (Jkg −1 K −1 ).

𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐜𝐚𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐂
Note that 𝐂𝐱 = 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐚 𝐬𝐮𝐛𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐦

The table 1 shows some materials with their specific heat capacities

Table 1: Specific heat capacities of materials

Materials Specific heat capacity (𝐉𝐤𝐠 −𝟏 𝐊 −𝟏 )

Water 4200
Alcohol 2300
Kerosene 2200
Ice 220
Aluminium 900
Glass 830
Iron 460
Copper 390
Mercury 140
Lead 130

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General heat equation

Heat is directly proportional to:

 Mass of substance, H ∝ m … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . (i)

 Temperature difference of the system, H ∝ ∆θ … … … … … … … (ii)

Applying joint variation

H ∝ m∆θ

Removing proportionality sign and put a constant of proportionality as specific heat capacity Cx we
arrive at general heat equation of a substance “x” as;

𝐇 = 𝐦𝐂𝐱 ∆𝛉

DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

1. Method of mixtures

1.1 specific heat capacity of solids

In this method, a known mass of a solid e.g. a metal block is heated by dipping it in a bath of hot water.
After some time, the solid is very fast transferred into a cold water in a calorimeter and whose mass is
known.

Figure 74: method of mixture

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The calorimeter is then covered using piece of cardboard and stirred continuously.
The following measurements are then recorded
 Mass of the solid metal block, ms
 Mass of copper calorimeter with stirrer, mc
 Mass of calorimeter and stirrer + water, m1
 Temperature of the boiling water (initial temperature of the metal block) θs
 Temperature of cold water in the calorimeter (initial temperature of calorimeter) θw
 Final steady temperature of the mixture, θ
Calculations
Mass of water in calorimeter, mw = m1 − mc
Temperature change of the hot metal block = θs − θ
Temperature change of the water in the calorimeter = θ − θw

Applying principle of conservation of energy

Heat loss by the hot block = heat gained by water + Calorimeter with stirrer
ms Cs (θs − θ) = mc Cc (θ − θw ) + mw Cw (θ − θw )

𝐦𝐜 𝐂𝐜 (𝛉 − 𝛉𝐰 ) + 𝐦𝐰 𝐂𝐰 (𝛉 − 𝛉𝐰 )
𝐂𝐬 =
𝐦𝐬 (𝛉𝐬 − 𝛉)

Where;
Cc Specific heat capacity of calorimeter
Cw Specific heat capacity of water
Cs Specific heat capacity of solid block
mc Mass of calorimeter
mw Mass of water
ms Mass of solid block
θ Final temperature of the system
θw Initial temperature of water
θs Initial temperature of solid block

1.2 Specific heat capacity of liquid

In this case, a solid of known specific heat capacity is used and the water in the calorimeter is replaced
by the liquid whose specific heat capacity is to be determined. The solid metallic block is first heated in

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a bath of boiling water and then transferred into the calorimeter containing the liquid. The following
measurements are then collected

 Mass of the solid metal block, ms

 Mass of copper calorimeter with stirrer, mc
 Mass of calorimeter and stirrer + liquid, m1
 Temperature of the boiling liquid (initial temperature of the metal block) θs
 Temperature of the liquid in the calorimeter (initial temperature of calorimeter) θl
 Final steady temperature of the mixture, θ
Applying principle of conservation of energy
Heat loss by the hot block = heat gained by liquid + Calorimeter with stirrer
ms Cs (θs − θ) = mc Cc (θ − θl ) + ml Cl (θ − θl )

𝐦𝐬 𝐂𝐬 (𝛉𝐬 − 𝛉) − 𝐦𝐜 𝐂𝐜 (𝛉 − 𝛉𝐥 )
𝐂𝐥 =
𝐦𝐥 (𝛉 − 𝛉𝐥 )

Where
Cc Specific heat capacity of calorimeter
Cl Specific heat capacity of liquid
Cs Specific heat capacity of solid block
mc Mass of calorimeter
ml Mass of liquid
ms Mass of solid block
Θ Final temperature of the system
θl Initial temperature of liquid
θs Initial temperature of solid block

Numerical examples
1. 70 g of a solid initially at 25℃ was carefully dropped into water in a calorimeter at 60℃. If the
final constant temperature of the water and solid was 54℃ and the mass of water 500 g,
determine the specific heat capacity of solid. Assume the heat absorbed by the calorimeter to be
negligible. Take the specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 Jkg -1K-1. (Ans. 6206.9 Jkg-1K-1)
2. A student heated 20 kg of water to a temperature of 80℃. He then added x kg of water at 15℃
and the final steady temperature of the mixture is 40℃. Given that the specific heat capacity of
water is 1.2 Jg-1K-1, determine the value of x. (Ans. 32 kg)

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3. 0.2 kg of iron at 20℃ is dropped into 0.09 kg of water at 26℃ inside a calorimeter of mass 0.15
kg and specific heat capacity of 800 Jk-1 K-1 and that of water is 4200 Jk-1 K-1. (Ans. 33.2℃)
4. A certain block is heated such that its temperature is raised from 15℃ to 45℃. Calculate the
amount of heat absorbed by the metal if its heat capacity is 460 JK -1. (Ans. 13800 J)
5. In an experiment to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal, a 20 g of the metal was
transferred from boiling water to a lagged copper calorimeter containing cold water. The water
was stirred and final steady temperature was realized. The following was recorded
 Temperature of boiling water = 99℃
 Initial temperature of cold water and calorimeter = 20℃
 Final temperature of water, calorimeter and metal = 23.7℃
 Mass of cold water plus calorimeter = 130 g
 Mass of calorimeter = 50 g
Take specific heat capacities of water and copper to be 4200 Jk-1K-1 and 400 Jk-1 K-1 respectively,
using the data provided to determine
i. The heat gained by water and calorimeter ( Ans. 2741.2 J)
ii. The specific heat capacity of the metal (Ans. 381.46 Jk -1 K-1)
iii. State the possible sources of error in the value of specific heat capacity obtained in the
above experiment (Ans. Heat loss as metal transferred from the boiling water to the
calorimeter, error when reading the thermometer, parallax error)
6. 3 kg of hot water was added to 9 kg of cold water at 10℃ and the resulting temperature was
20℃. Ignoring heat loss by the container, determine the initial temperature of hot water. Take
specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 Jk-1K-1 (Ans. 50℃)
Solution to numerical examples
Qn. 1
Applying principle of conservation of energy
Heat lost by water = heat gained by solid
mw Cw (θw − θ) = ms Cs (θ − θs )

mw Cw (θw − θ)
Cs =
ms (θ − θs )

0.5x4200x(60−54)
Cs = = 6206.9 Jkg-1 K-1
0.07x(54−25)

Qn. 2

Applying principle of conservation of energy

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Heat lost by hot water = heat gained by cold water

mw Cw (θw − θ) = mh Cw (θ − θs )

mw Cw (θw − θ)
mh =
Cw (θ − θs )

20x4200x(80 − 40)
mh = = 32 kg
4200x(40 − 15)

2. Electrical method
2.1 Specific heat capacity of solid
In this method, two holes are drilled in the solid to accommodate the heater and thermometer. The solid
is heated electrically for a given time. Below is an arrangement that can be used

Thermometer

Heate
r

Calorimeter

In this method, the following data is collected:

 Mass of metal (solid)
 Heater voltage, V
 Heater current, I
 Time (duration) of heating, t
 Initial temperature of the solid

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 Final temperature of the solid

Electrical energy loss by the heater according to Joule’s experiment is directly proportional to
 Heater voltage, E ∝ V … … … … … … … … … … . . (i)
 Heater current, E ∝ I … … … … … … … … … … … (ii)
 Time of heating, E ∝ t … … … … … … … … … … (iii)
Applying joint variation with constant of proportionality equals to 1 we arrive at the following
equation

𝐄 = 𝐕𝐈𝐭
Assuming no heat loss to the surroundings, then
Heat loss by heater = heat gained by the solid
𝐕𝐈𝐭 = 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉
𝐕𝐈𝐭
𝐂=
𝒎∆𝛉
Note: heat loss is minimized by lagging the calorimeter as well as oiling the holes.
2.2 Specific heat capacity of liquid

Heat loss by the heater = heat gained by the liquid + heat gained by calorimeter
VIt = mCl ∆θ1 + mC∆θc
𝐕𝐈𝐭 − 𝐦𝐂∆𝛉𝐜
𝐂𝐥 =
𝐦∆𝛉𝟏

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Numerical examples
1. An immersion heater rated 120W, 240V is connected to a 240V power supply. How long will it
take to heat 1 kg of water from 2℃ to 90℃? Take specific heat capacity of water equals to 4200
Jkg-1K-1. (Ans. 2800 s)
2. A heater rated 180W and a thermometer were inserted in a 0.5 kg of water in a copper
calorimeter. The following results were recorded.
Temperature (℃) 30 36 40 45 49 54 57
Time, t (minutes) 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
i. Plot a graph of temperature against time
ii. Use the graph to find;
a. The room temperature
b. The specific heat capacity of water
3. An 180W heater is immersed in a copper calorimeter of mass 20 g containing 200 g of alcohol.
When the heater is switched on, after 36 seconds the temperature of the calorimeter and its
contents was raised by 12℃. Find the specific heat capacity of alcohol. Take specific heat
capacity of copper is 400 Jkg -1K-1. (Ans. 2500 Jkg-1K-1)

Change of state
When ice is heated from -2℃ until it boils, it undergoes changes which can be represented by the heating
curve as;

 Between points A and B, ice absorbs heat energy and its temperature rises
 Between points B and C, the ice absorbs its latent heat of fusion which makes it to melt, and this
occur at constant temperature
 Between C and D, water absorbs heat energy as its temperature rises until boiling point

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 As the water boils at constant temperature, it absorbs its latent heat of vaporization
 When the vapour condenses to liquid, it gives out its latent heat of vaporization. Similarly, when
a liquid freezes to solid, it gives out its latent heat of fusion
Latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat needed to convert a given mass of solid to liquid at constant
temperature
Specific latent heat of fusion is the quantity of heat needed to convert a unit mass of solid to liquid at
𝐐
constant temperature. i.e.𝐋𝐟 = 𝐦, J/kg

A unit mass of a substance changing from liquid to solid will give out heat energy equivalent to its
specific latent heat of fusion
Determination of specific latent heat of fusion
There are two methods
1. Method of mixture: a piece of dry ice is dropped into a calorimeter containing water slightly above
room temperature. Stir the mixture until all the ice has melted. Suppose there is no heat loss to the
surrounding, then heat energy lost by the water and calorimeter is equal to the heat energy gained
by the melting ice

In the above experiment, the following data are recorded for purpose of determining the specific
latent heat of fusion
 Mass of dry ice
 Mass of water in calorimeter
 Mass of calorimeter + stirrer
 Temperature change of water
And therefore;
mi Lf = mw Cw ∆θw + mc Cc ∆θc

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𝐦𝐰 𝐂𝐰 ∆𝛉𝐰 + 𝐦𝐜 𝐂𝐜 ∆𝛉𝐜
𝐋𝐟 =
𝐦𝐢
NOTE: Dry ice is used due to its low moisture contents. This implies that all the heat absorbed by
the ice is used to melt the ice and not warming the moisture

2. Electrical method:

Equal amount of crushed ice are put simultaneously in two identical filter funnels. A heater is then
immersed in the funnel in set up “P”. Place clean dry beaker below each funnel. Wait until a
reasonable amount of water has collected in the beaker “P” the switch off the heater and remove
the beakers. Weigh the beakers and their contents. In the above experiment, the following data are
collected
 Mass of the beaker under “P” before experiment, m1
 Mass of the beaker under “P” after experiment, m2
 Mass of the beaker under “Q” before experiment, m3
 Mass of the beaker under “Q” after experiment, m4
 Heater voltage, V
 Heater current, I
 Duration of heating, t
Mass of melted ice in the setup “P”, mp = m2 − m1

Mass of melted ice in setup “Q”, mq = m4 − m3

Set up Q is called the control experiment. It is used to determine the mass of ice that melted as a
result of the temperature of the room during the experiment. In order to obtain the mass of ice
melted by the heater only, it is important to subtract the mass of the melted ice in “Q” from that
melted in “P”. i.e. m = mp − mq

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Then the heat energy supplied by the heater = heat energy absorbed by the melting ice
VIt = mLf
𝐕𝐈𝐭
𝐋𝐟 =
𝐦

Below are the some common solids and their specific latent heat of fusion

Material Specific latent heat of fusion (Jkg-1) x105

Copper 1.0
Aluminium 3.9
Water(ice) 3.34
Iron 5.7
Wax 1.8
Naphthalene 1.5
Solder 0.7
Lead 0.026
Mercury 0.013

Numerical examples
1. A block of ice of mass 40 g at 0℃ is placed in a calorimeter containing 400 g of water at 20℃.
Ignoring heat absorbed by the calorimeter, determine the final temperature of the mixture after
all the ice has melted take specific heat capacity of water to be 4200 Jkg -1K-1 and the specific
latent heat of fusion of ice to be 340000 Jkg-1(Ans. 5.82℃).
2. 3 g of dry ice was added to 20 g of water at 26℃ in a beaker of negligible heat capacity. After
the ice had all melted, the temperature of water was found to be 12℃. Find the specific latent
heat of fusion of ice. Taking the specific heat capacity of water be 4200 Jkg -1K-1 (Ans. 185360
Jkg-1)
3. An Aluminium tray of mass 400 g containing 300 g of water is placed in a refrigerator. After 80
minutes, the tray is removed and is found that 60 g of water remains unfrozen at 0℃. If the initial
temperature of the tray and its contents was 20℃, determine the average amount of heat removed
per minute by the refrigerator. Taking the specific heat capacity of water be 4200 Jkg -1K-1,
specific heat capacity of Aluminium be 900 Jkg -1K-1 and specific latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.5 x 105 Jkg-1. (Ans. 1425 J/min)
4. In an experiment to determine the specific latent heat of fusion of ice, the following setup was
used

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In A the heater is unconnected and when the ice is melting steadily, 0.015 kg of water is collected
in 300 s. in B the heater is connected to a power supply rated 50W. When water drips at a steady
rate, 0.058 kg of water is collected in 300 s. calculate the value of the specific latent heat of fusion
of ice. (Ans. 348833.21 JK-1)
Latent heat of vaporization
Refer to the quantity of heat energy required to convert a given mass of a liquid to gas at constant
temperature
Specific latent heat of vaporization, 𝐋𝐯
Refer to the quantity of heat energy required to convert a unit mass of a liquid to gas at constant
temperature
𝐐 𝐉
𝐋𝐯 = ,
𝐦 𝐤𝐠
Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization by the method of mixture
Apparatus
 Calorimeter
 Water
 Thermometer
 Flask with a delivery tube
 Heat source
 Weighing machine
Setup

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Procedures
1. Setup the apparatus as shown above
2. Find the mass of calorimeter when empty and when filled with water to the level shown
3. Measure and record the initial temperature of water in the calorimeter
4. Heat the water in the flask until it delivers steam through the delivery tube. Ensure that free end
of the delivery tube is inside water in the calorimeter
5. Allow steam to bubble into the water while stirring until the temperature of the water rises by
about 20℃ above the room temperature
6. Remove the delivery tube from the calorimeter and record the temperature of the water
7. Determine the new mass of the calorimeter and the contents. Hence, determine the mass of the
condensed steam.
NOTE: steam first condenses to water which then cools down, losing heat energy. Therefore, heat
energy lost by steam is equal to heat energy gained by the water and calorimeter
mLv + mCw ∆θh = mCw ∆θw + mc Cc ∆θc
(𝐦𝐂𝐰 ∆𝛉𝐰 + 𝐦𝐜 𝐂𝐜 ∆𝛉𝐜 ) − 𝐦𝐂𝐰 ∆𝛉𝐡
𝐋𝐯 =
𝐦
It is important to first cool the water in the calorimeter to a certain value below the room temperature
and then pass the steam through it until the temperature rises above the room temperature by the same
value. This will help to minimize errors due to the heat loss to the surrounding
Determination of specific latent heat of vaporization using the electrical method

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The heating process is allowed to continue until a steady state where condensed water drips out at a
constant rate has been achieved.
The mass of water collected after a time, t is measured and the following data are collected in this
experiment
 Heater current, I
 Heater voltage, V
 Mass of empty beaker
 Mass of beaker and collected water
 Time taken to collect the condensed water
Suppose all heat given by the heater is used to convert water to steam, then
VIt = mLv
𝐕𝐈𝐭
𝐋𝐯 =
𝐦
The table below shows some common liquids and their specific latent heat of vaporization

Liquid Specific latent heat of vaporization x 105 (Jkg-1)

Water 3.6
Alcohol 6.6
Ethanol 6.5
Petrol 5.3
Benzene 1.0
Ether 3.5
Turpentine 5.7

Boiling and melting

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Boiling and melting are generally affected by two factors

1. Impurities
2. Pressure
Melting
Effect of pressure on the melting point
 Increase in pressure lowers the melting point of a material. This can be illustrated by suspending
two weights supported by a copper wire on the surface of an ice block as shown below

The wire is seen to cut its way through the block but leaves it as one piece. The suspended
weights make the copper wire to exert pressure on the ice directly underneath which is made to
melt at a temperature below its melting point. As the wire cuts through, the water formed over
the wire and immediately solidifies since it is no longer under pressure. As the water solidifies,
it gives out its latent heat of fusion which is conducted by the copper wire to melt the ice below
it. This continues until the copper wire completely cuts through the ice leaving it intact.
Note: Copper wire has been used due to its high thermal conductivity. If a poor thermal
conductor like cotton string was used, it would not cut through the ice block.
The process by which water refreezes is called regelation
The effects of high pressure on the melting point are applicable in
1. Ice skating: The weight of a skater acts on a thin blades of the skates exerting high
pressure on the ice. The ice underneath thus melt, forming a thin film of water over
which the skater slides
2. Joining two pieces of ice blocks together: When two ice cubes are pressed hard against
each other, the high pressure between them lowers the melting point of the ice at the
point of contact, when the pressing force is withdrawn, water re-condenses and two
cubes are joined together.

Effects of impurities on the melting point of material

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Presence of impurities lowers the melting point of a material. This is the reason behind spreading salts
on roads and paths during winder in cold regions. By doing this, freezing on the roads will be prevented.

Boiling
The presence of impurities in a liquid raises the boiling point of the liquid and an increase in pressure
raises the boiling point of liquid as well. The effects of pressure on boiling point may be illustrated by
the setup below
Increased pressure on boiling point

The heating is done until water starts to boil. The temperature at which water boils is noted. When the
rubber tube issuing steam is squeezed momentarily, the reading on the thermometer is observed to rise
and boiling reduces.
Note: closing the tube raises the vapor pressure within the flask. This makes difficult for the molecules
from the surface of the liquid to escape, raising the boiling point of the liquid.
The effect of high pressure on boiling is applied in pressure cooker. Here, the pressure is raised
which raises the boiling point of water hence the food is cooked at high temperature.
Effects of reduced pressure on boiling point

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Water is first heated to boiling. The flask is then turned upside down and cold water poured over it. It
would be observed that when heating stops, boiling also stops. When cold water is poured over the flask,
the water inside the flask begin boiling again although its temperature is below the boiling point.
The cold water condenses the steam reducing vapour pressure inside in the flask. Hence, a decrease in
pressure lowers the boiling point of a liquid.
Boiling and evaporation
When a liquid is heated, the molecules close to the surface may gain sufficient kinetic energy to break
away from the forces of attraction between the neighboring molecules and escape. This is called
evaporation. Evaporation takes place at any temperature, even below the boiling point of the liquid
Factors affecting the rate of evaporation
1. Temperature: increase in temperature of the liquid enhances evaporation. This is why clothes
dry faster on hot day
2. Surface area: when the surface area is increased, the molecules of the liquid have greater chance
of escaping. Hence, a wet cloth would dry faster when it is spread out than when it is folded.
3. Humidity: when there is high amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, it becomes difficult
for the molecules to escape. This is why clothes takes longer to dry on a humid day.
4. Draught/moving wind: moving air above the surface of the liquid sweeps away the escaping
molecules. Thus, evaporation is enhanced by the passing air.
Difference between boiling and evaporation

Evaporation Boiling
Occur at all temperatures Occur at a fixed temperature
Occur at the surface of the liquid Takes place throughout the liquid
No bubbles are formed Bubbles are formed in the liquid
Decrease in atmospheric pressure increases the Decrease in atmospheric pressure lowers the
rate of evaporation boiling point of the liquid

 Evaporation has a cooling effect which is applied in sweating of human beings and other animals,
cooling of water in porous pots and refrigerator. When water evaporates, it absorbs the latent
heat from the body causing a cooling effect.
 Different animals have different ways by which they cool their bodies. For instance, dogs expose
their tongues when it is hot while the muzzles of a cow becomes wet when it is hot. Both these
are to increase the rate of evaporation thereby cooling the body.
 A porous pot has tiny holes which allow water to sweep out slowly. As the water evaporates, it
absorbs the latent heat causing a cooling effect.

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VAPOUR AND HUMIDITY

VAPOUR
When a liquid is heated strongly then molecules tends to escape and those molecules are called vapour.
Therefore; Vapour are molecules which escape into the atmosphere after liquids are heated.
Most liquids evaporates at any temperature however, liquids may vary in the rate at which they evaporate
at ordinary temperature. Alcohol and ether evaporate rapidly but lubricating oil and mercury are hardly
evaporate. Evaporation of a liquids result in the formation of vapour.
Why molecules do escapes when the liquid is heated?
When the liquid is heated, the molecules tend to gain (absorb) kinetic energy hence the random speed
of the molecules increases. The process of evaporation of liquid can be explained using Kinetic theory.
When a liquid is left to evaporate in a closed container, the pressure of the vapour in the container
gradually increases.
Factors Affecting Evaporation of a Liquid
1. Nature of the liquid: Normally liquids evaporation differs depending on the nature of liquid.
Example; Volatile liquids evaporate faster than nonvolatile liquids, which evaporate slowly.
Alcohol evaporates faster than other liquids like water. The boiling point of alcohol is 78℃ while
that of water is 100℃.
2. Pressure above the liquid (atmospheric pressure): When the atmospheric pressure is high, the
rate of evaporation may be reduced.
3. Surface energy of the liquid: This forms a boundary or skin between the liquid and the
atmosphere. The surface energy prevents molecules with lower kinetic energy from escaping
into the atmosphere. Some liquids such as alcohol have low surface energy, hence they evaporate
rapidly.
Vapour
The molecules in a liquid are in a state of continuous motion and some of those at the liquid surface will
gain sufficient energy to escape from the surface altogether. The molecules that have left the surface are
said to be in the vapour state. The difference between a vapour and a gas is purely one of temperature,
a vapour being a gas below its critical temperature.
This phenomenon is known as evaporation. The number of molecules leaving the surface, and hence the
rate of evaporation, will increase with temperature as the liquid contains more energy at a higher
temperature. The effect of the evaporation of a liquid can be shown clearly by the following experiment.
Some ether is run into the flask, as shown in the figure below. It will evaporate in the enclosed space
and the pressure that it exerts on the water will force a jet of water out of the tube. Warming the liquid
will increase this evaporation and give a more powerful jet.

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Figure 75: Effect of evaporation of liquid

You can show that the rate of evaporation may be increased by:
1. Warming the flask gently.
2. Increasing the area of the liquid surface.
3. Blowing a stream of air across the surface.
4. Reducing the pressure above the liquid surface.
Saturated vapours
When a liquid is in a closed container the space above the liquid is full of vapour, and the vapour is then
described as a saturated vapour – this means that the density of the liquid molecules in the air is a
maximum. This is due to molecules continually escaping and reentering the liquid. At any moment the
number of molecules leaving the surface will be equal to the number returning to it and so a dynamic
equilibrium is set up.
The properties of saturated vapours were first investigated by Dalton around 1800. This is shown in
Figure 2(a), which shows a state before saturation has been reached (when there will be more molecules
leaving the surface than returning to it) and Figure 2(b), which shows the saturated state. A dynamic
equilibrium exits here.

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Figure 76: Properties of saturated vapour

This vapour will exert a pressure and if there is sufficient liquid the air above the liquid surface will be
saturated with vapour; the pressure that this saturated vapour exerts is known as the saturated vapour
pressure (s.v.p) of the liquid at that temperature.
NOTE: Since the velocity of the molecules increases with temperature the saturated vapour pressure
also increases with temperature, and therefore the temperature of the vapour must be specified when
quoting its saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p).
The Effect of Temperature on Saturated Vapour Pressure (S.V.P) of a Liquid
Saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P): Is the pressure exerted by vapour when a liquid is heated and
reaches a state of Equilibrium where eventually the rate at which the molecules leave the liquid is equal
to the rate at which others return to it.
The Height, of mercury represents the saturated vapour pressure of the liquid in the flask. Saturated
vapour pressure increases with the increase in Temperature (T i) and the increased with decrease in
Temperature (Td).

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Figure 77: Effect of temperature on saturated vapour pressure

The graph shows as saturated vapour pressure (s.v.p) increases then the temperature will increase and
vice versa for decrease of temperature.
Table 2: Saturated vapor density of water

Temperature ℃ Vapor pressure (Pa) x103 Saturation vapor density (g/m3)

-50 4 0.039
-20 0.104 0.89
-10 0.26 2.36
0 0.61 4.84
5 0.868 6.8
10 1.19 9.4
15 1.69 12.8
20 2.33 17.2
25 3.17 23
30 4.24 30.4
37 6.31 44
40 7.34 51.1
50 12.3 82.4
60 19.9 130
70 31.2 197
80 47.3 294
90 70.1 418
95 85.9 505
100 101 598
120 199 1095
150 476 2430
200 1550 7090
220 2320 10200

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Boiling point (B.P): Is the temperature reached where the saturated vapour pressure (S.V.P) is equal to
external atmospheric pressure.

HUMIDITY
Humidity is the measure of the extent to which the atmosphere contains water vapour (moisture).
Dew: These are deposits formed when the temperature fall slowly in the drops of water vapour.
Dew point (D.P): Is the temperature to which air must be cooled to become saturated. For example in
an air container, if water vapour at pressure of 8mmHg were to be cooled, dew would form at 7.9 C.
Absolute humidity is the mass of water vapour present in a unit volume of it and is usually expressed
in grams per cubic metre (g/m). The absolute humidity is not very frequently used since in practice we’re
more often concerned with the degree of wetness of the air.
Relative Humidity (R.H) is the ratio of the mass of water vapour actually in a unit volume of air to that
is required to saturate it at the same temperature.
It is common practice to quote relative Humidity as a fraction or a percentage.
Mass of water vapour
R. H =
Volume of air required to saturate the air at the same temperature

Mass of water vapour

R. H = x100%
Volume of air required to saturate the air at the same temperature

Relative Humidity is also defined as the saturation vapour pressure of water at the dew point divided
by the saturation vapour pressure of water at the original air temperature.

saturation vapour pressure of water at the dew point

R. H =
saturation vapour pressure of water at the original air temperature

S. V. P at the dew point

R. H =
S. V. P at air temperature

Note: The low value of relative humidity of air means that evaporation takes place readily from the
surface of water. The high value of relative Humidity then evaporation does not take place readily from
the surface of water. Humid atmosphere is saturated with water vapour.
Perspiration: Is the evaporation of sweat from the skin, is not so effective at cooling the body in humid
atmosphere.

Difference between absolute and relative humidity

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Absolute humidity Relative humidity

Is the actual amount of water vapor present in Is a percentage of the amount of moisture the
the air air could possibly hold
Is expressed in terms of grams of moisture per Is expressed in terms of percentage as the ratio
cubic meter of air of vapor pressure to saturated vapor pressure
Absolute humidity is totally independent of the If the temperature goes up, relative humidity
temperature goes down and vice versa

NOTE:
Cotton manufacturing industries are constructed on sites where the relative Humidity (R.H) Is High.
Cotton fibres must not become too dry, otherwise they become Brittle and hence cause difficulties in
spinning. In contrast, a dry atmosphere is required by ware House for the storage of food, Tobacco and
assembling of certain electrical components.
Air – conditioning plants are installed in ships and buildings for the purpose of moderating Humidity.

Hygrometers are instruments used for finding relative humidity at a given place. With most
hygrometers, the relative humidity is determined by first finding the dew point and then using vapour
pressure tables.
A very common type of Hygrometer (often known as Mason’s hydrometer). A piece of muslin wick is
wrapped round the bulb of one the thermometer and its lower and dipped into water capillary action
keeps the Muslin wrapped around the bulb wet.

Figure 78: Hygrometer

Evaporation of water surrounding the wet bulb absorbs heat from the bulb, consequently the temperature
of the wet bulb falls. The reading of the wet bulb thermometer is normally found to be several degrees
below that of the dry bulb Thermometer is known as the wet bulb depression.

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Regnault’s (Dew point) Hygrometer: Is used to determine dew point and relative Humidity. Simplified
form of Regnault’s hygrometer consist of two test – tubes A and B with silvered ends C and D
Respectively. Consider figure 5.
Test tube A contains ether and it is fitted with rubber stopper which carries a thermometer T and two
narrow tubes E and F. Test tube B. is empty and serves as comparison. Air is bubbled through ether via
the narrow tube E by applying a fitted pump at the end of the Narrow tube F. This causes the rapid
evaporation which results in the absorption of latent heat from ether and the container.
Air surrounding the tube cools to temperature at which the water vapour present is sufficient to saturate
it. Consequently is seen to form on C while D appears unchanged.

Figure 79: Regnault’s hygrometer

The reading of the thermometer T is then noted. The flow of air through the ether is then stopped and
the apparatus allowed warming up.
The temperature at which the dew on C disappears is noted. The dew point is then taken as the mean of
the two temperatures.
Suppose the dew pint is Q1 and the actual air temperature is Q2 if the tables the value of S.V.P for water
at Q1 and Q2 are X and Y millimeters of mercury respectively then;
𝐒. 𝐕. 𝐏 𝐚𝐭 𝐐𝟏
𝐑. 𝐇 =
𝐒. 𝐕. 𝐏 𝐚𝐭 𝐐𝟐
Numerical examples
1. The dew point in a room at a temperature of 10℃ is 12.55℃. If the saturated vapor pressure at
these two temperatures are 15.5mm and 10.9mm of mercury respectively, calculate the Relative
Humidity.
Solution

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S. V. P at the dew point

R. H = 𝑥 100%
S. V. P at air temperature

10.9mmHg
R. H = 𝑥 100%
15.5mmHg
𝐑. 𝐇 = 𝟕𝟎. 𝟑𝟐%
2. The partial pressure of water vapor in the atmosphere is 10 torr and the temperature is 20℃. Find
the relative humidity if the vapor pressure at this temperature is 17.5 torr.
Solution
S. V. P at the dew point
R. H = 𝑥 100%
S. V. P at air temperature

10 torr
R. H = 𝑥 100%
17.5 torr
𝐑. 𝐇 = 𝟓𝟕%
3. Calculate the percentage relative humidity on a day when the temperature is 25℃ and the air
contain 9.4 g of water vapor per cubic meter.
Solution
Vapor density
R. H = 𝑥 100%
Saturation vapor density

From table 1, saturation vapor density at 25℃ is 23 g/m3

9.4
R. H = 𝑥 100%
23
𝐑. 𝐇 = 𝟒𝟎. 𝟗%

TECHNICAL SELF TEST

1. What is the relative humidity on a day when the temperature is 68℉ and the dew point is 41℉?
2. What is the partial pressure of water in the atmosphere?
3. What is the absolute humidity in gram per cubic meter?
4. The temperature in a room is 40℃. A can is gradually cooled by adding cold water. At 10℃ the
surface of the can clouds over. What is the relative humidity in the room?
5. An air conditioning system is required to increase the relative humidity of 10 ft 3 of air per second
from 30% to 65%. The air temperature is 68℉. How many grams of water are needed by the
system per hour?
6. The volume of a closed room, kept at constant temperature of 20℃ is 60m3. The relative
humidity in the room is initially 10%. If a pan of water is brought into the room, how many
grams will evaporate?

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7. A pan of water is placed in a sealed room of volume 60 m3 at a temperature of 27℃ and initial
relative humidity of 60%.
(a) How many grams of water will evaporate?
(b) What is the absolute humidity in g/m3 after equilibrium has been reached?
(c) If the temperature of the room is then increased by 1℃, how many more grams of water will
evaporate?
8. (a). what is the dew point temperature on a day when the air temperature is 20℃ and the relative
humidity is 60%?
(b). what is the absolute humidity, expressed in g/m3 ?

Application of humidity knowledge in daily life

Water in the atmosphere exists in different forms example: Clouds, Rain, Snow, Hail stones, Mist, Fog
and Smog.
Clouds: Consist of the tiny droplets of water or Ice floating in the sky formed by condensation of water
vapor in the upper atmosphere. Clouds formation occurs when temperature falls below the dew point
and small particles of dust or salt crystals are present to act as nuclei on which condensation can begin.
Cooling is due to upward movement of air accompanied by example.
Clouds may also formed when a warm moist air current meets a cold one if the drops become big enough
by joining together they may fall as rain.
Rain: These are drops of water that fall on the grounds when cooling occurs in the clouds.
Snow: Formed when the dew points is below the freezing point (F.P) 0℃. Under these conditions, the
atmospheric vapour condenses directly into ice crystal.
Hail stones: Formed due to super cooling of water droplets in such a way that the droplets are cooling
below 0℃ without freezing. When these droplets are carried upwards by ascending air currents, they
solidify upon coming into contact with ice crystals in the upper atmosphere. Hail stones are dangerous
to air craft and human beings.
Mist: Is the condensation of vapour into water droplets occurring near the ground.
Fog: Is a mist in which Visibility does not extend beyond 1km.
Smog: This is dense fog, where visibility is reducing to a few metres.

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CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Introduction
Electricity is science that deals with study and analysis of charges at rest or charges in motion. Electricity
is the main source of power to both home and industrial uses in Tanzania.
Branches of electricity
1. Static electricity (electrostatic)-charges at rest
2. Current electricity-charges in motion
Current electricity is therefore a branch of electricity that deals with the study of charges in motion.
Charges is anything that has defiance or excess of electrons. There are of two types namely;
1. Positive charges(defiance of electrons)
2. Negative charges(excess of electrons)
Electric current (I): is the flow of charge through in a definite direction in a conductor. It is measured
as the rate of flow of charge in a cross-section of a conductor
𝐐 C
𝐈= ,
𝐭 s
Electric current is measured by an Ammeter.
Types of electric currents
1. Alternating current
2. Direct current
3. Varying current
Alternating current: is the type of current whose magnitude changes continuously with time and
direction changes periodically
Direct current: is the type of electric current whose magnitude does not change with time. It is also
called steady current
Varying current: is the type of electric current whose only magnitude changes with time.

Figure 1: Types of electric currents

∆𝐐 𝐂
For alternating currents, 𝐈 = ,
∆𝐭 𝐬

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But if a given number of electrons (n) or protons is flowing in a conductor in a given time then,
𝐧𝐞 C
𝐈= , where, 𝐞 = ±𝟏. 𝟔𝐱𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 C
𝐭 s

Where
I Electric current (A)
Q Quantity of charge (C)
t Time taken
e Electronic/protonic charge

Electromotive force (emf)

In order to keep the current flowing through the conductor, there must be a force that pushes the charges
through a conductor. This force is called electromotive force. Therefore, electromotive force can be
defined as the driving force in electrical circuits.

With this reason, devices such as dry cells or batteries that develop electromotive force should be placed
in the circuit to maintain potential difference between two points.
Electromotive force (emf): is the maximum potential difference between two plates of a cell when it
deliver no current.
SI unit of electromotive force is volt (V).
Potential difference (p.d): refers to the work involved or the energy released in the transfer of a unit
quantity of electricity from one point to the other.
Or the voltage possessed by a cell when it deliver current. It is measured by a voltmeter.
Difference between emf and potential difference

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Electromotive force (emf) Potential difference (p.d)

Is the maximum potential difference between Is the difference of potential between any two
two electrodes of a cell when no current is points in a closed circuit
drawn from the cell i.e. when the circuit is open
Is independent of the circuit resistance Is proportional to the resistance between given
points
The term “emf” is used only for sources of emf It is measured between any two points in the
circuit
It is greater than potential difference in the It is less than emf in the circuit
circuit

Current carriers in materials

Material type Current carriers

Solids Free electrons
Liquids (electrolytes) Ions (positive and negative)
Gases (electric conducting gases) Free electrons and positive ions

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES 1
1. The current in the circuit is 8mA, how many electrons each with charge of 1.6 𝑥10−19 C, pass a
point in one second
2. It takes 1 hour to electroplate a piece of metal with nickel, if the current used was 2A, what
quantity of electricity is used?
3. An insulated charged sphere carries a charge of4𝑥10−4 C, when connected to earth by a wire,
the sphere is discharged in 2 ms. what is the average current?
4. Electrons flow through a diode valve at the rate of 2𝑥1016 per second, if the charge on the
electrons is1.6 𝑥10−19 C, calculate the current through the valve.

Resistance (R)

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Refer to the measure of the opposition to current flow in an electrical circuit. It is

measured in ohms and symbolized by omega Ω.
Resistance is measured using wheat stone bridge, Meter Bridge and potentiometer. A
device that offer resistance in an electrical circuit is called resistor and its electrical
symbol is

Types of resistors
There are two types
1. Fixed resistor
2. Variable resistor
Fixed resistor is the one that provide a fixed value of resistance in the circuit and have always a discrete
value. Example is color code resistors
Variable resistor is the type of resistor that offer more than one value of resistance in the circuit
examples are resistor box and Rheostats.

A Rheostat is a device that works to control and limit the amount of electric current in the closed circuit.

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NOTE: In order to measure a given potential difference, a voltmeter is placed in across a resistor in
order to measure potential drop across it and it does not need to have the current travel through it to
measure the potential difference. Therefore, when a voltmeter is placed in parallel with a resistor, all
current continues to travel through the resistor avoiding the very high resistance of the voltmeter.

Relationship between potential difference, current and resistance (Ohm’s law)

Ohm’s law is the rule that govern the relationship between potential difference, electric current flowing
and the resistance offered in the closed circuit under constant physical conditions.
It states that “The voltage across a conductor in the closed circuit is directly proportional to the applied
current provided that all physical conditions remains constant”. The physical conditions needs to
remain unchanged for ohm’s law to hold true otherwise no! These conditions are like
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Humidity
 Strain
 Cross sectional area

Mathematically,
VαI
V = kI

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But k = Resistance, R

𝐕 = 𝐈𝐑
This is called Ohm’s law equation and
V = Potential difference (V)
I = Electric current (A)
R = Resistance ( Ω)
Ohm’s law experiment setup

Potential difference (p.d), V

Electric current (I), A

From the experiment, the value of resistance is obtained by determining the slope of the graph.
∆𝐕
𝐑𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐑 = ,Ω
∆𝐈
Discussion question
The following Data were obtained by students from Kiara secondary in Musoma, their aim was to
determine the value of resistance using ohm’s law experiment. You are required to finish up their work
using their data as given in the table below
(i) Plotting the graph of current against voltage
(ii) Determining the slope from your graph
(iii) Determining the inverse of slope
(iv) The physical meaning of the inverse of slope obtained in (iii) above

Voltage (V) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Current (A) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

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Ohmic conductors
Are conductors which obeys Ohm’s law Examples are like different conductor wires like copper,
Aluminium, Constantan, Nicrome and platinum.

Ohmic conductors have the following properties

(i) The V-I graph is linear
(ii) The V-I graph may pass through the origin
(iii) They conduct best even when the potential difference is reversed
Non-Ohmic conductors
These are conductors which do not obey ohm’s law. Examples are like vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes
and electrolytes

Non-Ohmic conductors have the following properties

(iv) The V-I graph is non-linear
(v) The V-I graph may not pass through the origin
(vi) They may conduct poorly or not at all when the potential difference is reversed

Resistor configuration (arrangements)

In an electric circuit, two or more resistors can be arranged into two different ways, these are;
1. Series configuration

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2. Parallel configuration
Series configuration
“Two or more resistors are said to be arranged in series if the current passing through each resistor is
the same”. This is the condition for series arrangement of resistors
Consider the circuit below with three resistors R1, R2 AND R3 arranged in series

Since current is the same through each resistor, total voltage in the circuit is obtained by summing the
individual resistor voltage as
V = V1 + V2 + V3
But V = IR from Ohm’s law
IR e = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3
IR e = I(R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
𝐑𝐞 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑
For more than three resistors;
𝐑𝐞 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 + ⋯
Where;
𝐑 𝐞 = The equivalent or total resistance in the circuit

Parallel configuration

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“Two or more resistors are said to be arranged in parallel if the voltage passing through each resistor is
the same”. This is the condition for parallel arrangement of resistors
Consider the circuit below with three resistors R1, R2 AND R3 arranged in parallel

Since voltage is the same through each resistor, total current in the circuit is obtained by summing the
individual resistor current as
Is = I1 + I2 + I3
V
But I = R from Ohm’s law

V V V V
= + +
R e R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 1
V( ) = V( + + )
Re R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 1
=( + + )
Re R1 R 2 R 3
For more than three resistors;
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +⋯
𝐑𝐞 𝐑𝟏 𝐑𝟐 𝐑𝟑

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For only two resistors in parallel, the above formula can be simplified up to:-
𝐑 𝟏 𝒙 𝐑 𝟐 𝐏𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭
𝐑𝐞 = =
𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 𝐬𝐮𝐦
𝐑 𝐞 = The equivalent or total resistance in the circuit
HINT: In case of resistances in series, if one resistance gets open, the current in the whole circuit
becomes zero and the circuit stops working. Which don’t happen in case of parallel gouging. Decoration
of lightning in festivals is an example of series grouping whereas all household
Appliances connected in parallel grouping.

Numerical examples 2
1. Two resistors when connected in series have an equivalent resistance of 18 Ω and when
connected in parallel have an equivalent resistance of 4 Ω. Find the value of individual resistance
in the circuit.
2. Find the magnitude value of voltage, V in the circuit below

3. Find the value of I1, I2, V1 and V3 in the figure below

4. Find the total resistance from the circuit given in figure below

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5. Find the current passing in the following circuit

Factors affecting resistance

There are four factors, these are
1. Length of a conductor
2. Cross section area
3. Nature of material (Resistivity)
4. Change in temperature
Length (l): resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length. As the length of a conductor
increase, its resistance increase too and vice versa. Suppose L1 and L2 are lengths with resistances R1
and R2, then
Rα 𝑙 … … … ∗
R=k𝑙
R1 = k 𝑙1 … … … … (i)
R 2 = k 𝑙2 … … … … (ii)
𝐑 𝟏 𝒍𝟏
=
𝐑 𝟐 𝒍𝟐

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Cross section area of a conductor (A): Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to the
cross section area of a conductor. Increase in cross section area decrease the value of resistance and
vice versa. . Suppose A1 and A2 are area of cross sections with resistances R1 and R2, then
1
Rα … … … ∗∗
A
1
R=k
A
1
R1 = k … … … … (i)
A1
1
R2 = k … … … … (ii)
A2
𝐑 𝟏 𝐀𝟐
=
𝐑 𝟐 𝐀𝟏

Nature of material (Resistivity or specific resistance): Resistance of a wire is directly proportional to

its nature.
Combining equations * and **
𝑙
Rα
A
𝑙
R=k
A
But k = resistivity, 𝜌 of material
𝒍
𝐑=𝛒
𝐀
Resistivity is the measure of the resisting power of a specified material to the flow of electric current.
It is also defined as the resistance of 1m2 cross section area of a conductor with 1 m length.
Temperature: resistance of a conductor increase with an increase in temperature.

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Let
R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC
R t = resistance of conductor at t°C
Rt − R0 ∝ R0t
R t − R 0 = kR 0 t
But k = temperature coefficient of resistance, 𝛼
R t − R 0 = αR 0 t
𝐑𝐭 − 𝐑𝟎
𝛂=
𝐑𝟎𝐭
Numerical examples 3
1. A wire of length 1m has a resistance of 2 Ω. Find the resistance of a second wire whose resistance
is double of the first, if length of the wire is 3m and diameter is double of the first.
2. The resistance of a wire is R. What will be the new resistance if it is stretched n times to its
original length?
3. A copper coil has a resistance of 40 Ω at 0℃. Find the resistance of this coil at 50℃. The
temperature coefficient of resistance of coil material is 0.0043/℃.
4. The resistance of 1m nichrome wire is 6 Ω. Calculate its resistance if its length is 7m.
5. Two wires made up of German-silver are taken such that the length and area of cross section of
the second wire are twice and thrice respectively those of the first. If the resistance of the second
wire is 12 Ω, find the resistance of the first wire.
6. Two uniform wires A and B are of the same metal and have equal masses. The radius of wire A
is twice that of wire B. Find the total resistance of wires A and B when connected in parallel.

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Internal resistance of a cell (r)

Refers to the internal opposition to the current flow offered by a cell itself in a closed circuit.

Internal resistance is different for different types of cells and even for a given type of cell it varies from
to cell. It is usually low and as the cell is used, its resistance goes on increasing. Internal resistance of a
cell depends up on the following factors
i. Distance between the plates (directly related)
ii. Nature of the electrolytes
iii. Concentration of the electrolytes (directly related)
iv. Nature of the electrode
v. Area of the plates (inversely related)
A CELL
Refer to the device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. A cell neither creates nor
destroys charge but maintains the flow of charge present at various parts of the circuit by supplying
energy needed for their organized motion. Cell is a source of constant emf but not constant current.

Types of main cells

1. Primary cell
2. Secondary cell

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Primary cell is the type of cell that cannot charged example is a dry cell
Secondary cell is the type of cell that can be recharged examples are like car and mobile phone batteries.
Leclanche cell
Is the primary cell, handy for specific use with positive anode and zinc encompassed by a mixture of
manganese dioxide and powered carbon in a pot, which is porous. The pot and the negative zinc terminal
remained in a container holding ammonium chloride solution. The emf is nearly 1-4Volts.

Types of Leclanche cells

1. Zinc (carbon cathode)
2. Zinc chloride (Ammonium chloride electrolyte in zinc chloride)
3. Alkaline manganese (ammonium chloride terminal displaced by potassium hydroxide)
How Leclanche cell works
The process of power generation starts when zinc particles on the surface of the anode oxides. The zinc
particles move far from the anode while leaving their electrons on its surface making it more negatively
charged than the anode. At the point when the cell is associated in an outer electrical circuit, the excess
electrons on the zinc anode gush through the circuit to the cathode made up of carbon. This flow of
electrons frames the electric current.
Applications of Leclanche cell
1. In telegraphy
2. Electric bell
3. Signaling works

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The direction of flow of current inside the cell is from negative to positive electrode while outside the
cell is form positive to negative electrode.
Ideal cell: is type of cell that has zero internal resistance
For a cell with internal resistance, current flowing is given by

𝐄
𝐈=
𝐑+𝐫
Where;
E = Electromotive force of a cell
R = External resistance
r = internal resistance of a cell
Cells arrangements
Two or more cells can be arranged into three different ways
1. Series arrangement
2. Parallel arrangement
3. Series-parallel arrangement
Series arrangement
Two or more cells are said to be arranged in series if a positive terminal of one cell touches negative
terminal of another cell. Consider the following arrangement with “n” cells arranged in series

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Total emf, ET = E + E + E + E + ⋯
ET = nE
Total internal resistance, rT = r + r + r + r + ⋯
rT = nr
Current in the circuit;
𝐧𝐄
𝐈=
𝐑 + 𝐧𝐫
Where “n” is the number of cells arranged in series
Parallel arrangement
Two or more cells are said to be arranged in parallel if the positive terminal of all cells face one side
while negative terminal of all cells faces the other side. Consider the following arrangement with “m”
cells arranged in parallel

Total emf, ET = E
1 1 1 1 1 m
Total internal resistance, r = r + r + r + r + ⋯ =
T r

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1 m
=
rT r
r
rT =
m
Current in the circuit;
E
I=
R + rT
E
I= r
R+m

𝐦𝐄
𝐈=
𝐦𝐑 + 𝐫
Where “m” is the number of cells arranged in parallel
Series-parallel arrangement
Consider the following arrangement of “n” cells arranged in series which are then taken into “m” parallel
arrangement

Total emf, ET = E + E + E + E + ⋯
ET = nE
Total internal resistance in series;
rT = nr
Total internal resistance in parallel;
1 1 1 1 1 m
= + + + +⋯=
rT nr nr nr nr nr
1 m
=
rT nr

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nr
rT =
m

Current in the circuit;

nE
I=
R + rT
nE
I= nr
R+ m

𝐦𝐧𝐄
𝐈=
𝐦𝐑 + 𝐧𝐫
Where “n” is the number of cells arranged in series and “m” is the number of cells arranged in parallel.

Note:
1. In series grouping of cell’s their emf’s are additive or subtractive while their internal resistances
are always additive. If dissimilar plates of cells are connected together their emf are added to
each other while if their similar plates are connected together their emf are subtractive.

2. In series grouping of identical cells. If one cell is wrongly connected then it will cancel out the
effect of two cells e.g. If in the combination of “n” identical cells (each having emf E and internal
resistance r) if x cell are wrongly connected then equivalent emf 𝐄𝐞𝐪 = (𝐧 − 𝟐𝐱) and equivalent
internal resistance 𝐫𝐞𝐪 = 𝐧𝐫
3. In parallel grouping of two identical cell having no internal resistance

4. When two cells of different emf and no internal resistance are connected in parallel then
equivalent emf is indeterminate, note that connecting a wire with a cell but with no resistance is
equivalent to short circuiting. Therefore the total current that will be flowing will be infinity.

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Numerical examples 4
1. 12 cells each having the same emf are connected in series and are kept in a closed box. Some of
the cells are wrongly connected. The battery is connected in series with an ammeter and two
cells identical with others. The current is 3A when the cells and battery aid each other and 2A
when the cells and battery oppose each other. How many cells in the battery are wrongly
connected?
2. An accumulator of emf 2V and negligible internal resistance is connected to two resistors of 4 Ω
which are joined in parallel. Find the total current taken from the accumulator and the current in
each resistor.
3. Two cells of emf 2V and 1.5V and internal resistance of 0.1 Ω and 0.9 Ω respectively are
connected to a resistor of 4 Ω. Find the current when the cells are (a) assisting each other (b)
opposing each other
4. The cell C in the figure below has an emf of 2V and an internal resistance of 0.1 Ω. Find the
current delivered when switch S (a) is open (b) is closed

Measuring instruments
Galvanometer: Is an instrument used to detect small current passing through it by showing deflection.
Galvanometers are of different types e.g. moving coil galvanometer, moving magnet galvanometer, hot

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wire galvanometer. In dc circuit usually moving coil galvanometer are used. Its symbol is

where G is the total internal resistance of the galvanometer.

Working principle of galvanometer

In case of moving coil galvanometer deflection is directly proportional to the current that passes through
it i.e. 𝐢 ∝ 𝛉
Full scale deflection current: The current required for full scale deflection in a galvanometer is called
full scale deflection current and is represented by ig.
Shunt: is the small resistance connected in parallel to galvanometer coil, in order to control current
flowing through the galvanometer.

Merits of shunt Demerits of shunt

1. To protect the galvanometer coil from 1. Shunt resistance decreases the
burning sensitivity of galvanometer.
2. It can be used to convert any
galvanometer into ammeter of desired
range.

Ammeter: It is a device used to measure current and is always connected in series with the ‘element’
through which current is to be measured.
The reading of an ammeter is always lesser than actual current in the circuit. Smaller the resistance of
an ammeter more accurate will be its reading. An ammeter is said to be ideal if its resistance r is zero.
Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter: A galvanometer may be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a low resistance (called shunt S) in parallel to the galvanometer G as shown in figure below.

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𝐆𝐒
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 =
𝐆+𝐒
Since it is parallel connection of resistance, then
p.d in the shunt = p.d in the coil

S(i − ig ) = ig xG

𝐢𝐠 𝐆
𝐒=
𝐢 − 𝐢𝐠

Voltmeter: It is a device used to measure potential difference and is always put in parallel with the
‘circuit element’ across which potential difference is to be measured.

The reading of a voltmeter is always lesser than true value. Greater the resistance of voltmeter, more
accurate will be its reading. A voltmeter is said to be ideal if its resistance is infinite, i.e., it draws no
current from the circuit element for its operation.
Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter: A galvanometer may be converted into a voltmeter by
connecting a large resistance R called a multiplier in series with the galvanometer as shown in the figure
below

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𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 = 𝐆 + 𝐑
V = ig (G + R)

V = ig G + ig R

V = Vg + ig R

𝐕 − 𝐕𝐠
𝐑=
𝐢𝐠
𝐕
𝐑 = ( − 𝟏) 𝐆
𝐕𝐠

Wheatstone bridge: Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistance which can be used to
measure one of them in terms of rest.

Here arms AB and BC are called ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate arms
Balanced bridge (Principle of Wheatstone bridge): The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection
in galvanometer is zero i.e. no current flows through the galvanometer. Its principle states that “if the
Wheatstone bridge is balanced, the product of two opposite resistors is the same”.
PxS = QxR

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𝐏 𝐑
=
𝐐 𝐒
This is called Wheatstone bridge equation
On mutually changing the position of cell and galvanometer this condition will not change.
Applications of Wheatstone bridge:
Meter Bridge, post office box and Carey Foster Bridge are instruments based on the principle of
Wheatstone bridge and are used to measure unknown resistance.

Meter Bridge: In case of Meter Bridge, the resistance wire AC is 100 cm long. Varying the position of
tapping point B, bridge is balanced.

Principle of Meter Bridge: “if the circuit is balanced, the resistance of each arm of the Bridge is directly
proportional to its balancing length”
R ∝ 𝑙 … … … … (i)
S ∝ (100 − 𝑙 ) … … … (ii)
Using joint variation;
𝐑 𝒍
=
𝐒 𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝒍

This is called Meter Bridge equation

NOTE
 Wheatstone bridge is most sensitive if all the arms of bridge have equal resistances i.e. P = Q =
R=S

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 If the temperature of the conductor placed in the right gap of metre bridge is increased, then the
balancing length decreases and the jockey moves towards left.
 In Wheatstone bridge to avoid inductive effects the battery key should be pressed first and the
galvanometer key afterwards.
 The measurement of resistance by Wheatstone bridge is not affected by the internal resistance
of the cell.

Numerical example 5
1. The scale of a galvanometer of resistance 100Ω contains 25 divisions. It gives a deflection of
one division on passing a current of4𝑥10−4 A. What is the multiplier resistance in ohms to be
added to it, so that it may become a voltmeter of range 2.5V?
2. A galvanometer, having a resistance of 50Ω gives a full scale deflection for a current of 0.05 A.
What is the length in meter of a resistance wire of area of cross-section 2.9210−2 cm2 that can
be used to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter which can read a maximum of 5A current?
(Specific resistance of the wire =5𝑥10−7 Ωm)
3. A moving coil galvanometer is converted into an ammeter reading up to 0.03 A by connecting a
shunt of resistance 4r across it and into an ammeter reading up to 0.06 A when a shunt of
resistance r connected across it. What is the maximum current which can be through this
galvanometer if no shunt is used?
4. A galvanometer of resistance 5Ω gives a full scale deflection for a current of 10Ma. How may it
be converted into (a) an ammeter reading up to 5A (B) voltmeter reading up to 5V?
Potentiometer.
Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a given cell and to compare emf’s of cells. It
is also used to measure internal resistance of a given cell.
Superiority of potentiometer over voltmeter: An ordinary voltmeter cannot measure the emf
accurately because it does draw some current to show the deflection. As per definition of emf, it is the
potential difference when a cell is in open circuit or no current through the cell. Therefore voltmeter can
only measure terminal voltage of a give n cell.
Picture diagrams

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Potentiometer is based on no deflection method. When the potentiometer gives zero deflection, it does
not draw any current from the cell or the circuit i.e. potentiometer is effectively an ideal instrument of
infinite resistance for measuring the potential difference.
Circuit diagram: Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire AB of length L (about 6m to 10 m long)
made up of mangnine or constantan. A battery of known voltage e and internal resistance r called
supplier battery or driver cell. Connection of these two forms primary circuit.
One terminal of another cell (whose emf E is to be measured) is connected at one end of the main circuit
and the other terminal at any point on the resistive wire through a galvanometer G. This forms the
secondary circuit. Other details are as follows

J Jockey
K Key
R Resistance of potentiometer wire
𝝆 Specific resistance of potentiometer wire.
𝑹𝒉 Variable resistance which controls the current through the wire AB

Points to be remember
(i) The specific resistance (ρ) of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient
of resistance (α) must be low.

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(ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and secondary circuits must be connected
together at point A and all lower potential points must be connected to point B or jockey.
(iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown potential
difference to be measured.
(iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this the current in the primary circuit must
remain constant and the jockey must not slide in contact with the wire.
(v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be uniform everywhere.

Potential gradient (x): Is the potential difference (or fall in potential) per unit length of wire.
V v iR iρ e R
i.e. 𝑥 = L (m) = = = (R+R ).L
L A h +r

Potential gradient directly depends upon

 The resistance per unit length (R/L) of potentiometer wire.
 The radius of potentiometer wire (i.e. Area of cross-section)
 The specific resistance of the material of potentiometer wire (i.e. ρ)
 The current flowing through potentiometer wire (i)
“x” indirectly depends upon
 The emf of battery in the primary circuit (i.e. e)
 The resistance of rheostat in the primary circuit (i.e. Rh)
Sensitivity of Potentiometer:
A potentiometer is said to be more sensitive if it measures a small potential difference more accurately.
 The sensitivity of potentiometer is assessed by its potential gradient. The sensitivity is inversely
proportional to the potential gradient.
 In order to increase the sensitivity of potentiometer the resistance in primary circuit will have to
be decreased.
 The length of potentiometer wire will have to be increased so that the length may be measured
more accurate.
Difference between voltmeter and potentiometer

Voltmeter Potentiometer
It’s resistance is high but finite Its resistance is high but infinite
It draws some current from source of emf It does not draw any current from the source of
known emf
The potential difference measured by it is The potential difference measured by it is
lesser than the actual potential difference equal to actual potential difference
Its sensitivity is low Its sensitivity is high
It is a versatile instrument It measure only emf or potential difference

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It is based on deflection method It is based on zero deflection method

Applications of Potentiometer (practical cases involving Potentiometer)

 To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell
 Comparison of emf’s of two cell
 Comparison of resistances
 To determine thermo emf
 To calibrate ammeter and voltmeter

Domestic wiring
Domestic wiring is the wiring process done in domestic premises or houses for providing electrical
power for lighting, fans and other domestic appliances with all the safety precautions.
Protection against overcurrent
An overcurrent is a current greater than the rated current of a circuit.
It may occur in two ways:
1. As an overload current.
2. As a short circuit or fault current.
These conditions need to be protected against in order to avoid damage to circuit conductors and
equipment. In practice, fuses and circuit breakers will fulfil both of these needs.
Overloads
Overloads are overcurrent, occurring in healthy circuits. They may be caused, for example, by faulty
appliances or by connecting too many appliances to a circuit.
Short circuits
A short circuit is the current that will flow when a ‘bridge’ occurs between live conductors (line-to-
neutral for single-phase and line to-line for three-phase). Prospective short-circuit current is the same,
but the term is usually used to signify the value of short circuit at fuse or circuit-breaker positions.
Fuses and circuit breakers
Fuses
A fuse is simply a device which carries a metal element, usually tinned copper, which will melt and
break the circuit when excessive current flows.
There are three types of fuse:

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1. The rewirable or semi-enclosed fuse

2. The cartridge fuse and fuse link
3. The high-breaking-capacity (HBC) fuse.
The rewirable fuse
A rewirable fuse consists of a fuse, holder, a fuse element and a fuse carrier (the holder and carrier being
made of porcelain or Bakelite).

The circuits for which this type of fuse is designed have a colour code, which is marked on the fuse
holder and is as follows:

45A Green
30A Red
20A Yellow
15A Blue
5A White
Advantages of rewirable fuse
1. It is cheap
2. Easy to repair
Disadvantages of rewirable fuse
1. It is old fashioned
2. The fact that it is repairable enables the wrong size of fuse wire (element) to be used.
3. The elements become weak after long usage and may break under normal conditions.
4. Normal starting-current surges (e.g. when motors are switched on) are ‘seen’ by the fuse as an
overload and may, therefore, break the circuit.
5. The fuse holder and carrier can become damaged as a result of arcing in the event of a heavy
overload or short circuit.
Cartridge fuse

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A cartridge fuse consists of a porcelain tube with metal and caps to which the element is attached. The
tube is filled with silica. These fuses are found generally in modem plug tops used with 13A socket
outlets, in some distribution boards and at mains intake positions.

Advantages over the rewirable fuse

1. Not deteriorating easy
2. Modernized
3. High accuracy in breaking at rated values and of not arcing when interrupting faults.
Disadvantages of Cartridge fuse
1. They are however, expensive to replace.
How a fuse works
The fuse breaks the circuit if a fault in an appliance causes too much current to flow. The fuse contains
a piece of wire that melts easily if the current going through the fuse is too great, the wire heats up until
it melts and breaks the circuit.
High-breaking-capacity fuses
The HBC fuse is a sophisticated variation of the cartridge fuse and is normally found protecting motor
circuits and industrial installations. It consists of a porcelain body filled with silica with a silver element
and lug type end caps. Another feature is the indicating element, which shows when the fuse has blown.
It is very fast-acting and can discriminate between a starting surge and an overload.
Numerical example 6
1. With the aid of a diagram, explain how the fuse works in electrical circuit
2. A circuit in a house is protected by a 10A fuse. The circuit is connected to the 240V mains. The
following appliances are connected to the circuit
Appliance Power rating
Bulb 1 100W
Bulb 2 75W
TV 300W
Heater 1500W
Determine whether the fuse will blow on or off if all appliances are turned on
3. You have choice of the following fuses 2A, 3A, 5A, 13A and 14A. Which of the fuses will be
most suitable for the following appliances

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Appliance Specification
Electric iron 220V, 2.8kW
Refrigerator 240V, 400W
Water heater 220V, 3kW

A circuit breaker
A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by excess current, typically resulting from an overload or
short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow after a fault is detected.
A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts, called electrodes.
Under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until
and unless the system becomes faulty.

The contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on
any part of the system, the trip coils of the breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled
apart by some mechanism, thus opening the circuit.
Operating principle of Circuit Breaker
When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck between
them. The current is thus able to continue until the discharge ceases. The production of arc not only
delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to
the system or to the breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the
arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value.

Arc Phenomenon in Circuit Breaker

When a short - circuit occurs, a heavy current flows through the contacts of the circuit breaker before
they are opened by the protective system.
At the instant when the contacts begin to separate the contact area decreases rapidly and large fault
current causes increased current density and hence rise in temperature.

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The heat produced in the medium between contacts (usually the medium is oil or air) is sufficient to
ionise the air or vapourise and ionise the oil.
The ionised air or vapour, acts as conductor and an arc is struck between the contacts. The potential
difference between the contacts is quite small and is just sufficient to maintain the arc.
The arc provides a low resistance path and consequently the current in the circuit remains uninterrupted
so long as the arc persists.
During the arcing period, the current flowing between the contacts depends upon the arc resistance. The
greater the arc resistance, the smaller the current that flows between the contacts.
The arc resistance depends upon the following factors:
Degree of ionisation - the arc resistance increases with the decrease in the number of ionised particles
between the contacts.
Length of the arc - the arc resistance increases with the length of the arc i.e. separation of contacts.
Cross section of arc - the arc resistance increase with the decrease in the area of cross section of the
arc.
Three pin plug
3 pin plugs are designed so that mains electricity can be supplied to electrical appliances safely.

A 3 pin plug consists of three pins (hence the name). Each pin must be correctly connected to the three
wires in the electrical cable. Each wire has its own specified colour so as it can be easily identified.

The live wire is brown: This is connected to a fuse on the live pin. The electric current uses the live
wire as its route in.
The neutral wire is blue: This is the route the electric current takes when it exits an appliance; it is for
this reason the neutral wire has a voltage close to zero.

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The earth wire is green & yellow and is connected to the earth pin. This is used when the appliance
has a metal casing to take any current away if the live wire comes in contact with the casing.
Heating effect of electric current and commercial electricity
When electric current is transferred through a conduct, heat energy is generated and is due to average
kinetic energy converted from moving free electrons. Thus the increase in these free electrons kinetic
energy increase the heat generation in a conductor. It was studied by Robert Joule who proposed that
the amount of heat (Q) produced depends on the following factors
1. Resistance of a conductor, 𝑄 ∝ 𝑅
2. Square of current in the conductor, 𝑄 ∝ 𝐼 2
3. Time taken, 𝑄 ∝ 𝑡
Thus;
Q ∝ I 2 Rt
Q = kI 2 Rt
But k = 1

𝐐 = 𝐈 𝟐 𝐑𝐭
This is called joule’s law

𝐐 𝟐
𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 𝐕𝟐
( )
= 𝐈 𝐑 = 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐏 = = 𝐕𝐈 =
𝐭 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐑

Commercial unit of electrical energy

Electric energy
Electric power =
time
Electric energy = Electric power x time
In commercial purpose, higher units are used thus;
Electric energy = Electric power(kW) x time(h)
Thus SI unit of commercial electrical energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh)
𝟏𝐤𝐖𝐡 = 𝟏 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲
𝟏𝒌𝑾𝒉 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓 𝒃𝒚 𝒂𝒏 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒘𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒔 𝟏𝒌𝑾
Wattage: Is an amount of electrical energy consumed by an electrical appliance per unit time
Numerical example 7

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1. An electric fire has two elements each rated at 1kW. During one week, the fire is used for 28hours
with one element switched on and another 20 hours with both elements switched on. Find the
total cost at TSh500 per kilowatt.
2. What “1 kilowatt-hour” is as used in current electricity, if you find a domestic bulb rated 60W,
240V what does it mean?
3. Find the cost of running five 60W lamps and four 100W lamps for 8 hours if electric energy
costs TShs27/= per unit.
4. Francis’s house has the following electrical appliances and their specifications
Appliance Rating
Television 600W, 240V
Laptop 550W, 240V
Radio 300W,120V
Refrigerator 800W, 300V
10 Electric bulbs @60W,120V
2 Electric heater @1200W, 240V
Assuming all appliances are used all days per week except Saturday only,
(a) How many units he is using per week?
(b) Calculate his cost incurrence per week if the cost of electric energy is TShs200/= per unit.
Applications of heating effect of an electric current
1. Electric heater
2. Filament lamps
3. Incandescent lamps
4. Loss of energy from the National grid supply of electricity

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WAVES
Whenever we see or hear anything it is because of existence of waves.
Wave is a periodic mechanism which transfer energy from one point to another in a given medium.
Or
Refers to the movement of disturbances from a source which transform energy from one point to another
without the actual movement of the medium itself.
Classifications of waves
Waves can be classified into different forms basing on the following factors
1. Periodicity: here the forms of waves are
Periodic waves: - are waves which has special time to propagate
Non-periodic waves: - are waves which has no specific time to propagate
2. Energy movements: here, there are also two forms
Progressive (travelling) waves: - are those which transmit energy from one point to another
Stationary (standing) waves: - are waves which when propagate, no net energy transfer in space.
3. Direction of displacement: here the forms of waves are
Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves
Torsional waves- propagate along a rod when one end is given a rapid twist
Types of waves
Waves are of two fundamental types
1. Mechanical waves
2. Electromagnetic waves
Mechanical waves: are waves which require a material medium for their transmission. The medium can
be solid, liquid or gas.
When these waves go through a medium, there is no net transfer of matter i.e. there is no permanent
displacement of the medium
Examples of mechanical waves are like, sound waves, water waves, string waves and so on.
Electromagnetic waves: are types of waves which do not require a material medium for their
transmission i.e. they capable of passing through a vacuum.
Examples are like light waves, infrared radiations and X-rays
Types of mechanical waves
There are two types of mechanical waves

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1. Transverse waves
2. Longitudinal waves
Transverse waves: are waves which when travelling, the direction of displacement of the medium
particles is perpendicular to the direction of the waves.

Note
 All electromagnetic waves are transverse in nature
 Transverse waves can only be set in solid or on surface of liquids
Examples of transverse waves are
(i) Water waves generated on the surface of water when a stone is dropped into it
(ii) String waves
(iii) Light and all other electromagnetic waves
Longitudinal waves are waves in which the direction of oscillation of medium particles is the same as
that of the wave direction i.e. particles of the material medium vibrate in the same direction as that of
the wave

When longitudinal wave is travelling, two features are associated, these are

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i. Compression (C): is the point where there is high concentration of air molecules i.e.
molecules of the air are too close to each other
ii. Rarefaction (R): Is the point where the air molecules are disperse from each other
Examples of longitudinal waves are sound waves in air and waves in a stretched spring
Difference between transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves Longitudinal waves

Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave Particles vibrate in the same direction as that
direction of the wave
It is formed by a series of crests and troughs It is formed by a series of compression and
rarefactions
No pressure variation Pressure and density are maximum at
compressions and minimum at rarefactions
Propagate only in solids and at surface of Propagates in all types of media whether solid,
liquids liquid or gas
It is slow I propagation It is fast in propagation

General wave profile

Wave profile is the plot of displacement of particles against the distance from the source of a wave.
Harmonic wave is that wave whose wave profile is sinusoidal i.e. it resembles the sine function curve.

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Amplitude (a): is the maximum displacement of vibrating particles of the wave from equilibrium
position. Its SI unit is metre (m)
Crest is the point of maximum positive displacement from equilibrium position
Trough is the point of maximum negative displacement from equilibrium position
Wave length (𝝀) is the distance between two successive crests or troughs or is the distance between two
adjacent points with the same phase. (For transverse waves) but,
For longitudinal wave is the distance between the successive compressions or rarefactions.
Wave length is denoted by Greek letter lambda, λ and is measured in metre
Period (T) is the time taken by a wave to form a one complete cycle. Its SI unit is second (s)
Wave number (σ) is the number of waves present in a unit distance. Or is the reciprocal of wave number
𝟏
𝛔= (𝐦−𝟏 )
𝛄
SI unit of wave number is per metre.
Frequency (f) is the number of complete cycles per second or is the reciprocal of time period
𝟏 −𝟏
𝐟= (𝐬 )
𝐓
1s−1 = 1 Hertz (Hz),
Hence, the agreed SI unit of frequency is Hertz (Hz).
Relationship between frequency and period

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From,
1
f=
T
𝐟𝐓 = 𝟏
Wave velocity (v) is the distance between two successive troughs or crests per unit time taken
SI unit of wave velocity is metre per second (m/s)
distance between two successive troughs or crests
v=
time taken
𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝛄)
𝐯=
𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐨𝐝 (𝐓)
Relationship between velocity, wave length and frequency
wave length (γ)
v=
period (T)
1
v = wave length (γ) ( )
period (T)
v = wave length (γ)(frequency (f))
𝐕𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲 (𝐯) = 𝐰𝐚𝐯𝐞 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 (𝛄) 𝐱 𝐟𝐫𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲 (𝐟)
Particle velocity (VP ) is the speed of vibration of particles carrying the wave.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐜𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐥𝐞 (𝐲) m
𝐕𝐏 = ,
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 (𝐭) s
Progressive waves
Progressive waves are movement of disturbances from a source which transfer energy and momentum
from the source to places around it.
Progressive waves spread continuously from a point source.
Examples of progressive waves are

Type of wave Nature of disturbance

Water waves Water molecules
Sound waves Vibratory motion superposed on random motion of air
molecules
Secondary earth quake waves Shaking motion (transverse movement) of earth’s crust material
Electromagnetic waves Transverse variation of electric field and magnetic fields

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Properties of progressive waves

1. Vibration of the particles in a progressive waves are of the same amplitude and frequency
2. The phase of vibration change for different points along the wave
3. The distance between the successive crests or troughs is the wave length of the wave
Stationary (standing) waves
Stationary waves are waves formed when two progressive waves of equal amplitude and frequency
travel in opposite direction in the same medium.
Example of stationary waves are
1. Waves formed in strings fixed at both ends, these are stationary transverse waves
2. Sound waves in pipes, these are longitudinal stationary waves
When standing waves are propagating, two features are associated, these are
1. Node(N)
2. Anti-node(A)

Distance between two successive nodes and antinodes is half the wave length
𝛌
i.e. 𝐍𝐍 = 𝐀𝐀 = 𝟐

Distance between node and antinode is the quarter the wave length
𝛌
i.e. 𝐍𝐀 = 𝟒

Characteristics of standing waves

1. The vibration of the particles in stationary waves is simple harmonic motion (S.H.M)
2. The nodes and antinodes are produced alternatively
3. The amplitude of stationary wave is minimum at the nodes and maximum at the antinodes
4. The distance between three consecutive antinodes or nodes or the length of two consecutive
loops is the wave length of a stationary wave

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5. The change in pressure and the density of the medium is maximum at the nodes and minimum
at the antinodes
6. In the stationary wave, all the particles comes to rest during a complete vibration
Difference between progressive waves and stationary waves
1. The vibration of the particles in progressive waves are of the same amplitude whereas in
stationary waves the vibration are of different amplitude
2. In progressive waves phase of vibration change for different points along the wave whereas in
stationary waves, vibrations between successive nodes are in phase
3. In progressive waves, distance between two successive crests or troughs is the wave length of
the wave but in stationary waves, the distance between successive nodes is half the wave length
of the wave.
Conditions for stationary waves to form
i. The two waves must be progressive
ii. The waves must travel in opposite direction in the same media
iii. The waves must have the same amplitude, wave length and frequency
iv. The two waves must meet
Qn. Explain briefly why a duck on water surface remains where it is as the water wave passes
Ans. Water waves are transverse waves where all particles in the media vibrate up and down in one spot
as the wave travel but no net displacement of the media.

The concept of Damping

Damping is the process whereby energy is taken from the oscillating system.
Oscillation is the regular vibration in magnitude or position about a central point.
Example of oscillation
i. Oscillation of simple pendulum
ii. Oscillation of plucked spring
iii. Oscillation of stricken turning fork
Types of damping
1. Natural damping
2. Artificial damping
Natural damping involve the action of natural forces acting on the body to oscillate

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Artificial damping involve the applied external force on the system to make it oscillate
Damped oscillation are those in which the amplitude of vibration decrease with time.

Undamped oscillation is the one in which the amplitude of vibration remains constant with time

Examples of damping
i. The internal force in a spring can be dissipative and prevent the spring being perfectly elastic
ii. The panels of cars are coated to reduce vibrations
iii. The shock absorber of a car provides a damping force which prevents excessive oscillation

SOUND WAVES
Sound is a form of wave motion which is conveyed through an electric medium from a vibrating body
to a listener.
Production of sound waves
Sound is produced whenever air is set into vibration by an oscillating body like a stretched string,
membrane, turning fork and vocal cords of a human being.

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Audible and inaudible waves

Audible waves are sound waves that human ear can hear. The range of human hearing is 20Hz to
20000Hz (20 kHz). Human ear cannot hear sound outside this range.
Inaudible wave are those waves which the human ear cannot hear.
Types of inaudible waves
1. Infrasonic waves: are those with frequency below 20Hz. Examples are earth quakes waves.
These can be detected by some animals like rats, birds etc.
2. Ultrasonic waves are longitudinal waves with frequencies above 20 kHz. Examples are waves
emitted by bat.
Application of ultrasonic waves
i. Determination of sea depth
ii. Are used in medicine for diagnostic purpose in scanning internal parts of the body
iii. Used to remove brain tumors once thought to be operable by using a device called Cavitron
ultrasonic surgical aspirator (CUSA)
iv. Used in Doppler flow meter to measure speed of blood flow
v. Used in cleaning surgical instruments
vi. Used in testing the quality of the lining and pads used in vehicle and aircraft brakes
vii. Used in locating schools of fish.
The human ear
The ears are the sense organs which help us in hearing sound. We will now describe the construction
and working of a human ear.
Construction of Human Ear
The ear consists of three compartments: outer ear, middle ear and inner ear. The part of ear which we
see outside the head is called outer ear. The outer ear consists of a broad part called pinna and about 2
to 3 centimetres long passage called ear canal. At the end of ear canal is a thin, elastic and circular
membrane called ear-drum. The ear-drum is also called tympanum. The outer ear contains air.

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Figure 80: The human ear

The middle ear contains three small and delicate bones called hammer, anvil and stirrup. These ear bones
are linked to one another. One end of the bone called hammer is touching the ear-drum and its other end
is connected to the second bone called anvil. The other end of anvil is connected to the third bone called
stirrup. And the free end of stirrup is held against the membrane over the oval window of inner ear. The
middle ear also contains air. The lower part of middle ear has a narrow tube called ‘Eustachian tube’
going to the throat. Eustachian tube connects the middle ear to throat and ensures that the air pressure
inside the middle ear is the same as that on the outside.
The inner ear has a coiled tube called cochlea. One side of cochlea is connected to the middle ear through
the elastic membrane over the oval window. The cochlea is filled with a liquid. The liquid present in
cochlea contains nerve cells which are sensitive to sound. The other side of cochlea is connected to
auditory nerve which goes into the brain.
Working of Human Ear
The sound waves (coming from a sound producing body) are collected by the pinna of outer ear. These
sound waves pass through the ear canal and fall on the ear-drum. Sound waves consist of compressions
(high pressure regions) and rarefactions (low pressure regions). When the compression of sound wave
strikes the ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum increases and pushes the eardrum inwards.
And when the rarefaction of sound wave falls on the ear-drum, the pressure on the outside of ear-drum
decreases and it moves outward. Thus, when the sound waves fall on the ear-drum, the eardrum starts
vibrating back and forth rapidly.
The vibrating ear-drum causes a small bone hammer to vibrate. From hammer, vibrations are passed on
to the second bone anvil and finally to the third bone stirrup. The vibrating stirrup strikes on the

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membrane of the oval window and passes its vibrations to the liquid in the cochlea. Due to this, the
liquid in the cochlea begins to vibrate. The vibrating liquid of cochlea sets up electrical impulses in the
nerve cells present in it. These electrical impulses are carried by auditory nerve to the brain. The brain
interprets these electrical impulses as sound and we get the sensation of hearing.
Actually, the three ear-bones, hammer, anvil and stirrup, act as a system of levers and amplify (make
stronger) the vibrations of ear-drum by more than 20 times. Thus, the function of three tiny bones in the
middle ear is to increase the strength of vibrations coming from the ear-drum before passing them on to
the inner ear.
Please note that it is necessary to make the sound vibrations stronger (or amplified) because the nerve
cells in cochlea respond only to strong vibrations in the liquid of cochlea. We should not put anything
(like pin, pencil or pen, etc.) inside our ears. This is because they can tear the ear-drum. The tearing of
ear-drum can make a person deaf. Our ears are very delicate organs.
Sonometer
Is the device used to study the properties of waves in string, it consists of a voice box with a string
loaded at one end. The box has a peg at one end and a pulley at the other end. The string is tied to the
peg and the other end passes over a pulley. It is made taut by hanging some masses. The masses are
varied in order to change the tension of the string. Bridges are used to support the string at any convenient
length. There are two methods of tuning the sonometer namely heat and visual tuning

Factors which affects frequency of waves in strings

1. Length of a string (l)
The frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to length of a string
1
f ∝ … … … … … .∗
l
1
f=k
l
fl = k
𝐟𝟏 𝒍𝟏 = 𝐟𝟐 𝒍𝟐
2. Tension in the string (T)

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The frequency of vibration is directly proportional to the square root of the tension in the string
f ∝ √T … … … … … ∗∗
f = k√T
f
=k
√T
f1 f2
=
√T1 √T2
𝐟𝟏 𝐓𝟏
=√
𝐟𝟐 𝐓𝟐
3. Mass per unit length (𝜇)
The frequency of vibration is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit
length

1
f∝ … … … … … … ∗∗∗
√μ
f√μ = k

f1 √μ2
=
f2 √μ1
𝐟𝟏 𝛍𝟐
=√
𝐟𝟐 𝛍𝟏
Combining equation *, ** and *** then we have
1 𝑇
𝑓∝ √
𝑙 𝜇

1 𝑇
𝑓=𝑘 √
𝑙 𝜇

But k = ½
Then

𝟏 𝑻
𝒇= √
𝟐𝒍 𝝁

Factors affecting velocity of wave in string

1. Tension in the string (T)

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Velocity of a wave is directly proportional to the square root of tension in the string
v ∝ √T … … … .∗
v = k√T
𝐕𝟏 𝐓𝟏
=√
𝐕𝟐 𝐓𝟐
2. Mass per unit length (𝜇)
The wave velocity in the string is inversely proportional to the square root of the mass per unit
length
1
V∝ … … … … … … ∗∗
√μ
V√μ = k

V1 √μ2
=
V2 √μ1
𝐕𝟏 𝛍𝟐
=√
𝐕𝟐 𝛍𝟏

Combining equations * and **

𝑇
V∝√
𝜇

𝑇
V = 𝑘√
𝜇
But k = 1
𝑻
𝐕=√
𝝁

Numerical example 1
1. Find the frequency of the fundamental note given by a stretched wire 0.30 m long, if it has a mass
of 3 g and the tension applied to it is 900 N. If the wire were of mass of 12 g instead of mass of 3 g,
what would the frequency be, assuming all other factors to be the same as before?
2. A stretched wire vibrates at 100 Hz. What is the frequency of the wire of the same material and
thickness which is (a) twice as long (b) the same length but with four times the tension?
3. A horizontal wire 2.0 m long gives a note of frequency 150 Hz. A bridge is placed under the wire
0.5 m from one end. What are frequencies produced by the two segments of the wire?

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4. A sonometer wire between a fixed bridge X and an adjusting bridge Y has a frequency of 320 Hz
when Y is 0.80 M from X. How far must Y be moved to produce a frequency of 256 Hz? Which
way must Y be moved?
5. Find the frequency of the fundamental note given by a stretched wire if it 0.60 m long, has a mass
of 10 g and a tension of 960 N.
6. A stretched string is in unison with a turning fork of frequency 384 Hz. If the tension in the string is
increased by 2% what is the frequency of the beats heard when the fork and the string are now
sounded together?
7. A long wire PQR is made by joining two wires PQ and QR of equal radii. PQ has a length of 4.8 m
and a mass of 0.06 kg while QR has a length of 2.6 m and mass of 0.2 kg. The wire PQR is under
tension of 80 N. A sinusoidal wave pulse is sent along the wire PQ from the end P. Calculate time
taken by the wave pulse to reach the other end R of the wire.
Properties of waves
i. Reflection
ii. Refraction
iii. Interference
iv. Diffraction
Reflection of sound waves
Ripple tank
A ripple tank is a device used t study reflection of water waves. Consider its figure below

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The lamp has a small filament so that the light source is almost a point and is placed about 0.5 m above
the tank. The wave pattern are created using drive motor which sets the motion of the eccentric which
further shakes the wave dipper. These waves pattern can be seen on a white paper or hard cardboard
placed on the floor under the tank. Sponge around the edges of the tank prevents reflection of waves
from the edges. The crests and troughs of the waves acts as lenses and refract the incident light. Bright
and dark parts forms on a screen and show the wave motion clearly.
Stroboscope
Stroboscope is an instrument used to make a cyclically moving object appear to be slow-moving or
stationary. It consist of either a rotating disc with slots or holes or a lamp such as a flashtube which
produces a brief repetitive flashes of light.
Usually the rate of stroboscope is adjustable to different frequencies. When a rotating or vibrating object
is observed with a stroboscope at its vibration frequency, it appears as stationary

Echoes
An echo is the sound heard after the original sound, it is caused by reflection of the sound wave on a
plane surface. Echoes can occur when you shout in forests, mountains, tall buildings, escapement and
any other obstacle.

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Echo analysis
Let “d” be the distance between the source of sound and a cliff, “T” be the time taken for an echo to be
heard and “V” be the velocity of sound in air in (m/s)

Then
Total distance travelled by sound in air = 2𝑥d
Total distance covered
Velocity, V =
time
𝟐𝐝
𝐕=
𝐓
Applications of echoes
a. In determination of speed of sound in air, provided that all other parameters are known

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b. In determination of depth of seas provided that speed of sound in water is known, if depth is “d”
1
then d = 2 𝑥Velocity 𝑥 time
c. Used in underwater exploration for gas and oil
Speed of sound in different materials

Media Speed of sound (m/s)

Air (0℃) 330
Water 1400
Gold 3200
Brick 3650
Wood 4000
Concrete 5000
Glass 5100
Steel 5790
Aluminium 6420

Acoustics of a building
Acoustic is a branch of physics which deals with the production of best sound effects in public buildings
such as cinema halls, concert halls, conference halls etc.
Sound absorption in materials
When sound is incident on smooth hard surface, most of it is reflected by the surface and only little of
it is absorbed by the surface. A porous surface absorbs most of the sound incident on it and reflect little
of it. Example human body, clothes, spongy are good sound absorber.
Reverberation of sound waves
Reverberation is the multiple reflection of sound waves such that the original sound wave and the
reflected sound waves are indistinguishable.
Consider

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Or
Reverberation is the prolongation of sound in a room or hall due to successive reflections from the
surface after the original sound has ceased.
Condition for reverberation to occur
The distance between the reflecting surfaces should be less than 17 m and any distance greater or equal
to 17 m, the original sound and the echo will be distinguishable.
Reverberation time
This is the time taken for a sound of specified intensity to die away until it just becomes inaudible.
Methods of reducing reverberation time
a. Having few windows in a room
b. Covering walls, floor and ceiling by sound absorbing material example carpets, perforated
boards etc.
c. Having good number of audience in a room
d. Having cushioned seats in a room
e. Having no large reflectors such as concave surface, spherical surface etc.
Factors affecting acoustic of a building
1. Reverberation time
2. Intensity
3. Interference
4. Extraneous noise
5. Resonance
6. Focusing
Numerical examples 2
1. A man fire a bullet standing between two cliffs. The first echo is heard after 3 seconds and second
echo is heard after 5 seconds, if the velocity of sound is 330 m/s, what will be the distance
between the two cliffs?

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2. Explain the reasons of the following phenomenon

a. Echoes are not formed in classroom
b. Sound is heard more clearly in a hall with many people than when it has few people
c. Why do recording studios and concert auditoriums sometimes have their ceiling walls
covered with soft perforated boards?
d. It is easier to hear a sound coming from a distance at night than at a day time
3. Two boys at 200 m apart stand on one side of a high vertical cliff at the same perpendicular
distance from it. When one fires a gun the other hears the sound 0.60 s after the flash and the
second sound 0.25 s after the first sound. Calculate
a. The velocity of sound in air
b. The perpendicular distance of the boys from the cliff
4. A student standing between two vertical cliffs and 480 m from the nearest cliff, shouted. She
heard the first echo after 3 s and the second echo 2 s later. Calculate
 The velocity of sound in air
 The distance between the cliffs
5. A person standing 99 m from the foot of a tall cliff claps his hand and hears the echo 0.6 s later,
calculate the speed of sound in air
6. A thunderclap is heard 4 s after the lightning flash is seen. How far away is the thunder storm
Centre? Speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
7. A man standing 504 m from a cliff claps his hands and hears the echo 3 s later. What value does
this observation give for the velocity of sound in air?
8. A ship using an echo sounding device receives an echo from a wreck 0.8 s after the sound is
transmitted. If the velocity of sound in sea water is 1500 m/s, what is the depth of the wreck?
9. A steel pipe 884 m long is struck at one end by a hammer. A microphone at the other end
connected to accurate timing the device records a delay of 2.43 s between the arrival of sound
transmitted by the pipe and that transmitted by the air. Find the velocity of sound in steel
10. A man standing 510 m from a cliff fires a rifle. Another man standing nearer to the cliff hears
two shots, the interval between the arrivals being 1.0 s. what will be the distance between the
two men if the line joining them is at right angles to the cliff? Take velocity of sound in air as
340 m/s.
Diffraction of sound waves
Diffraction of wave is the phenomenon where by waves spread in all direction when they pass through
a small opening called a slit.
The extent of wave diffraction depends on the size of slit, the smaller the slit the higher the diffraction
and the larger the slit the lower the diffraction of wave.
In small slits, the wave after passing across it, it diffract almost in all direction but in larger opening, the
wave after passing the barrier, it goes to almost straight direction. Consider the figure below

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Examples and application of diffraction in real life:

 CD reflecting rainbow colours
 Holograms
 Sun appears red during sunset
 Forming the shadow of an object
 Bending of light at the corners of the door
 Spectrometer
 X-ray diffraction
 To separate white light

Interference of waves
Wave interference refer to the process of intermixing of waves when they are emitted by more than one
source.
Conditions necessary for wave interference
i. The two sources must be close to each other
ii. The sources of wave must be coherent i.e. the waves emitted must have equal frequency and
amplitude
iii. The waves must be emitted continuously

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Types of wave interference

1. Constructive interference
2. Destructive interference
Constructive interference is the type of interference which results into maximum amplitude of a wave.
It is formed when two crests or troughs interfere
Destructive interference is the type of interference which results into minimum or no wave amplitude.
It is formed by the interference of a crest from one source and the trough from another source.
Generally,
Two waves with the same wavelength and frequency arriving simultaneously at a point in space or a
medium can have an increased effect at that point or to some extent neutralizing effect. The two arriving
waves interfere with each other. If they happen to be in phase at that point, the overall effect will be
equal to the sum of the individual effects. This interference is called "constructive interference." If they
are out of phase at that point, the overall effect depends on how much out of phase one wave is relative
to the other. The maximum neutralizing effect occurs when they are 180° out of phase that results in
the greatest "destructive interference."

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Application of wave interference

a. Formation of beats
b. In music discos, religion public speaking (sermons) and etc., the speakers are always put close
to other and even overloaded to each other to maximize the sound range travelling
Refraction of waves
Refraction of wave is the bending of waves when they pass from one media to another. Refraction of
waves also obeys the laws of refraction

opp BC
sin 𝑖 = = ……………i
hyp AC
opp AE
sin r = = … … … … . . ii
hyp AC

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sin i BC AC BC υ τ λ
From Snell’s law, refractive index, η = sinr = AC x = AE = υ1 τ = λ i
AE 2 r

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 𝛌𝐢 𝛖𝟏
𝐫𝐞𝐟𝐫𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱, 𝛈 = = =
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐫 𝛌𝐫 𝛖𝟐
Discussion question
The velocity of a wave in air is 3𝑥108 m/s and that of a wave in water is2𝑥108 m/s. Find the angle of
refraction of a wave if the angle of incident is 30°.
Music and Music instruments
Music is a sound of regular frequency which has a raise and fall patterns
Music instruments are devices used to produce music
These devices are of three types
 String instruments like guitar and violin
 Percussion instruments like drums
 Wind instruments like trumpets
Characteristics of music
 Music note is a sound which originate from a source which is vibrating at certain set of frequencies
 A tone is a sound of regular frequency
 Sometimes a note is a single tone made by an instrument
 Music is also a combination of several tones
 Noise is a combination of irregular frequencies and is produced by a source vibrating with no fixed
frequency
 Overtone are notes of frequencies higher than fundamental frequency
 Harmonic is a note with frequency equal to an integral multiple of that of fundamental note
 Timbre refers to the character, texture, and colour of a sound that defines it (tone quality)
 Fundamental frequency (natural frequency) is the lowest frequency that can be produced by a
periodic wave form.
Note
All overtones are harmonics but not all harmonics are overtones

Violin acoustics (how a violin works)

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The energy of a vibrating string is transmitted through the bridge to the body of the violin, which allows
the sound to radiate into the surrounding air. During a bow stroke, the string is pulled until the string's
tension causes it to return, after which it receives energy again from the bow.
Both ends of a violin string are effectively stationary, allowing for the creation of standing waves. A
range of simultaneously produced harmonics each affect the timbre, but only the fundamental frequency
is heard. The frequency of a note can be raised by the increasing the string's tension, or decreasing its
length or mass. The number of harmonics present in the tone can be reduced, for instance by the using
the left hand to shorten the string length. The loudness and timbre of each of the strings is not the same,
and the material used affects sound quality and ease of articulation.

Vibrations in organ pipes

An organ pipe is a sound-producing element of the pipe organ that resonates at a specific pitch when
pressurized air (commonly referred to as wind) is driven through it.
Types of organ pipe
a. Closed pipe (open at one end) examples are Bottle, whistle
b. Open pipe (open at both ends) examples are like trumpets
Vibration in closed pipe
a. Fundamental note (first harmonic)

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λ
For fundamental note, NA = L + C = 4 where C is an end collection

λ = 4(L + C)
From
Velocity, V = λf0
V
f0 =
λ
𝐕
𝐟𝟎 =
𝟒(𝐋 + 𝐂)
If end collection is neglected, then C = 0 and the formula becomes
𝐕
𝐟𝟎 =
𝟒𝐋
b. Second harmonic (first overtone)
3λ
For fundamental note, NN + NA = L + C = 4
where C is an end collection

4(L + C)
λ=
3
From
Velocity, V = λf1
V
f1 =
λ
𝟑𝐕 𝐕
𝐟𝟏 = = 𝟑( ) = 𝟑f0
𝟒(𝐋 + 𝐂) 𝟒(𝐋 + 𝐂)

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If end collection is neglected, then C = 0 and the formula becomes

𝐕
𝐟𝟏 = 𝟑 ( )
𝟒𝐋
c. Third harmonic (second overtone)
5λ
For fundamental note, NN + NN + NA = L + C = where C is an end collection
4

4(L + C)
λ=
5
From
Velocity, V = λf2
V
f2 =
λ
𝟓𝐕 𝐕
𝐟𝟐 = = 𝟓( ) = 𝟓f0
𝟒(𝐋 + 𝐂) 𝟒(𝐋 + 𝐂)
If end collection is neglected, then C = 0 and the formula becomes
𝐕
𝐟𝟐 = 𝟓 ( )
𝟒𝐋
Therefore, the following relation exists in closed pipe
𝐟𝟎 = 𝐟𝟎
𝐟𝟏 = 𝟑𝐟𝟎
𝐟𝟐 = 𝟓𝐟𝟎
Common difference is 𝟐𝐟𝟎
From the formula of the nth term of an arithmetic sequence or series
An = A1 + (n − 1)d
fn = f0 + (n − 1)2f0
fn = 2nf0 − f0
𝐟𝐧−𝟏 = (𝟐𝐧 − 𝟏)𝐟𝟎
This is a general formula of finding the nth overtone frequency
Where “n” is the number of overtones and n = 1, 2, 3…

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Vibration in open pipe

a. Fundamental note (first harmonic)

λ
For fundamental note, NA + NA = L + 2C = 2 where C is an end collection

λ = 2(L + 2C)
From
Velocity, V = λf0
V
f0 =
λ
𝐕
𝐟𝟎 =
𝟐(𝐋 + 𝟐𝐂)
If end collection is neglected, then C = 0 and the formula becomes
𝐕
𝐟𝟎 =
𝟐𝐋
b. Second harmonic (first overtone)

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For fundamental note, NA + NN + NA = L + 2C = λ where C is an end collection

λ = L + 2C
From
Velocity, V = λf1
V
f1 =
λ
𝟐𝐕 𝐕
𝐟𝟏 = = 𝟐( ) = 𝟐f0
𝟐(𝐋 + 𝐂) 𝟐(𝐋 + 𝟐𝐂)
If end collection is neglected, then C = 0 and the formula becomes
𝐕
𝐟𝟏 = 𝟐 ( )
𝟐𝐋
c. Third harmonic (second overtone)
3λ
For fundamental note, NA + NN + NN + NA = L + 2C = where C is an end collection
2

2(L + 2C)
λ=
3
From
Velocity, V = λf2
V
f2 =
λ

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𝟑𝐕 𝐕
𝐟𝟐 = = 𝟑( ) = 𝟑f0
𝟐(𝐋 + 𝟐𝐂) 𝟐(𝐋 + 𝟐𝐂)
If end collection is neglected, then C = 0 and the formula becomes
𝐕
𝐟𝟐 = 𝟑 ( )
𝟐𝐋
Therefore, the following relation exists in closed pipe
𝐟𝟎 = 𝐟𝟎
𝐟𝟏 = 𝟐𝐟𝟎
𝐟𝟐 = 𝟑𝐟𝟎
Common difference is 𝐟𝟎
From the formula of the nth term of an arithmetic sequence or series
An = A1 + (n − 1)d
fn = f0 + (n − 1)f0
fn = nf0
𝐟𝐧−𝟏 = 𝐧𝐟𝟎
This is a general formula of finding the nth overtone frequency
Where “n” is the number of overtones and n = 1, 2, 3…
Numerical examples 3
1. What is the wavelength and frequency of a the fundamental note produced by an organ pipe,
closed at one end if its length is 2 m given that velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s (ignore the
end correction)
2. What is the length of a pipe closed at one end, which gives a fundamental note of frequency
272 Hz? Ignore end correction and given that speed of sound is 340 m/s
3. A long tube open at both ends is immersed in water with one end just projecting from the water.
A small loudspeaker producing a note of frequency 425 Hz is held above the mouth of the tube.
If the tube and speaker are gradually raised, find the length of the air column in the tube when a
resonance first occurs and when it next occur. Ignore the end correction

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4.
5. A glass tube sealed at one end is 0.17 m long, if any end correction is ignored, what are the
first two resonant frequencies of air column in the tube? Velocity of air is 340 m/s
6. A long vertical tube contains water at the bottom. When a tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz is
sounded over the tube, the shortest length of air in the tube to give a resonance is 0.33 m. if any
end correction is ignored, find the value of the velocity of sound in air.

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Conceptual Questions based on waves

1. How does the sound produced by a vibrating object in a medium reach your ear?
The sound produced by a vibrating object reaches our ear through sound waves which travel in the
medium as a series of compressions and rarefactions caused by the vibrations of the particles of the
medium.
2. Explain how, sound is produced by your school bell?
When the school bell is struck with a hammer, it starts vibrating (or moving back and forth rapidly
through a very small distance). The vibrating school bell produces sound.
3. Why sound waves are called mechanical waves?
The sound waves are called mechanical waves because they need a material medium (like solid,
liquid or gas) for their propagation. The sound waves involve the vibrations of the particles of the
medium through which they travel.
4. Suppose you and your friend are on the moon. Will you be able to hear any sound produced
by your friend?
No, I will not be able to hear any sound produced by my friend while on the moon. This can be
explained as follows: The moon has no air (or atmosphere). It is all vacuum (or empty space) on the
surface of moon. Since there is no air (or atmosphere) on the moon to carry the sound waves (or
sound vibrations), therefore, sound cannot be heard directly on the surface of moon.
5. Which wave property determines (a) loudness (b) pitch?
a. The loudness of sound is determined by the amplitude of sound waves.
b. The pitch of sound is determined by the frequency of vibration of the sound producing source.
6. Guess which sound has a higher pitch: guitar or a car horn?
A guitar has a higher pitch than a car horn.
7. What are wavelength, frequency, time-period and amplitude of a sound wave?
i. The minimum distance in which a sound wave repeats itself is called its wavelength. In most
simple words, it is the length of one complete wave.
ii. The number of complete sound waves (or cycles) produced in one second is called frequency
of the sound wave.
iii. The time required to produce one complete sound wave (or cycle) is called time-period of the
sound wave.
iv. The maximum displacement of the particles of the medium from their original undisturbed
positions, when a sound wave passes through the medium, is called amplitude of the sound
wave.
8. A person is listening to a tone of 500 Hz sitting at a distance of 450 m from the source of the
sound. What is the time interval between successive compressions from the source?
𝑓 = 500𝐻𝑧
𝑑 = 450 𝑚
1 1
Time period, T = = = 0.002 s
𝑓 500Hz

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The time interval between successive compressions from the source of sound is equal to the time-
period of sound waves which is 0.002 second (The distance of 450 m has been given in this question
just to confuse the students).
9. Distinguish between loudness and intensity of sound.
Loudness of sound Intensity of sound
1. The sensation produced in the ears 1. The average energy transported by a
which enables us to distinguish between sound wave per second per unit area
a faint sound (feeble sound) and a loud (perpendicular to the direction of
sound is called loudness of sound. propagation) is called intensity of
sound.
2. Loudness of sound is measured in the 2. Intensity of sound is measured in the
unit of decibel (dB) unit of watts per square metre (W/m2)
3. Loudness of sound depends on the 3. Intensity of sound does not depend on
sensitivity of ears the sensitivity of ears.
10. In which of the three media, air, water or iron, does sound travel the fastest at a particular
temperature?
The sound travels the fastest in a solid medium. Out of air, water and iron, iron is a solid, therefore,
sound travels fastest in iron.
11. Why are the ceilings of concert halls curved?
The ceilings of concert halls are made curved so that sound, after reflection from the curved ceiling,
reaches all the parts of the hall. A curved ceiling actually acts like a large concave soundboard and
reflects sound down onto the audience sitting in the hall.
12. What is the audible range of the average human ear?
The range of frequencies from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
13. What is the range of frequencies associated with: (a) infrasound? (b) Ultrasound?
(a) Range of frequencies associated with infrasound is less than 20 Hz.
(b) Range of frequencies associated with ultrasound is higher than 20,000 Hz.
14. What is sound and how is it produced?
Sound is a form of energy which makes us hear. Sound is produced when objects vibrate (move back
and forth rapidly). For example, sound can be produced:
i. by vibrating strings (as in a sitar)
ii. by vibrating air (as in a flute)
iii. by vibrating membranes (as in a drum), and
iv. by vibrating plates (as in cymbals)
15. Which characteristic of the sound helps you to identify your friend by his voice while sitting
with others in a dark room?
Quality (or Timbre) of sound
16. Flash and thunder are produced simultaneously. But thunder is heard a few seconds after the
flash is seen. Why?

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It is due to the very high speed of light that the flash of lightning is seen first and it is due to
comparatively low speed of sound that the thunder is heard a few seconds later (though they are
produced at the same time).
17. When a sound is reflected from a distant object, an echo is produced. Let the distance between
the reflecting surface and the source of sound production remain the same. Do you hear echo
sound on a hotter day?
The speed of sound increases on a hotter day (when the temperature is high) and it requires a larger
distance from the reflecting surface for the echo to be heard. Since the distance between the reflecting
surface and the source of sound remains the same, no echo can be heard on a hotter day.
18. A stone is dropped from the top of a tower 500 m high into a pond of water at the base of the
tower. When is the splash heard at the top? Given g = 10 m s –2 and speed of sound 𝒗= 340 m
s–1.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛𝑒, 𝑠 = 500 𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑, 𝑢 = 0
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛, 𝑡 = ? (𝑇𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑔 = 10 𝑚 𝑠 −2
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
500 = 0𝑥𝑡 + 𝑥10𝑥𝑡 2
2
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝑡 = 10 𝑠
Thus, the stone takes 10 seconds to fall into pond of water and produce the sound of splash. This
sound of splash has to travel a distance of 500 m to be heard at the top of the tower.
𝐝𝐢𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐥𝐞𝐝 𝐛𝐲 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝 =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 𝐭𝐚𝐤𝐞𝐧 𝐛𝐲 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝
500
340 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 1.47 𝑠
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒘𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒉 𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒔𝒉 𝒊𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒔 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒔
19. Explain how bats use ultrasound to catch a prey?
Bats emit high-frequency ultrasound squeaks (or ultrasonic squeaks) while flying and listen to the
echoes produced by the reflection of their squeaks from the prey like a flying insect. From the time
taken by the echo to be heard, bats can judge the distance of the insect and hence catch it.

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Figure 81: A bat catching a prey

20. How is ultrasound used for cleaning?
Ultrasound is used in industry to clean ‘hard to reach’ parts of objects such as spiral tubes, odd-
shaped machines and electronic components, etc. The object to be cleaned is placed in a cleaning
solution and ultrasound waves are passed into the solution. Due to their high frequency, the
ultrasound waves stir up the cleaning solution. Because of stirring, the particles of dust and grease
sticking to the dirty object vibrate too much, become loose, get detached from the object and fall
into solution. The object gets cleaned thoroughly.
End exercise
WAVES
1. What is resonance? How does it occur?
(i) Why soldiers needs to break step when crossing bridges?
(ii) Why buildings collapse during earth quakes?
(iii) Roofs and windows of a house normally shake when a low flying aero plane is flying above a
house?
2. What are conditions necessary for formation of stationary waves? Give three differences between
stationary and progressive waves.
3. What is an echo? Explain three application of echoes.
4. Differentiate between echoes and reverberation. What is the necessary condition for reverberation
to form?
5. Define reverberation time. Mention at least five method that can be applied to reduce reverberation
time.
6. What is acoustics? Give at least 5 factors that affect acoustic of a building.
7. Define the two types of wave interference. What are necessary conditions for two waves to form
observable interference?

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8. Why do recording studios and concert auditoriums sometimes have their ceilings and walls covered
with soft perforated boards?
9. Why are bells made of metals and not of wood?
10. Why are all stringed instruments provided with hollow boxes?
11. Why is thunder of lightning heard some moments after seeing the flash?
12. Explain why it is easier to hear sound coming from a distance at night than at day time?
13. State one advantage and one disadvantage of echoes. Why echoes are not form in the class room?
14. Define the term beat and beat frequency. Explain how beats form and states at least four conditions
to observe beats.
15. What is fundamental note? A stretched wire vibrates at 100 Hz. What is the frequency of the wire of
the same material and thickness which is
(a) Twice as long
(b) The same length
But four times the tension?
16. A man standing 510 m from a cliff fires a rifle. Another man standing near to the cliff hears two
shots, the interval between their rival being 1.0 s. What is the distance between the two men if the
line joining them is at right angles to the cliffs? (Velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s).
17. What is ripple tank? By a proper drawing showing important parts, describe how a ripple tank works.
18. What is a sonometer? A sonometer wire of length 76 cm is maintained under a tension of 40 N and
an alternating current is passed through the wire. A horse shoe magnet is placed with its poles above
and below the wire and at its midpoint, and the resulting forces set the wire in resonant vibrations.
If the density of the material of the wire is 8800 kg/m3 and the diameter of the wire is 1 mm, what
is the frequency of the alternating current?
19. A wire whose mass per unit length is 0.01 kg/m is stretched with a tension of 900 N. The wire’s
fundamental frequency is in tune with the first overtone of a pipe 1.5 m long that is closed at one
end. How long is the wire?
20. Two identical nylon strings under a tension of 150 N. are sounding notes of frequency 523 Hz. The
peg of one string slips slightly and the tension becomes 146 N. How many beats are heard?
21. A simple pendulum set up to swing in front of the second pendulum, period 2s of a clock is seen to
gain so that the two swing in phase at an interval of 21 s. what is the time of swing of the simple
pendulum?

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ELECTROMAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION

Introduction on electromagnetism
The term ‘magnetic effect of electric current’ means that ‘an electric current flowing in a wire produces
a magnetic field around it’. In other words, electric current can produce magnetism.
A magnet is an object which attracts pieces of iron, steel, nickel and cobalt. Magnets come in various
shapes and sizes depending on their intended use. One of the most common magnets is the bar magnet.
A bar magnet is a long, rectangular bar of uniform cross-section which attracts pieces of iron, steel,
nickel and cobalt.
A magnet has two poles near its ends:
i. North pole
ii. South pole
North Pole is the end of a freely suspended magnet (or a freely pivoted magnet) which points towards
the north direction.
South Pole is the end of a freely suspended magnet (or freely pivoted magnet) which points towards the
south direction.
It has been found by experiments that like magnetic poles repel each other whereas unlike magnetic
poles attract each other. This means that the north pole of a magnet repels the north pole of another
magnet and the south pole of a magnet repels the south pole of another magnet; but the north pole of a
magnet attracts the south pole of another magnet.
Applications of magnets
21. Magnets are used in radio, television, and stereo speakers, in refrigerator doors, on audio and video
cassette tapes, on hard discs and floppies for computers, and in children’s toys.
22. Magnets are also used in making electric generators and electric motors.
23. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) technique which is used to scan inner human body parts
in hospitals also uses magnets for its working.
Magnetic Field
Just as an electric charge creates an electric field, in the same way, a magnet creates a magnetic field
around it.
Magnetic field is the space surrounding a magnet in which magnetic force is exerted.
A compass needle placed near a magnet gets deflected due to the magnetic force exerted by the magnet,
and the iron filings also cling to the magnet due to magnetic force. The magnetic field has both,
magnitude as well as direction. The direction of magnetic field at a point is the direction of the resultant

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force acting on a hypothetical north pole placed at that point. The north end of the needle of a compass
indicates the direction of magnetic field at a point where it is placed.
Magnetic Field Lines
Magnetic field lines are the lines drawn in a magnetic field along which a north magnetic pole would
move. The magnetic field lines are also known as magnetic lines of force. The direction of a magnetic
field line at any point gives the direction of the magnetic force on a north pole placed at that point.

Figure 82: Magnetic field pattern

Since the direction of magnetic field line is the direction of force on a north pole, so the magnetic field
lines always begin from the N-pole of a magnet and end on the S-pole of the magnet
Iron filings show the shape of magnetic field produced by a bar magnet by aligning themselves with the
magnetic field lines.
 The magnetic field lines leave the north pole of a magnet and enter its south pole
 The strength of magnetic field is indicated by the degree of closeness of the field lines. Where
the field lines are closest together, the magnetic field is the strongest.
 The magnetic field and hence the magnetic lines of force exist in all the planes all-round the
magnet.
Properties (or Characteristics) of the Magnetic Field Lines
1. The magnetic field lines originate from the north pole of a magnet and end at its south pole.
2. The magnetic field lines come closer to one another near the poles of a magnet but they are
widely separated at other places.

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A north magnetic pole experiences a stronger force when it approaches one of the poles of the
magnet. This means that the magnetic field is stronger near the poles. From this we conclude
that where magnetic field lines are closer together, it indicates a stronger magnetic field. On the
other hand, when magnetic field lines are widely separated, then it indicates a weak magnetic
field.
3. The magnetic field lines do not intersect (or cross) one another.
This is due to the fact that the resultant force on a north pole at any point can be only in one
direction. But if the two magnetic field lines intersect one another, then the resultant force on a
north pole placed at the point of intersection will be along two directions, which is not possible.
Magnetic Field of Earth
A freely suspended magnet always points in the north-south direction even in the absence of any other
magnet. This suggests that the earth itself behaves as a magnet which causes a freely suspended magnet
(or magnetic needle) to point always in a particular direction: north and south
The shape of the earth’s magnetic field resembles that of an imaginary bar magnet of length one-fifth
of earth’s diameter buried at its centre

Figure 83: Earth's magnetism

The south pole of earth’s magnet is in the geographical north because it attracts the north pole of the
suspended magnet. Similarly, the north pole of earth’s magnet is in the geographical south because it
attracts the south pole of the suspended magnet. Thus, there is a magnetic S-pole near the geographical
north, and a magnetic N-pole near the geographical south.

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The axis of earth’s magnet and the geographical axis do not coincide with each other. The axis of earth’s
magnetic field is inclined at an angle of about 15° with the geographical axis.
Due to this a freely suspended magnet (or magnetic needle) makes an angle of about 15° with the
geographical axis and points only approximately in the north-south directions at a place. I.e. freely
suspended magnet does not show exact geographical north and south because the magnetic axis and
geographical axis of the earth do not coincide.
It is now believed that the earth’s magnetism is due to the magnetic effect of current (which is flowing
in the liquid core at the centre of the earth). Thus, earth is a huge electromagnet.
MAGNETIC EFFECT OF CURRENT (OR ELECTROMAGNETISM)
The magnetic effect of current was discovered by Oersted in 1820. Oersted found that a wire carrying a
current was able to deflect a compass needle. Now, the compass needle is a tiny magnet which can be
deflected only by a magnetic field.
Since a current carrying wire was able to deflect a compass needle, it was concluded that a current
flowing in a wire always gives rise to a magnetic field around it. The importance of magnetic effect of
current lies in the fact that it gives rise to mechanical forces.
The electric motor, electric generator, telephone and radio, all utilize the magnetic effect of current. The
magnetic effect of current is also called electromagnetism which means electricity produces magnetism.
Electromagnetism is an effect produced when electric current interacts with metallic conductors.
Experiment to Demonstrate the Magnetic Effect of Current

Figure 84: Oersted electromagnetism experiment

The two ends of the wire are connected to a battery through a switch. When no current is flowing in the
wire AB, the compass needle is parallel to the wire AB and points in the usual north-south direction

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And when the current is switched off, the compass needle returns to its original position. We know that
a freely pivoted compass needle always sets itself in the north-south direction. It deflects from its usual
north-south direction only when it is acted upon by another magnetic field.
The deflection of compass needle by the current-carrying wire in the above experiment shows that an
electric current produces a magnetic field around it. It is this magnetic field which deflects the compass
needle placed near the current-carrying wire.
If we reverse the direction of electric current flowing in the wire AB by reversing the battery
connections, we will find that the compass needle is deflected in the opposite direction. This shows that
when we reverse the direction of electric current flowing in the wire, then the direction of magnetic field
produced by it is also reversed.
Magnetic Field Patterns Produced by Current-Carrying Conductors Having Different Shapes
The pattern of magnetic field (or shape of magnetic field lines) produced by a current-carrying conductor
depends on its shape. Different magnetic field patterns are produced by current-carrying conductors
having different shapes like;
i. A straight conductor (or straight wire) carrying current
ii. A circular loop (or circular wire) carrying current, and
iii. A solenoid (long coil of wire) carrying current
Magnetic Field Pattern due to Straight Current-Carrying Conductor (Straight Current-Carrying
Wire)
The magnetic field lines around a straight conductor (straight wire) carrying current are concentric
circles whose centers lie on the wire. A straight vertical wire (or conductor) AB which passes through a
horizontal cardboard sheet C. The ends of the wire AB are connected to a battery through a switch.
When current is passed through wire AB, it produces a magnetic field around it.
This magnetic field has magnetic field lines around the wire AB which can be shown by sprinkling iron
filings on the cardboard C. The iron filings get magnetized. And on tapping the cardboard sheet, the iron
filings arrange themselves in circles around the wire showing that the magnetic field lines are circular
in nature.
A small plotting compass M placed on the cardboard indicates the direction of the magnetic field. When
current in the wire flows in the upward direction, then the lines of magnetic field are in the anticlockwise
direction. If the direction of current in the wire is reversed, the direction of magnetic field lines also gets
reversed.

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Figure 85: Magnetic fields on straight conductor

It has been shown by experiments that the magnitude of magnetic field produced by a straight current-
carrying wire at a given point is;
1. Directly proportional to the current passing in the wire, and
2. Inversely proportional to the distance of that point from the wire.
So, greater the current in the wire, stronger will be the magnetic field produced. And greater the distance
of a point from the current-carrying wire, weaker will be the magnetic field produced at that point.
As we move away from a current carrying straight wire, the concentric circles around it representing
magnetic field lines, become larger and larger indicating the decreasing strength of the magnetic field.
Direction of Magnetic Field Produced by Straight Current-Carrying Conductor (Straight
Current-Carrying Wire)
According to Maxwell’s right hand thumb rule “Imagine that you are grasping (or holding) the
current-carrying wire in your right hand so that your thumb points in the direction of current, then
the direction in which your fingers encircle the wire will give the direction of magnetic field lines
around the wire”.

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Figure 86: Right hand thumb rule

Maxwell’s right-hand thumb rule is also known as Maxwell’s corkscrew rule (Corkscrew is a device
for pulling corks from bottles, and consists of a spiral metal rod and a handle). According to Maxwell’s
corkscrew rule: “Imagine driving a corkscrew in the direction of current, then the direction in which
we turn its handle is the direction of magnetic field (or magnetic field lines)”.

Figure 87: Cork screw rule

Magnetic Field Pattern due to a Circular Loop (or Circular Wire) Carrying Current
It has been found that the magnetic effect of current increases if instead of using a straight wire, the wire
is converted into a circular loop.

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Figure 88: Magnetic field due to circular loop

The magnetic field lines are circular near the current-carrying loop. As we move away, the concentric
circles representing magnetic field lines become bigger and bigger. At the centre of the circular loop,
the magnetic field lines are straight.
By applying right hand thumb rule, it can be seen that each segment of circular loop carrying current
produces magnetic field lines in the same direction within the loop. At the centre of the circular loop,
all the magnetic field lines are in the same direction and aid each other, due to which the strength of
magnetic field increases.
The magnitude of magnetic field produced by a current-carrying circular loop (or circular wire) at its
centre is:
1. Directly proportional to the current passing through the circular loop (or circular wire), and
2. Inversely proportional to the radius of circular loop (or circular wire).
The strength of magnetic field produced by a current-carrying circular coil can be increased:
1. By increasing the number of turns of wire in the coil
2. By increasing the current flowing through the coil, and
3. By decreasing the radius of the coil.
Clock Face Rule
A current-carrying circular wire (or loop) behaves like a thin disc magnet whose one face is a north pole
and the other face is a south pole. The polarity (north or south) of the two faces of a current-carrying
circular coil (or loop) can be determined by using the clock face rule given below. According to Clock
face rule, look at one face of a circular wire (or coil) through which a current is passing;
1. If the current around the face of circular wire (or coil) flows in the Clockwise direction, then that
face of the circular wire (or coil) will be South pole (S-pole)

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2. If the current around the face of circular wire (or coil) flows in the Anticlockwise direction, then
that face of circular wire (or coil) will be a North pole (N-pole)
For example, from the figure, the current in a face of the circular wire is flowing in the Clockwise
direction, so this face of current-carrying circular wire will behave as a South magnetic pole (or S-pole).
On the other hand, in Figure part (b) the current in the face of the circular wire is flowing in the
anticlockwise direction, so this face of current-carrying circular wire will behave as a North magnetic
pole (or N-pole).

Figure 89: Clock face rule

If the direction of current in the front face of a circular wire is clockwise, then the direction of current
in the back face of this circular wire will be anticlockwise (and vice versa). This means that the front
face of this current-carrying circular wire will be a south pole but its back face will be a north pole.
Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid
The solenoid is a long coil containing a large number of close turns of insulated copper wire. Figure 74
shows a solenoid S-N whose two ends are connected to a battery B through a switch X. When an electric
current is passed through the solenoid, it produces a magnetic field around it. The magnetic field
produced by a current carrying solenoid is shown in Figure 74. The magnetic field produced by a current-
carrying solenoid is similar to the magnetic field produced by a bar magnet.
The magnetic field lines inside the solenoid are in the form of parallel straight lines. This indicates that
the strength of magnetic field is the same at all the points inside the solenoid. If the strength of magnetic
field is just the same in a region, it is said to be uniform magnetic field. Thus, the magnetic field is
uniform inside a current-carrying solenoid.

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Figure 90: A Solenoid

One end of the current-carrying solenoid acts like a north-pole (N-pole) and the other end a south pole
(S-pole). So, if a current-carrying solenoid is suspended freely, it will come to rest pointing in the north
and south directions (just like a freely suspended bar magnet). We can determine the north and south
poles of a current-carrying solenoid by using a bar magnet.
The current in each turn of a current-carrying solenoid flows in the same direction due to which the
magnetic field produced by each turn of the solenoid adds up, giving a strong magnetic field inside the
solenoid. The strong magnetic field produced inside a current-carrying solenoid can be used to
magnetize a piece of magnetic material like soft iron, when placed inside the solenoid. The magnet thus
formed is called an electromagnet. So, a solenoid is used for making electromagnets.
The strength of magnetic field produced by a current carrying solenoid depends on:
1. The number of turns in the solenoid. Larger the number of turns in the solenoid, greater will be
the magnetism produced.
2. The strength of current in the solenoid. Larger the current passed through solenoid, stronger will
be the magnetic field produced.
3. The nature of “core material” used in making solenoid. The use of soft iron rod as core in a
solenoid produces the strongest magnetism.

Electromagnet
An electric current can be used for making temporary magnets known as electromagnets. An
electromagnet works on the magnetic effect of current.
An electromagnet is a magnet consisting of a long coil of insulated copper wire wrapped around a soft
iron core that is magnetised only when electric current is passed through the coil.

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Figure 91: Electromagnet

The solenoid containing soft iron core in it acts as a magnet only as long as the current is flowing in the
solenoid. If we switch off the current in the solenoid, it no more behaves as a magnet. All the magnetism
of the soft iron core disappears as soon as the current in the coil is switched off.
It is the iron piece inside the coil which becomes a strong electromagnet on passing the current. The
core of an electromagnet must be of soft iron because soft iron loses all of its magnetism when current
in the coil is switched off. On the other hand, if steel is used for making the core of an electromagnet,
the steel does not lose all its magnetism when the current is stopped and it becomes a permanent magnet.
This is why steel is not used for making electromagnets. Electromagnets can be made in different shapes
and sizes depending on the purpose for which they are to be used.
Factors Affecting the Strength of an Electromagnet.
The strength of an electromagnet depends on:
1. The number of turns in the coil. If we increase the number of turns in the coil, the strength of
electromagnet increases.
2. The current flowing in the coil. If the current in the coil is increased, the strength of
electromagnet increases.
3. The length of air gap between its poles. If we reduce the length of air gap between the poles of
an electromagnet, then its strength increases.
For example, the air gap between the poles of a straight, bar type electromagnet is quite large, so a bar
type electromagnet is not very strong. On the other hand, the air gap between the poles of a U-shaped
electromagnet is small, so it is a very strong electromagnet.

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Figure 92: U-Shaped electromagnet

Bar Magnet(Permanent magnet) Electromagnet(Temporary magnet)

1. The bar magnet is a permanent magnet. 1. An electromagnet is a temporary
magnet. Its magnetism is only for the
duration of current passing through it.
So, the magnetism of an electromagnet
can be switched on or switched off as
desired.
2. A permanent magnet produces a 2. An electromagnet can produce very
comparatively weak force of attraction strong magnetic force
3. The strength of permanent magnet 3. The strength of an electromagnet can
cannot be changed. be changed by changing the number of
turns in its coil or by changing the
current passing through it.
4. The (north-south) polarity of a 4. The polarity of an electromagnet can
permanent magnet is fixed and cannot be changed by changing the direction
be changed. of current in its coil.

Permanent magnets are usually made of alloys such as: Carbon steel, Chromium steel, Cobalt steel,
Tungsten steel, and Alnico (Alnico is an alloy of Aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron). Permanent
magnets of these alloys are much stronger than those made of ordinary steel. Such strong permanent
magnets are used in microphones, loudspeakers, electric clocks, ammeters, voltmeters, speedometers,
and many other devices.

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Magnetism in human beings

Extremely weak electric currents are produced in the human body by the movement of charged particles
called ions. These are called ionic currents.
So, when the weak ionic currents flow along the nerve cells, they produce magnetic field in our body.
For example, when we try to touch something with our hand, our nerves carry electric impulse to the
appropriate muscles. And this electric impulse creates a temporary magnetism in the body. The
magnetism produced in the human body is very, very weak as compared to the earth’s magnetism.
Two main organs of the human body where the magnetic field produced is quite significant are the
heart and the brain.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is the magnetism produced inside the human body (by the flow of
ionic currents). MRI is used to obtain images (or pictures) of the internal parts of our body (see Figure
below).

Figure 93: An MRI image of the human body

It is obvious that magnetism has an important use in medical diagnosis because, through MRI scans, it
enables the doctors to see inside the body. For example, MRI can detect cancerous tissue inside the body
of a person.

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FORCE ON CURRENT-CARRYING CONDUCTOR PLACED IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

A magnet exerts a mechanical force on a current-carrying wire, and if the wire is free to move, this force
can produce a motion in the wire.
In fact, this result can be obtained by applying Newton’s third law of motion according to which “if a
current-carrying wire exerts a force on a magnet, then the magnet will exert an equal and opposite
force on the current carrying wire”.
In 1821, Faraday discovered that: “When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field,
a mechanical force is exerted on the conductor which can make the conductor move”.
This is known as the motor principle and forms the basis of a large number of electrical devices like
electric motor and moving coil galvanometer.
Experiment to demonstrate the force acting on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic
field: the kicking wire experiment
A thick copper wire AB is suspended vertically from a support T by means of a flexible joint J (Figure
below). The lower end B of this wire is free to move between the poles of a U-shaped magnet M. The
lower end B of the wire just touches the surface of mercury kept in a shallow vessel V so that it can
move when a force acts on it. The positive terminal of a battery is connected to end A of the wire. The
circuit is completed by dipping another wire from the negative terminal of the battery into the mercury
pool as shown in Figure. We know that mercury is a liquid which is a good conductor of electricity, so
the circuit is completed through mercury contained in the vessel V.

Figure 94: Demonstration of a force exerted in a wire carrying current when placed in magnetic field
On pressing the switch, a current flows in the wire AB in the vertically downward direction. The wire
AB is kicked in the forward direction (towards south) and its lower end B reaches the position B, so
that the wire comes to the new position AB as shown by dotted line.

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When the lower end B of the hanging wire comes forward to B, its contact with the mercury surface is
broken due to which the circuit breaks and current stops flowing in the wire AB. Since no current flows
in the wire, no force acts on the wire in this position and it falls back to its original position.
As soon as the wire falls back, its lower end again touches the mercury surface, current starts flowing in
the wire and it is kicked again. This action is repeated as long as the current is passed in wire AB.
We conclude that “when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical
force is exerted on the conductor which makes it move”.
Since the direction of motion of the wire represents the direction of force acting on it, we can say that:
The direction of force acting on a current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field is
1. Perpendicular to the direction of current, and
2. Perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.
In other words, we can say that the current, the magnetic field and the force, are at right angles to one
another. It should be noted that the maximum force is exerted on a current-carrying conductor only
when it is perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field. No force acts on a current-carrying conductor
when it is parallel to the magnetic field.
If we reverse the direction of current in the wire AB so that it flows in the vertically upward direction
from B to A, then the wire swings in the backward direction (towards north). This means that the
direction of force on the current-carrying wire has been reversed. From this we conclude that the
direction of force on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field can be reversed by
reversing the direction of current flowing in the conductor.
The direction of force on a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field can also be reversed
by reversing the direction of magnetic field.
If the direction of current in a conductor and the direction of magnetic field (in which it is placed), are
known, then the direction of force acting on the current-carrying conductor can be found out by using
Fleming’s left-hand rule.
Fleming’s left-hand rule for the direction of force
“Hold the forefinger, the centre finger and the thumb of your left hand at right angles to one another.
Adjust your hand in such a way that the forefinger points in the direction of magnetic field and the
centre finger points in the direction of current, then the direction in which thumb points, gives the
direction of force acting on the conductor”.

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Figure 95: Fleming's left hand rule

Fleming’s left-hand rule can also be stated as “Hold the forefinger, the centre finger and the thumb of
your left hand at right angles to one another. Adjust your hand in such a way that the forefinger
points in the direction of magnetic field and the centre finger points in the direction of current in the
conductor, then the direction in which the thumb points gives the direction of motion of the
conductor”.
Direction of magnetic field and the direction of force by using Fleming’s left-hand rule, we should keep
the following points in mind:
1. By convention, the direction of flow of positive charges is taken to be the direction of flow of
current. So, the direction in which the positively charged particles such as protons or alpha
particles, etc., move will be the direction of electric current.
2. The direction of electric current is, however, taken to be opposite to the direction of flow of
negative charges (such as electrons). So, if we are given the direction of flow of electrons, then
the direction of electric current will be taken as opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
3. The direction of deflection of a current-carrying conductor (or a stream of positively charged
particles or a stream of negatively charged particles like electrons) tells us the direction of force
acting on it.

THE ELECTRIC MOTOR

A motor is a device which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. Every motor has a shaft
or spindle which rotates continuously when current is passed into it.

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The rotation of its shaft is used to drive the various types of machines in homes and industry. Electric
motor is used in electric fans, washing machines, refrigerators, mixer and grinder, electric cars and
many, many other appliances (see Figure below). A common electric motor works on direct current. So,
it is also called D.C. motor, which means a “Direct Current motor”.

Figure 96: Electric motor and some of its uses

Principle of a DC Motor
An electric motor utilises the magnetic effect of current. “A motor works on the principle that when a
rectangular coil is placed in a magnetic field and current is passed through it, a force acts on the coil
which rotates it continuously”. When the coil rotates, the shaft attached to it also rotates. In this way
the electrical energy supplied to the motor is converted into the mechanical energy of rotation.
Construction of a Motor
An electric motor consists of a rectangular coil ABCD of insulated copper wire, which is mounted
between the curved poles of a horseshoe-type permanent magnet M in such a way that it can rotate freely
between the poles N and S on a shaft. The shaft is a long cylindrical rotating rod at the centre of the
coil.
The sides AB and CD of the coil are kept perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field between the
poles of the magnet. This is done so that the maximum magnetic force is exerted on the current-carrying
sides AB and CD of the coil.
A commutator (or split ring) is a device which reverses the direction of current through a circuit. The
two ends of the coil are soldered (or welded) permanently to the two half rings X and Y of a commutator.
A commutator is a copper ring split into two parts X and Y, these two parts are insulated from one
another and mounted on the shaft of the motor.
The function of commutator rings is to reverse the direction of current flowing through the coil every
time the coil just passes the vertical position during a revolution.

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The function of carbon brushes is to make contact with the rotating rings of the commutator and through
them to supply current to the coil. It should be noted that any one brush touches only one ring at a time,
so that when the coil rotates, the two brushes will touch both the rings one by one.

Figure 97: A DC Motor

Working of a Motor
When an electric current is passed into the rectangular coil, this current produces a magnetic field around
the coil. The magnetic field of the horseshoe-type magnet then interacts with the magnetic field of the
current-carrying coil and causes the coil to rotate (or spin) continuously.
Suppose that initially the coil ABCD is in the horizontal position as shown in Figure 81. On pressing
the switch, current from battery enters the coil through carbon brush P and commutator half ring X. The
current flows in the direction ABCD and leaves via ring Y and brush Q.
i. In the side AB of the rectangular coil ABCD, the direction of current is from A to B (see
Figure above). And in the side CD of the coil, the direction of current is from C to D (which
is opposite to the direction of current inside AB). The direction of magnetic field is from N
pole of the magnet to its S pole. By applying Fleming’s left-hand rule to sides AB and CD
of the coil we find that the force on side AB of the coil is in the downward direction whereas
the force on side CD of the coil is in the upward direction. Due to this the side AB of the coil

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is pushed down and side CD of the coil is pushed up. This makes the coil ABCD rotate in
the anticlockwise direction
ii. While rotating, when the coil reaches vertical position, then the brushes P and Q will touch
the gap between the two commutator rings and current to the coil is cut off. Though the
current to the coil is cut off when it is in the exact vertical position, the coil does not stop
rotating because it has already gained momentum due to which it goes beyond the vertical
position.
iii. After half rotation, when the coil goes beyond vertical position, the side CD of the coil comes
on the left side whereas side AB of the coil comes to the right side, and the two commutator
half rings automatically change contact from one brush to the other. So, after half rotation of
the coil, the commutator half ring Y makes contact with brush P whereas the commutator
half ring X makes contact with brush Q (see Figure above). This reverses the direction of
current in the coil. The reversal of direction of current reverses the direction of forces acting
on the sides AB and CD of the coil. The side CD of the coil is now on the left side with a
downward force on it whereas the side AB is now on the right side with an upward force on
it. Due to this the side CD of the coil is pushed down and the side AB of coil is pushed up.
This makes the coil rotate anticlockwise by another half rotation.
iv. The reversing of current in the coil is repeated after every half rotation due to which the coil
(and its shaft) continue to rotate as long as current from the battery is passed through it. The
rotating shaft of electric motor can drive a large number of machines which are connected to
it.
In commercial motors:
1. The coil is wound on a soft iron core. The soft iron core becomes magnetised and increases the
strength of magnetic field. This makes the motor more powerful. The assembly of soft iron core
and coil is called an armature.
2. The coil contains a large number of turns of the insulated copper wire.
3. A powerful electromagnet is used in place of permanent magnet.
All these features together help in increasing the power of commercial electric motors.

ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION: ELECTRICITY FROM MAGNETISM

We have already studied that an electric current can produce magnetism. The reverse of this is also true.
That is, magnetism (or magnets) can produce electric current.
Electromagnetic induction is the production of electricity from magnetism.

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Examples of electromagnetic induction phenomenon

1. When a straight wire is moved up and down rapidly between the two poles of a horseshoe
magnet, then an electric current is produced in the wire.
2. A bar magnet is moved in and out of a coil of wire, even then an electric current is produced in
the coil.
Induced current is the current produced by moving a straight wire in a magnetic field (or by moving a
magnet in a coil). Singers rely on induced currents in a microphone.

Discovery
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction was discovered by a British scientist Michael Faraday
and an American scientist Joseph Henry independently in 1831.
The process of electromagnetic induction has led to the construction of generators for producing
electricity at power stations.
A galvanometer is an instrument which can detect the presence of electric current in a circuit. It is
connected in series with the circuit.
When no current is flowing through a galvanometer, its pointer is at the zero mark (in the centre of
semicircular scale). When an electric current passes through the galvanometer, then its pointer deflects
(or moves) either to the left side of zero mark or to the right side of the zero mark, depending on the
direction of current.
To demonstrate electromagnetic induction by using a straight wire and a horseshoe–type magnet
The two ends of wire are connected to a current-detecting instrument called galvanometer. When the
wire AB is held standstill between the poles of the horseshoe magnet, then there is no deflection in the
galvanometer pointer. This shows that no current is produced in the wire when it is held stationary in
the magnetic field.

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Figure 98: Demonstration of electromagnetic induction case 1

When a wire is moved in a magnetic field between the poles of a magnet, then the free electrons present
in the wire experience a force. This force makes the electrons move along the wire. And the movement
of these electrons produces current in the wire. We are spending energy (from our body) in moving the
wire up and down in the magnetic field. So, it is the energy spent by us in moving the wire in the
magnetic field which is getting converted into electrical energy in the wire and producing an electric
current in the wire. Thus, the movement of a wire in a magnetic field can produce electric current. So,
we can generate electricity by moving a wire continuously in the magnetic field between the poles of
a magnet. This principle is used in producing electricity through generators.
A generator uses the movement (or rotation) of a rectangular coil of wire between the poles of a
horseshoe magnet to produce an electric current (or electricity). Thus, the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction is used in the production of electricity by a generator.
From the above experiment, a wire is moved between the poles of a fixed magnet, then an electric current
is produced in the wire. The reverse of this is also true. That is, if a wire (in the form of a coil) is kept
fixed but a magnet is moved inside it, even then a current is produced in the coil of wire.
To demonstrate electromagnetic induction by using a coil and a bar magnet
The two ends of the coil are connected to a current detecting instrument called galvanometer. Now,
when a bar magnet is held standstill inside the hollow coil of wire, then there is no deflection in the
galvanometer pointer showing that no electric current is produced in the coil of wire when the magnet
is held stationary in it.

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Figure 99: Demonstration of electromagnetic induction case2

When a bar magnet is moved quickly into a fixed coil of wire AB, then a current is produced in the coil.
This current causes a deflection in the galvanometer pointer [see Figure above (a)]. Similarly, when the
magnet is moved out quickly from inside the coil, even then a current is produced in the coil [see Figure
above (b)]. This current also causes a deflection in the galvanometer pointer but in the opposite direction
(showing that when the direction of movement of magnet changes, then the direction of current produced
in the coil also changes). So, the current produced in this case is also alternating current or a.c.
The concept of a fixed coil and a rotating magnet is used to produce electricity on large scale in big
generators of power houses. Note that the condition necessary for the production of electric current by
electromagnetic induction is that there must be a relative motion between the coil of wire and a
magnet. Out of the coil of wire and a magnet, one can remain fixed but the other has to rotate (or move).
In electromagnetic induction:
1. A current is induced in a coil when it is moved (or rotated) relative to a fixed magnet.
2. A current is also induced in a fixed coil when a magnet is moved (or rotated) relative to the fixed
coil.
3. No current is induced in a coil when the coil and magnet both are stationary relative to one
another.
4. When the direction of motion of coil (or magnet) is reversed, the direction of current induced in
the coil also gets reversed.
5. The magnitude of current induced in the coil can be increased:
a. By winding the coil on a soft iron core
b. By increasing the number of turns in the coil
c. By increasing the strength of magnet, and

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d. By increasing the speed of rotation of coil (or magnet).

Fleming’s right-hand rule for the direction of induced current
The direction of induced current produced in a straight conductor (or wire) moving in a magnetic field
is given by Fleming’s right-hand rule.
The rule states that “Hold the thumb, the forefinger and the centre finger of your right-hand at right
angles to one another. Adjust your hand in such a way that forefinger points in the direction of
magnetic field, and thumb points in the direction of motion of conductor, then the direction in which
centre finger points, gives the direction of induced current in the conductor”.

Figure 100: Fleming's right hand rule

Please note that Fleming’s right-hand rule is also called dynamo rule.
ELECTRIC GENERATOR
The electric generator works on the principle that when a straight conductor is moved in a magnetic
field, then current is induced in the conductor. In an electric generator, a rectangular coil (having
straight sides) is made to rotate rapidly in the magnetic field between the poles of a horseshoe-type
magnet. When the coil rotates, it cuts the magnetic field lines due to which a current is produced in the
coil.

Electric generators are of two types

1. Alternating Current generator (A.C. generator), and
2. Direct Current generator (or D.C. generator).

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A.C. GENERATOR
“A.C. generator” means “Alternating Current generator”. That is, an A.C. generator produces alternating
current, which reverses its direction continuously. A.C. generator is also known as an alternator.
Construction of an A.C. Generator
A simple A.C. generator consists of a rectangular coil ABCD which can be rotated rapidly between the
poles N and S of a strong horseshoe-type permanent magnet M. The coil is made of a large number of
turns of insulated copper wire. The two ends A and D of the rectangular coil are connected to two circular
pieces of copper metal called slip rings R1 and R2.
As the slip rings R1 and R2 rotate with the coil, the two fixed pieces of carbon called carbon brushes,
B1 and B2, keep contact with them. So, the current produced in the rotating coil can be tapped out
through slip rings into the carbon brushes. The outer ends of carbon brushes are connected to a
galvanometer to show the flow of current in the external circuit (which is produced by the generator).

Figure 101: An AC Generator

Working of an A.C. generator

Suppose that the generator coil ABCD is initially in the horizontal position (as shown in Figure above).
Again suppose that the coil ABCD is being rotated in the anticlockwise direction between the poles N
and S of a horseshoe-type magnet by rotating its shaft.
i. As the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction, the side AB of the coil moves down cutting
the magnetic field lines near the N-pole of the magnet, and side CD moves up, cutting the
magnetic field lines near the S-pole of the magnet. Due to this, induced current is produced

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in the sides AB and CD of the coil. On applying Fleming’s right-hand rule to the sides AB
and CD of the coil, we find that the currents are in the directions B to A and D to C. Thus,
the induced currents in the two sides of the coil are in the same direction, and we get an
effective induced current in the direction BADC. Thus, in the first half revolution (or
rotation) of coil, the current in the external circuit flows from brush B1 to B2.
ii. After half revolution, the sides AB and CD of the coil will interchange their positions. The
side AB will come on the right hand side and side CD will come on the left side. So, after
half a revolution, side AB starts moving up and side CD starts moving down. As a result of
this, the direction of induced current in each side of the coil is reversed after half a revolution
giving rise to the net induced current in the direction CDAB (of the reversed coil). The
current in the external circuit now flows from brush B2 to B1.
In practical generators, the voltage (and the current) produced can be increased;
(a) By using a powerful electromagnet to make the magnetic field stronger in place of a permanent
magnet.
(b) By winding the coil round a soft iron core to increase the strength of magnetic field.
(c) By using a coil with more turns.
(d) By rotating the coil faster.
(e) By using a coil with a larger area.
D.C. GENERATOR
In order to obtain direct current (which flows in one direction only), a D.C. generator is used. Actually,
if we replace the slip rings of an A.C. generator by a commutator, then it will become a D.C. generator.
Thus, in a D.C. generator, a split ring type commutator is used (like the one used in an electric motor).
When the two half rings of commutator are connected to the two ends of the generator coil, then one
carbon brush is at all times in contact with the coil arm moving down in the magnetic field while the
other carbon brush always remains in contact with the coil arm moving up in the magnetic field. Due to
this, the current in outer circuit always flows in one direction. So, it is direct current.

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Figure 102: A DC Generator

The only difference between a D.C. generator and an A.C. generator is in the way the two ends of the
generator coil are linked to the outer circuit. In a D.C. generator we connect the two ends of the coil
to a commutator consisting of two half rings of copper. On the other hand, in an A.C. generator, we
connect the two ends of the coil to two full rings of copper called slip rings. There is no commutator in
an A.C. generator
Mutual induction (Electromagnetic induction using two coils)
Electromagnetic induction can also be produced by using two coils. This is because if current is changed
in one coil, then current is induced in the other coil kept near it. No relative motion of the coils is needed
in this case.
Two circular coils A and B are placed side by side, close to each other. Coil A is connected to a battery
and a switch S whereas coil B is connected to a galvanometer G.

Figure 103: Mutual induction

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(i) Let us pass current in coil A by pressing the switch. As soon as we pass current in coil A, the
pointer of galvanometer attached to coil B shows a deflection, but quickly returns to zero
position. This means that on switching on the current in coil A, an electric current is induced
in coil B momentarily. If the current is now kept ‘on’ in coil A, nothing happens in the
galvanometer of coil B.
(ii) Let us now switch off the current in coil A. As soon as we switch off the current in coil A,
the pointer of galvanometer attached to coil B again shows a momentary deflection, but on
the opposite side. This means that on switching off current in coil A, an electric current is
induced in coil B but in a direction opposite to that when the current was switched on.
(iii) If we keep on switching the current ‘on and off’ in coil A rapidly, then the galvanometer
pointer will keep moving on both the sides of zero mark continuously, showing that a
continuous current is induced in coil B. Since the current induced in coil B changes direction
continuously, so it is an alternating current (or a.c.).
Why a change in current in coil A induces current in coil B?
(i) When we switch on current in coil A, it becomes an electromagnet and produces a magnetic
field around coil B. The effect is just the same as pushing a magnet into coil B. So, an induced
current flows in coil B for a moment. When the current in coil A becomes steady, its magnetic
field also becomes steady and the current in coil B stops.
(ii) When we switch off the current in coil A, its magnetic field in coil B stops quickly. This
effect is just the same as pulling a magnet quickly out of coil B. So, an induced current flows
in coil B in the opposite direction.
Thus, the current is induced in coil B by the changing magnetic field in it when the current in coil A is
‘switched on’ or ‘switched off’.
If the coil A is connected to alternating current (which keeps on changing), then a constant current will
be induced in coil B whose magnitude will depend on the relative number of turns of wire in coil A and
coil B. This fact is used in making transformers for stepping up (increasing) or stepping down
(decreasing) the voltage of alternating current. These transformers are used at power stations and in a
variety of electronic appliances such as radio sets and T.V. sets, etc.

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End exercise
1. Two circular coils A and B are placed close to each other. If the current in coil A is changed,
will some current be induced in the coil B? Give reason for your answer.
2. (a) Explain the principle of an electric generator.
(b) State two ways in which the current induced in the coil of a generator could be increased.
3. (a) What is the difference between alternating current and direct current?
(b)What type of current is given by (i) a dry cell, and (ii) a Power House generator?
4. State and explain Fleming’s right hand rule.
5. Name and state the rule to find the direction of:
(a) Current induced in a coil due to its rotation in a magnetic field.
(b) Force experienced by a current-carrying straight conductor placed in a magnetic field which
is perpendicular to it.
6. In what respect does the construction of an A.C. generator differ from that of a D.C. Generator?
What normally drives the alternators in a Thermal Power Station? What fuels can be used to heat
water in the boiler?

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END

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