1

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere

• The sun is a large sphere of very hot gases, the heat being
generated by various kinds of fusion reactions.

• Core temperature 8x106 to 40x106 K.

• Diameter of the sun: 1.39 x 106 km.

• Diameter of earth: 1.27 x 104 km.

• Mean distance between the two: 1.496 x 108 km.

• Although the sun is large, it subtends an angle of only 32

minutes (0.530) at the earth’s surface. This is because it is
also at a very large distance.

• Thus, the beam radiation received from the sun on the earth
is almost parallel.
3

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

Sun diameter Earth diameter

‫י‬
10 = 60 min 1.39 x106 km 32 min = 0.530 1.27x104 km
32 min = 0.530

Distance = 1.496 x108 km +/- 1.7%

The beam radiation received from the sun on the

earth is almost parallel.
4

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• Measurement indicate that the energy flux

received from the sun outside the earth’s atm is
essentially constant (extraterrestrial flux).

• Solar constant (Isc): It is the rate at which energy

is received (extraterrestrial flux) from the sun on
a unit area perpendicular to the rays of the sun,
at the mean distance of the earth from the sun.

• The value of solar constant is 1367 W/m2.

5

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• The average value of irradiance per year is called the
solar constant (Isc) and is equivalent to 1353, 1367 or
1373 W/m2 depending on who you believe?

• 1353 (1.5%) from M.P Thekaekara (1976) – derived

from measurements at very high atmosphere and used
by NASA.
(Solar radiation measurement: Techniques and
instrumentation, Journal of solar energy, volume 18,
issue 4, 1976, pages 309-325).

• 1367 (1%) adopted by the World Radiation Centre. St.

Petersburg, Russian Federation.

• 1373 (1-2%) from Frohlich (1978) - derived from

satellite data.
6

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit
having a very small eccentricity and with the sun at
one of the foci.

• Consequently the distance between the earth and sun

varies a little through the year.

• Because of this variation, the extraterrestrial flux also

varies with time of year.

• Extraterrestrial flux is the intensity of solar radiation at

the mean distance between the earth & sun on any
day.
7

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• The value of extraterrestrial flux on any day can be

calculated from the following equation:
′
360n
Isc = Isc 1 + 0.033 cos
365
Where ‘n’ is the day of the year.
• Since cosine function varies from +1 to −1, the
extraterrestrial radiation flux varies by ± 3 % over a
year.
8

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• Calculation of spectral distribution of extraterrestrial solar
radiation flux at the mean sun-earth distance corresponding to
the value of solar constant 1367 W/m2 indicates that:
– the spectral value first increases sharply with wavelength,
– passes through a maximum (2074 W/m2) at a wavelength of 0.48
micro meter.
– and then decreases asymptotically to zero.
– 99% of the sun’s radiation is obtained up to a wavelength of 4
micro meter.
• The spectrum shown in figure is
called air mass zero (AM0)
spectrum because spectrum
was measured with no air
between the sun and the
receiver.
 Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm
9

Wavelength (μm) 0 - 0.38 0.38 - 0.78 0.78-4 Total

(ultraviolet) (visible) (infrared) energy
Approx. Energy 95 640 618 1354 W/m2
(W/m2)
Approx. % of total 7% 47.3 45.7 100 %
energy
10

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• The radiation coming from the sun is essential equivalent to
black body radiation.
• This can be shown by using the laws of blackbody radiation
i.e., Planck’s law and the Stefan-Boltzmann law.
• Planck’s spectral distribution of black body emissive power:
– The thermal radiation emitted by a black substance covers a
range of wavelength (), referred as spectral distribution,
Planck’s law states that the spectral emissive power of a black
surface is given as
2πC1
ebλ = C 2 /λ T
λ5 e −1

C1 = 0.596 × 10−16 W − m2
C2 = 0.014387 m − K
λ is the wavelength in μm
T is the temperature of the black surface in K.
11

Solar radiation outside the earth’s atm

• Stefan-Boltzmann law is obtained by integrating Planck’s law
over all the wavelengths from 0 to ∞ and states∞that the
emissive power of a black surface is given by: Eb = ebλ dλ
Eb = σ A T 4 0

Eb
= eb = σ T 4
A
Where T is the temperature of the surface in K and σ is a
constant called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.
W
σ = 5.670 × 10−8
m2 − K 4

• In order to show that the radiation emitted by the sun is

essential equivalent to black body radiation, substitute the
value of solar constant (Isc) in place of eb and obtained the
equivalent black body temperature of the sun to be 5779 K.
• Substituting T= 5779 K in Planck’s law, we can obtain ebλ for
different values of λ.
12

Solar radiation at the earth surface

13

Solar radiation at the earth surface

• Received at the earth surface in an attenuated form.

• Subjected to the mechanism of absorption and
scattering.
• Absorption: Ozone and water vapour, gases like
CO2, NO2,CO,O2 and CH4 and particulate matter.
• Increase in the IE of the atm.
• Scattering: All gaseous molecules and particulate
matter in the atm.
• Scattered radiation is redistributed in all directions,
some going back into space and some reaching the
earth’s surface.
14

Solar radiation at the earth surface

Sulfur hexafluoride: SF6

15

Solar radiation at the earth surface

• Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface without
change of direction, i.e., inline with the sun, is called
beam or direct radiation.
• The radiation received at the earth’s surface from all
parts of sky’s hemisphere (after being subjected to
scattering in the atmosphere) is called diffuse radiation.
• The sum of the beam and diffuse radiation is referred to
as total global radiation.
• In general, the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from
various directions in the sky is not uniform. The diffuse
radiation is therefore said to be anisotropic in nature.
• In many situations (e.g. part or heavy cloud cover), the
intensity from all directions tends to be reasonably
uniform. It is then being modelled as being perfectly
uniform and is said to be isotropic in nature.
16

Solar radiation at the earth surface

• Once the radiation reaches the earth’s surface, some of
it (diffuse and direct as well) gets reflected by the ground
and other objects on the ground. This reflected
component is called albedo radiation.
• Thus the total radiation reaching a given point on the
earth surface is the sum of the diffuse radiation, direct
radiation and albedo radiation. This sum is known as
global radiation.
• In a normal sunny day, diffuse radiation is about 15% to
20% of direct solar radiation.
• On cloudy days, diffuse radiation depends on the type of
clouds, and it could be a very large fraction of the global
radiation.
• The amount of albedo radiation generally depends on
the nature of the surface coverage, whether there is
water, snow, tall buildings etc.,
17

Air mass (AM)

• A term called air mass (AM) is often used as a

measure of the distance travelled by beam
radiation through the atmosphere before it
reaches a location on the earth’s surface.

• It is defined as the ratio of the mass of the

atmosphere through which the beam radiation
passes to the mass it would pass through if the
sun is directly overhead (i.e., at its zenith).
18

Air mass (AM)

1. AM = AD/AD =1
2. AM = AB/AD = AB/BC = AB/AB cos 600 = 1/cos 600 = 2 = AM
since cos 600 = adj /hyp = BC/AB
OR AM = 1/cos θz
3. Therefore AM2 refers to θz = 600
• Air Mass 1 is the thickness of the atmosphere vertically above
sea level.
• Air Mass 2 is double this thickness (equivalent to direct solar
radiation at an altitude of 30 degrees).
A C

Atmosphere 2 θz = 600
1
30°

D B
19

Air mass (AM)

• The zenith angle (θz) is the angle made by the
sun’s rays with the normal to a horizontal
surface.
• Approximately, for a locations at sea level and
zenith angles from 00 to 700, the air mass is
equal to the secant of the zenith angle (AM =
sec θz =1/ cos θz).
• Thus air mass zero (AM0) corresponds to
extraterrestrial radiation, air mass one (AM1)
corresponds to the case of the sun at its zenith
(θz = 00) and air mass two (AM2) corresponds to
the case of a zenith angle of 600.
20

Air mass (AM)

• When solar radiation travels through the earth’s
atmosphere or the air mass (AM), the amount of
sunlight scattered or absorbed depends on the
length of the path of the rays.

• Less solar radiation will reach the surface if the

rays have to travel a longer distance through the
air mass. This can be noticed during the
morning and evening times when the solar
irradiation is less than during the noon.

• The radiation spectrum just outside the earth’s

atmosphere is referred as AM0 spectrum.
21

Air mass (AM)

• The number with ‘AM’ refers to the distance
travelled by sunrays in the earth’s atmosphere.

• When sun is at the overhead position, during

noon, radiation travels a minimum distance
through the air mass before reaching the
surface. In this condition, the spectrum reaching
the earth’s surface is known as AM1.

• When sun is at a position other than the

overhead position, rays will have to travel a
longer distance in the air mass (as compared to
overhead position of AM1) to reach the surface.
22

Air mass (AM)

• If the sunrays are making an angle θz with the

vertical at a given point on the earth’s surface,
then the AM that the sunrays have to travel is
given by the following equation: AM = 1/cos θz.

• Not only the irradiation but also the spectral

contents depends on the air mass. Therefore, for
characterization of solar cells, irradiation as well
as spectrum is defined. It is a worldwide
standard to test solar cells under AM1.5 global
solar spectrum with irradiation of 1000 W/m2.
23

Air mass (AM)

Solar irradiation under different air mass
conditions

Air mass Solar irradaition reaching

the surface (W/m2)
AM0 1376
AM1 (sun at overhead position), θz = 00 1105
AM1.5 (sun at about 480 from overhead 1000
position), θz = 480
AM2 (sun at about 600 from overhead 894
position), θz = 600
24

Instruments for measuring solar radiation

• Sunshine recorder

• Pyranometer

• Pyrheliometer

• Sunshine sensor type BF3

25

Sunshine recorder
26

Sunshine recorder
27

Sunshine recorder
• The duration of bright sunshine hours in a day is
measured by means of a sunshine recorder.
• The sun’s rays are focused by a glass sphere to
a point on a card strip held in a groove in a
spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the
sphere.
• Whenever there is a bright sunshine, the image
formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the
card strip.
• Through the day as the sun moves across the
sky, the image moves along the strip. Thus, a
burnt trace whose length is proportional to the
duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.
28

Pyranometer
29

Pyranometer

Thermopile sensor (1),

Glass dome (2, 3),
Radiation screen (4),
Signal cable (5),
Gland (6),
Leveling feet (7),
Printed circuit board (8),
Desiccant (9),
Level (11)
30

Pyranometer

Movement of the ring

up and down the arms
allows for changes in
the sun’s declination

Latitude of the station

31

Pyranometer
• A pyranometer is an instrument which measures either
global or diffuse radiation falling on a horizontal surface
over a hemispherical field of view.
• Pyranometer consist of a ‘black’ surface which heats up
when exposed to solar radiation.
• Black surface temperature increases until the rate of
heat gain by solar radiation equals the rate of heat loss
by convection, conduction and re-radiation.
• The hot junctions of a thermopile are attached to the
black surface, while the cold junctions are located under
a guard plate so that they do not receive the radiation
directly.
• As a result, an emf is generated. This emf which is
usually in the range of 0 to 10 mV can be read, recorded
or integrated over a period of time and is a measure of
the global radiation.
32

Pyranometer

• The pyranometer can also be used for the

measurement of diffuse radiation.
• This is done by mounting it at the centre of a
semicircular shading ring.
• The shading ring is fixed in such a way that its plane
is parallel to the plane of the path of the sun’s daily
movement across the sky and it shades the
thermopile element and the two glass domes of the
pyranometer at all times from direct sunshine.
• Consequently, the pyranomter measures only the
diffuse radiation received from the sky.
• The calibration factor: 8.49 μ volt / (W/m2).
33

Pyrheliometer
34

Pyrheliometer
35

Pyrheliometer

• A pyrheliometer is an instrument which measures

beam radiation falling on a surface normal to the sun’s
rays.
• In contrast to a pyranometer, the black absorber plate
(with hot junctions of a thermopile attached to it) is
located at the base of a collimating tube.
• The tube is aligned with the direction of the sun’s rays
with the help of a two-axis tracking mechanism and an
alignment indicator.
• Thus the black plate receives only beam radiation and
a small amount of diffuse radiation falling within the
‘acceptance angle’ of the instrument.
• Constant of instrument: 6017.6 W/m2 - amp2.
36

Sunshine sensor type BF3

37

Solar radiation data

38

Solar radiation data

• Most radiation data is measured for horizontal

surface.
• Ig and Id represent instantaneous values of the
global and diffuse flux expressed in W/m2.
− Since solar radiation fluxes do not normally
change rapidly with time, we will use the same
symbol Ig and Id to represent hourly values also.
− These quantities will be expressed in kWh/m2-h
or kJ/m2-h.
39

Solar radiation data

• The shaded area under the graph represent the
global and diffuse flux incident over a whole day.
− We will use the symbol Hg and Hd to represent these
quantities and express them in kWh/m2-day or kJ/m2-
day.
• A solar designer is primarily interested in average
values for a location.
− The averaging is usually done over all days of a
month and indicated by a bar over the symbol.
− Hourly variation of global and diffuse radiation: Ig and Id
(monthly average hourly global and diffuse radiation kJ/m2-h)
− The amount received per day: Hg and Hd
(monthly average daily global and diffuse radiation kJ/m2-day)
− The sunshine hours per day: S
40

Solar geometry: Sun angles

• In order to find the beam energy falling on a surface
having any orientation, it is necessary to convert
the value of the beam flux coming from the direction
of the sun to an equivalent value corresponding to
the normal direction to the surface.
• If θ (angle of incidence) is the angle between an
incident beam of flux Ibn and the normal to a plane
surface, then the equivalent flux falling normal to the
surface is given by Ibn cos θ.
• The general expression of cos θ = f ( ϕ,β,γ,δ, ω).
• Therefore each of these angles will first be defined.
41

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Irradiation or Insolation on a horizontal surface

Ibn

Ib
θ
Ib = Ibn cos θz
β = 00

Ib = Ibn cos θ
For a horizontal surface θ = θz, hence Ib = Ibn cos θz
Ib = Beam irradiance normal to the earth’s surface (W/m2)
Ib,n = Beam irradiance (Incident beam of flux) (W/m2)
θz = Zenith angle
θ = Angle of incidence
42

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Irradiation or Insolation on a tilted surface
Cosine effect: Reduction of radiation
by the cosine of the angle between
Ibn the solar radiation and a surface
normal is called the cosine effect.
IbT

IbT = Ibn cos θ

IbT = Beam irradiance normal to a tilted surface (W/m2)

Ibn = Beam irradiance (W/m2)
θ = Angle of incidence
43

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Tilt factor for beam radiation (rb)

Ibn

IbT
Ibn

Ib
β= 00
Ib = Ibn cos θz IbT = Ibn cos θ
rb: The ratio of the beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface
to that falling on a horizontal surface is called the tilt factor for
beam radiiation. IbT Ibn cos θ cos θ
rb = = =
Ib Ibn cos θz cos θz
44

Solar geometry: Sun angles

What are longitudes and latitudes?
45

Solar geometry: Sun angles

What are longitudes and latitudes?
46

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Notable latitudes
47

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Notable latitudes

• The equator is one of the five main circles of

latitude based on the relationship of the
earth’s rotation and plane of orbit around the
sun. Additionally, the equator is the only line
of latitude which is also a great circle.
48

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle (ϕ)
• In geography, latitude (ϕ) is a geographic
coordinate that specifies the north–
south position of a point on the Earth's surface.
• Latitude is an angle which ranges from 0° at
the Equator to 90° (North or South) at the poles.
Lines of constant latitude, or parallels, run east–
west as circles parallel to the equator.
• Latitude is used together with longitude to
specify the precise location of features on the
surface of the Earth.
49

Solar geometry: Sun angles

50

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Prime meridian Longitude = 00 , but on the
opposite side, the primer meridian is not
zero degrees but 180°. It is called the
International Date Line. Longitude lines
to the left of the prime meridian give
locations west, in the western
hemisphere. Longitude lines to the right of
the primer meridian give locations east, in
the eastern hemisphere.

India is located longitudinally in

the Eastern hemisphere, the half of earth
that is east of the Prime Meridian or
the Greenwich Line (0°).
51

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Longitudes of the Earth
•The line of reference running from the North pole to South
Pole is called meridians of longitude.
•The distance between them are measured in degrees. Each
degree is further divided into minutes, and minutes into
seconds.
•They are semi- circles and the distance between them
decreases steadily towards pole.
•The parallels of latitude are unequal in length and all the
meridians are equal length.
•The meridian which passed through Greenwich (near London),
where the British Royal Observatory is located is called as the
Prime Meridian. Its value is 00 .
•The prime meridian divides the earth into two equal halves, the
Eastern Hemisphere (E) and the Western Hemisphere(W).
•As the earth rotates from west to east, those places east of
Greenwich will be ahead of Greenwich time and those to
the west will be behind it.
52

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Longitudes of the Earth
•The rate of difference can be calculated as follows:
•The earth rotates 3600 in about 24 hours, which means
150 an hour or 10 in 4 minutes.
•Thus, when it is 12 noon at Greenwich the time at 150
east of Greenwich will be 15 x 4 = 60 minutes, i.e., 1 hour
ahead of Greenwich time, which means 1 p.m.
•But at 150 west of Greenwich the time will be behind
Greenwich time by one hour, i.e. it will be 11:00 a.m.
similarly, at 1800, it will be midnight when it is 12 noon at
Greenwich.
•India located east of Greenwich at 82030’ E.
•5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of Greenwich Meridian
Time (GMT).
•i.e., 7:30 p.m. in India if it is 2:00p.m. in London.
53
Solar geometry: Sun angles
Longitudes of the Earth
54
Solar geometry: Sun angles
Longitudes of the Earth
•The longitudinal extent of India is 30°.

•The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.

•It takes 4 minutes for the sun to move across 1 longitude. Thus, the
eastern most point of India would be 2 hours ahead of the western most
point (30 x 4 = 120 minutes), in accordance with the local time.

•This difference in time might create confusion in air and rail timings and
so many other things across the two states. To avoid this confusion a
longitude passing through the midpoint of 68°7' Western most
longitude and 97° 25' Eastern most longitude is taken as
the standard prime meridian of India 82°30'.

•The time at the standard meridian 82°30' which passes through

Allahabad in UP is taken as the standard time of India, followed all over
the country.
55

Solar geometry: Sun angles

56

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle
• We can describe a location on earth using latitude
and longitude.
• Consider P to be a place under consideration on
earth’s surface. Angle ϕ represents latitude of the
place P.
• Normally we need three coordinates to define any
point in space (radius, 1st angle and 2nd angle).For
describing any place on earth’s surface, the radius
of the earth is fixed. Now there are only two angles
i.e., the 1st and 2nd angles, which are to be
understood to describe any place. These angles are
latitude and longitude.
57

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle
• The earth is divided into an imaginary grid of
circles that are reference lines for measuring
any point on the earth.
• Horizontal lines, called latitude lines, are actually
horizontal circles with varying radii that are
parallel to the equator.
• The Latitude at any given location is the angle in
degrees formed by a line that extends from the
center of the earth to the equator and another
line that extends from the center of the earth to
a given point on the globe.
58

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle
• Latitude ϕ of a location is the angle made by the
radial line joining the given location to the centre of
the Earth with the projection of the line (with its
projection) on the equatorial plane.
• The intersection of the equatorial plane with the
surface of the earth forms the equator and at the
equator, the latitude is 00.
• Northern latitudes are assigned positive values and
southern latitudes are assigned negative values.
• Thus, the North Pole is located at latitude +900 (or
900N), and the South Pole is located at latitude -900
(or 900S).
59

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle
• Latitude angle (ϕ) varies between +900 to -900.
• Latitude angle in the northern hemisphere is considered as
positive.
• India totally lies north of the equator so it is in the northern
hemisphere.
• We are in northern hemisphere therefore we write ϕ0 N.
• Latitude angle indicates how far we are from the equatorial
plane.
• The higher is ϕ, the further we are away from the equator
and nearer to the either of the poles.
• At the poles we receive much less solar radiation.
• The equator divides the planet into two halves, i.e., a
Northern hemisphere and Southern hemisphere.
• Lines of latitude run parallel to the equator.
60

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle
• On the earth, a circle of latitude is an imaginary
east-west circle that connects all the locations with a
given fixed latitude (ϕ).
• The position of any place on the circle of latitude is
given by the longitude.
• Each latitude is perpendicular to all meridians at the
intersection points.
• In India, Tropic of Cancer latitude (ϕ = 23.450 N)
goes through Bhopal.
61

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Latitude angle
• On the earth, a circle of latitude is an imaginary east-west
circle that connects all the locations with a given fixed latitude
(ϕ).
• The position of any place on the circle of latitude is given by
the longitude.
• Each latitude is perpendicular to all meridians at the
intersection points.
• Tropic of Cancer latitude (ϕ = 23.450 N), passes through 17
countries, India being one of them. The Tropic of Cancer
passes through eight states in India: Gujarat (Jasdan),
Rajasthan (Kalinjarh), Madhya Pradesh (Shajapur),
Chhattisgarh (Sonhat), Jharkhand (Lohardaga), West Bengal
(Krishnanagar), Tripura (Udaipur) and Mizoram (Champhai).
62

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Longitude (L or λ)
• Longitude lines are great circles that are
perpendicular to the equator and converge at the
poles.
• The reference longitude is defined as a great circle
that passes through both poles and the Royal
Observatory at Greenwich, UK (England).This
longitude is sometimes called the prime meridian.
• Prime meridian has zero degrees of longitude.
• Your local meridian is a line of longitude that
passes through both poles and a point directly
over the observer’s head, called zenith.
63

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Longitude (L or λ)
• The longitude assigned to any point on earth is
defined by the angle formed by a line drawn from
the center of the earth to the prime meridian and a
line drawn from the center of the earth to the
meridian for that point.
• Positive angles are measured east of the prime
meridian; negative angles are measured to the
west.
• We are in eastern hemisphere from Greenwich
meridian therefore for longitude we write L0 E.
64

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Longitude (L or λ)
• Longitude can be expressed in degrees or in hours
and minutes. Hours and minutes are sometimes used
because the earth rotates through 3600 in
approximately 24 hours i.e., earth makes one rotation
on its axis in almost exactly 24 hours.
• Thus, each 150 of longitude represents one hour.
• The meridian that passes through Greenwich
(England) is considered as the prime meridian, i.e.,
zero degrees of longitude.
• Any other meridian is referred to from the prime
meridian, and has a fixed angular distance from the
prime meridian known as the longitude of that
meridian.
65

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Longitude (L or λ)
• All the places on that meridian have the same
longitude.
• The earth can be divided in two parts with
reference to the prime meridian i.e., eastern
and western hemisphere.
• We are in eastern hemisphere from the
Greenwich.
• The maximum distant meridian on both sides
can be at 0 to 1800 from the principal
meridian.
66

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Hour angle (ω)
67

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Hour angle (ω)
• Hour angle is the angle through which the
the earth must turn to bring the meridian of
point ‘P’ directly inline with the sun’s rays.
• At solar noon ω = 00,solar noon is defined
as the time at which the sun is highest in
the sky.
• The hour angle represent the time of the
day w.r.t .solar noon.
68

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Hour angle (ω)
• Hour angle is an angular measure of time
and is equivalent to 150per hour.
• Since the earth rotates by 3600 in 24 h, 1 h
is equivalent to 150.
• Hour angle is measured from the noon time.
• Hour angle varies from -1800 to + 1800.
• Hour angle is considered positive in the
morning and negative in the afternoon.
69

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Hour angle (ω)
• Hour angle is measured from noon based on
LAT/LST.
• ω = (12-LAT) 150.
• Hour angle is the angle through which the
Earth must be rotated to bring the meridian
plane of any place or location directly under the
sun.
• At sunrise the hour angle is maximum positive
and at sunset it is maximum negative for any
place.
70

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Hour angle (ω)
• Hour angle is the angular displacement of
the Sun east or west of the local meridian
(local longitude),due to the rotation of the
earth on its axis at 150 per hour.
71

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solar noon
• Solar noon is defined to be that time of the day at
which the sun’s rays are directed perpendicular to
the given line of longitude.
• Thus, the solar noon occurs at the same instant
for all locations along any common line of
longitude.
• Solar noon will occur one hour earlier for every 15
degrees of longitude to the east of a given line
and one hour later for every 15 degrees west.
• This is because it takes the earth 24 hours to
rotate 3600.
72

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Local Apparent Time (LAT)
• Local apparent time (LAT) = Standard time
± 4 (Standard time longitude – longitude of location)
+ (Equation of time correction)
• The negative sign in the first correction is applicable
for the eastern hemisphere, while the positive sign is
applicable for the western hemisphere.
• India totally lies to east of the Greenwich line (prime
meridian), means India is in the eastern hemisphere.
• In India, standard time is based on 82.500E.
• Standard time longitude for India is 82.500E which
goes through Mirzapur near Allahabad, UP.
73

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Local Apparent Time (LAT)/ Local Solar Time (LST)
• The time used for calculating hour angle is the
local apparent time.
• This can be obtained from the standard time
observed on a clock by applying two corrections.
• The first correction arises because of the
difference between the longitude of a location and
the meridian on which the standard time is based.
• This first correction has a magnitude of 4 minutes
for every degree difference in longitude.
74

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Local Apparent Time (LAT)
• The second correction called the equation of time correction is
due to the fact that the earth’s orbit and rate of rotation are
subject to small variations.
• This second correction is based on the experimental
observations and is plotted as under:
75

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Local Apparent Time (LAT)
Question: Determine the local apparent time (LAT)
corresponding to 1430 hrs (IST) at Mumbai (190 07’ N,
72051’ E) on July 1. Equation of time correction on July 1 is
− 3.5 minutes.
Solution: Local apparent time (LAT) = Standard time
− 4 (Standard time longitude – longitude of location)
+ (Equation of time correction)
LAT= 1430 − 4 (82.50 – 72.85) minutes + (− 3.5 minutes)
LAT= 1430 −38.6 minutes − 3.5 minutes
LAT = 14h 30’ 00” – 00h 38.6’ 00” − 00h 3.5’ 00”
LAT =1348 h.
76

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Local Apparent Time (LAT)
Question: Determine the local apparent time (LAT)
corresponding to 1330 hrs (IST) at Delhi (280 35’ N,
77012’ E) on July 1. Equation of time correction on July 1 is
− 4 minutes.
Solution: Local apparent time (LAT) = Standard time
− 4 (Standard time longitude – longitude of location)
+ (Equation of time correction)
LAT= 1330 − 4 (82.50 – 77.2) minutes + (− 4 minutes)
LAT= 13.5 h −21.2 minutes − 4 minutes
LAT =13.08 h. = 13 h 4 min 48 sec.
77

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Declination angle (δ)
• The declination angle is the angle made by
the line joining the centres of the sun and the
earth with the projection of this line on the
equatorial plane.
• Equatorial plane is the plane of the earth’s
equator.
• It arises by virtue of the fact that the earth
rotates about an axis (polar axis) which
makes an angle of approximately 66.50 with
the plane of its revolution around the sun.
78

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Declination angle (δ)

1 Nautical mile = 1.852 meters

1 Statute mile = 1.609 meters
79

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Declination angle (δ)
• The value of declination angle remains positive when
the larger area of the northern hemisphere is
illuminated than the southern hemisphere. It becomes
negative when the opposite happens.
• The value of δ represents different times of a year,
due to which it is an important parameter in the
estimation of the amount of solar radiation falling on a
given location at a given time of the year.
• Also, it is the change in the declination angle, due to
which the sun’s position to an observer at a fixed
location appears to be different in winter and in
summer.
80

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Declination angle (δ)
• The declination angle varies from a maximum
value of +23.450 on June 21 to a minimum
value of -23.450 on December 21. It is zero
on the two equinox days of March 21 and
September 22.
• Cooper has given the following simple
relation for calculating the declination angle:
360
δ in degrees = 23.45 sin 284 + n
365
Where n is the day of the year.
81

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Declination angle (δ)
82

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Declination angle (δ)
83

Solar geometry: Sun angles

84

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Zenith

z
W
N

s

s P

South E
85

Solar geometry: Collector angles

Zenith

z

W
N
s 

s

South E
86

Solar geometry: Sun angles

87

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Slope (β) of the collector/SPV panel

• Angle made by the plane surface with the

horizontal. It can very from 0 to 1800.
• Optimum angle (β) for any fixed collector
surface with the horizontal for year round
performance, β = βaverage= ϕ, where ϕ is the
latitude of location.
• For winter months β = ϕ + 100 to ϕ + 150
• For summer months β = ϕ -100 to ϕ -150.
88

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solar azimuth angle (𝛾𝑠 )
• It is the angle made in the horizontal plane
between the horizontal line due south and the
projection of the line of sight of the sun on the
horizontal plane.
• Thus it gives the direction of the shadow cast in
the horizontal plane by a vertical rod.
• By convention, the solar azimuth angle is taken
to be positive if the projection of line of sight is
east of south and negative if west of south.
• Solar azimuth angle defines direction of sun.
• −1800 ≤ γs ≤ +1800 .
89

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solar azimuth angle (𝛾𝑠 = ψ)
90

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solar azimuth angle (𝛾𝑠 = ψ)
91

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Surface azimuth angle (γ)
• It is the angle made in the horizontal plane
between the horizontal line due south and
the projection of the normal to the surface
on the horizontal plane.
• It can very from -1800 to +1800.
• −1800 ≤ γ ≤ +1800 .
• We adopt the convention that the angle is
positive if the normal is east of south and
negative if west of south.
92

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Zenith angle (θz) and solar altitude angle (αa)
• For β = 00 , θ = θz.
• Zenith angle (θz): It is the angle made by the sun’s rays
with the normal to a horizontal surface.
• The complement of zenith angle is called as solar
altitude angle (αa).
• θz + αa= 900
• Solar altitude angle (αa) defines, How high the sun is ?
• 00 ≤ θz ≤ 900 .
• At sunrise and sunset θz = 900.
• For a horizontal surface β = 00 , at 1200 h LAT (ω = 00),
then cos θz = cos (ϕ - δ), θz = (ϕ – δ), αa= 90 – ϕ + δ
• Shadowless noon occurs at ϕ = δ (θz= 0 ) i.e., αa= 900.
93

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Zenith angle (θz) and solar altitude angle (αa)
• Solar altitude angle (αa): It is the angle made in the
vertical plane between the direction of the sun’s beam
and its projection on the horizontal plane at a location on
the earth’s surface.

AO : Sun’s beam CO: Normal to HP

A
C

∠ AOC =θz

∠ AOB =αa θz
αa
B O HP
‘O’ be the point on the earth’s
surface
BO : Horizontal projection of the
sun’s beam
94
Solar geometry: Sun angles
• Solar altitude angle:
The annual change in the relative position of the Earth's axis in
relationship to the Sun causes the height of the Sun or solar
altitude to vary in our skies.
Solar altitude is normally measured from either the southern or
northern point along the horizon and begins at zero degrees.
Maximum solar altitude occurs when the Sun is directly overhead
and has a value of 90°.
The total variation in maximum solar altitude for any location on
the Earth over a one-year period is 47° (Earth’s tilt 23.5° x 2 =
47°). This variation is due to the annual changes in the relative
position of the Earth to the Sun. At ϕ = 50 degrees North,
maximum solar altitude varies from 63.5 degrees on the June
solstice to 16.5 degrees on the December solstice, i.e., 63.5 - 16.5
= 470 (As shown in Figure).
For the equator ϕ = 00 : Maximum solar height at the equator goes
from 66.5 degrees above the northern end of the horizon during
the June solstice, to directly overhead on the September equinox,
and then down to 66.5 degrees above the southern end of the
horizon during the December solstice.
95

Solar geometry: Sun angles

• Solar altitude angle:

Figure Variations in solar altitude at solar noon for 50 degrees

North during the June solstice, equinox, and December solstice.
96

Solar geometry: Sun angles

• Solar altitude angle:

Figure: Variations in solar altitude at solar noon for the

equator during the June solstice, equinox, and December
solstice.
97

Solar geometry: Sun angles

• Solar altitude angle:
Altitude of the sun at solar noon can be calculated with
the simple equation:
Altitude α = 90 - Latitude ϕ +/- Declination δ
In this equation, ϕ is the latitude of the location in
degrees and δ is the declination. The equation is
simplified to α = 90 - ϕ if Sun angle determinations
are being made for either equinox date. If the Sun angle
determination is for a solstice date, declination (δ) is
added to latitude (ϕ) if the location is experiencing
summer (northern latitudes = June solstice; southern
latitudes = December solstice) and subtracted from
latitude (ϕ) if the location is experiencing winter
(northern latitudes = December solstice; southern
latitudes = June solstice).
98

Solar geometry: Sun angles

• Solar altitude angle:
All answers from this equation are given relative to True
North for southern latitudes and True South for northern
latitudes. For our purposes only the declinations of the two
solstices and two equinoxes are important. These values
are: June solstice δ = 23.5, December solstice δ = -23.5,
March equinox δ = 0, and September equinox δ = 0.
When using the above equation in tropical latitudes, Sun
altitude values greater than 90 degrees may occur for some
calculations. When this occurs, the noonday Sun is actually
behind you when looking towards the equator. Under these
circumstances, Sun altitude should be recalculated as
follows:
Altitude α = 90 - (originally calculated Altitude α - 90)
99

Solar geometry: Sun angles

• General form of cos θ expression:
cos θ =
sin ϕ (sin δ cos β + cos δ cos γ cos ω sin β) + cos ϕ(cos δ cos ω cos β −
sin δ cos γ sin β) + cos δ sin γ sin ω sin β (1)
• Special cases:
1. Vertical surface β = 900 ,equation (1) becomes
cos θ =
sin ϕ cos δ cosγ cos ω − cos ϕ sin δ cos γ + cos δ sin γ sin ω (2)
2. Horizontal surface β = 00 ,equation (1) becomes
cos θ = cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω (3)
The angle θ in this case is the zenith angle θz .
100

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The complement of the zenith angle is called as solar altitude
angle αa .
θz + αa = 900 , αa = 900 − θz
sin αa = sin(900 − θz ) = cos θz
Therefore,
cos θz = sin αa = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
3. For inclined surface facing due south 𝛾 = 00 , in order to
capture maximum possible sunlight, solar collectors should
always be kept facing due south at an inclination (𝛽) so that it
receives maximum radiation. Therefore for a fixed collector
surface if installed in the northern hemisphere, collector should
be facing true south (𝛾 = 00 ) and if it is installed in the
southern hemisphere, it should be facing true north 𝛾 =
1800 .
101

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Substituting 𝛾 = 00 in general form of cos 𝜃 expression,
equation (1) becomes
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 − 𝛽 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 cos 𝜙 − 𝛽 (4)
4. Vertical surface facing due south 𝛽 = 900 , 𝛾 = 00 ,
equation (1) becomes
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝜙 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 − cos 𝜙 sin 𝛿 (5)
5. Inclined surface facing due north 𝛾 = 1800 , equation
(1) becomes
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 + 𝛽 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 cos 𝜙 + 𝛽 (6)
102

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The angle of incidence 𝜃 can also be expressed in terms
of zenith angle 𝜃𝑧 , slope 𝛽, the surface azimuth angle 𝛾
and the solar azimuth angle 𝛾𝑠 .
Braun and Mitchell have shown that
cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝑧 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝜃𝑧 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾 (7)
𝛾𝑠 required in the above expression, is obtained from
the following equation:
cos θ z sin ϕ−sin δ
cos γs = (8)
sin θ z cos ϕ
103

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the morning
104

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the morning
105

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the

morning
• OP is a vertical pole
• PS is line of sight of the sun.
• OS is projection of line of sight of the sun on H. P
(ORSQ). It is also the length of shadow cast on H.P.
• In the morning, sun is in S-E direction. Therefore the
direction of sun is +γ0s east of south.
• Direction of shadow cast OS: If measured from north
then the direction of shadow cast would be
+ γ0s west of north.
106

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the

morning
OP (Opposite)
1. tan αa = tan(90 − θz ) =
OS(Adjacent)
OP
OS =
tan αa
OQ (Adjacent) y
2. cos γs = =
OS(Hypo) OP
tan αa
OP cos γs
y=
tan αa
QS (Opposite ) x
3. sin γs = = OP
OS (Hypo )
tan α a
OP sin γs
x=
tan αa
107

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the afternoon
108

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the

afternoon
• OP is a vertical pole
• PS is line of sight of the sun.
• OS is projection of line of sight of the sun on H. P
(ORSQ). It is also the length of shadow cast on H.P.
• In the afternoon, sun is in S-W direction. Therefore the
direction of sun is −γ0s west of south.
• Direction of shadow cast OS: If measured from north
then the direction of shadow cast would be
−γ0s east of north.
109

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the

afternoon
OP (Opposite)
1. tan αa = tan(90 − θz ) =
OS(Adjacent)
OP
OS =
tan αa
OQ (Adjacent) y
2. cos γs = =
OS(Hypo) OP
tan αa
OP cos γs
y=
tan αa
QS (Opposite ) x
3. sin γs = = OP
OS (Hypo )
tan α a
OP sin γs
x=
tan αa
110

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate zenith angle of the sun at Lucknow
(26.7500N) at 9.30 a.m LAT on February 16, 2012.
Solution:
θz = ?, ϕ = 26.750 N, LAT = 9.30 a. m,
ω = 37.50 , On Feb 16, n = 47
360
δ in degrees = 23.45 sin 284 + n
365
360
δ = 23.45 sin 284 + 47 = −12.950
365
cos 𝜃𝑧 = sin 𝜙 sin 𝛿 + cos 𝜙 cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔
cos 𝜃𝑧 = sin 26.75 sin(−12.95) + cos 26.75 cos(−12.95) cos 37.5
cos 𝜃𝑧 = 0.589
𝜃𝑧 = 53.9140
111

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate the angle made by

beam radiation with the normal to a flat-
plate collector on May 1 at 1200 h
(LAT).The collector is located in New Delhi
(28035’ N,77012’ E).It is tilted at an angle
of 360 with the horizontal and is pointing
due south.
Solution: On May 1, n =121, γ = 00, ω =
00 at 1200 h LAT.
112

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solution contd.. 360
δ in degrees = 23.45 sin 284 + 121
365
δ = 14.900
For inclined surface facing due south,𝛾 = 00
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 − 𝛽 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 cos 𝜙 − 𝛽
cos 𝜃 =
sin 14.90 sin 28.58 − 36 + cos 14.90 cos 0 cos 28.58 − 36
cos 𝜃 = 0.9251, 𝜃 = 22.30
113

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Alternate method:

δ β

Above fig. shows a cross-section through the local meridian. Since ω = 00

And γ= 00 , all angles involved θ,ϕ,δ and β are lie in one plane.
Considering the parallel sun rays OS1 and PS2 and the intersecting line OPZ,
we have ∠POS1 = ∠ ZPS2 i.e., ϕ - δ = β-θ.
θ = β + δ – ϕ=360+14.900-28.580=22.30
θ=22.30
114

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate the angle made by
beam radiation with the normal to a flat-plate
collector on May 1 at 0900 h (LAT).The
collector is located in New Delhi (28035’
N,77012’ E).It is tilted at an angle of 360 with
the horizontal and is pointing due south.
Solution: On May 1, n =121, γ = 00, ω = 450
at 0900 h LAT.
360
δ in degrees = 23.45 sin 284 + 121
365
δ = 14.900
115

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solution contd..
For inclined surface facing due south,𝛾 = 00
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 − 𝛽 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 cos 𝜙 − 𝛽
cos 𝜃 =
sin 14.90 sin 28.58 − 36 + cos 14.90 cos 45 cos 28.58 −
36
cos 𝜃 = 0.6444, 𝜃 = 48.90
116

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Alternative method:
• The angle of incidence θ can also be calculated by using equation
(7) in conjunction with equation (3) and equation (8).
• From equation (3)
cos θ = cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
The angle θ in this case is the zenith angle θz .
cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
cos θz = sin 28.58 sin 14.90 + cos 28.58 cos 14.90 cos 45
cos θz = 0.7231, θz = 43.690
• From equation (8)
cos 43.69 sin 28.58 − sin 14.90
cos 𝛾𝑠 =
sin 43.69 cos 28.58
cos 𝛾𝑠 = 0.1464, 𝛾𝑠 = 81.580
From equation (7)
cos 𝜃 = cos 𝜃𝑧 cos 𝛽 + sin 𝜃𝑧 sin 𝛽 cos 𝛾𝑠 − 𝛾
cos 𝜃 = cos 43.69 cos 36 + sin 43.69 sin 36 cos 81.58 − 0
cos 𝜃 = 0.6444, 𝜃 = 48.90
117

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate the angle made by
beam radiation with the normal to a flat-plate
collector on November 3, 2003 at 0900 h
(LAT).The collector is located in New Delhi
(28035’ N,77012’ E).It is tilted at an angle of
360 with the horizontal and is pointing due
south.
Solution: On Nov 3, n = 307, γ = 00, ω = 450
at 0900 h LAT, β = 360
360
δ in degrees = 23.45 sin 284 + 307
365
δ = −15.960
118

Solar geometry: Sun angles

For inclined surface facing due south,𝛾 = 00
cos 𝜃 = sin 𝛿 sin 𝜙 − 𝛽 + cos 𝛿 cos 𝜔 cos 𝜙 − 𝛽
cos 𝜃 =
sin(−15.96) sin 28.58 − 36 + cos(−15.96) cos 45 cos 28.58 − 36
cos θ = 0.709, θ = 44.850
119

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation
on a flat plate collector for the following situation:
Location: Nagpur (210 06’ N, 79003’E)
Slope of collector: 310
Surface azimuth angle: 150
Date: 1 December
Time: 0900h (IST)
Eq. of time correction on Dec 1 = + 10 min
Solution: n = 335
360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin (284 + 335) = −22.110
365
LAT = 0900 h – 4 (82.50-79.05) min + 10 min= 08 h 56’ 12”
ω = (12-LST) 15
ω = (12h 00’ 00”- 08h 56’12”) 15 = + 45.950
120

Solar geometry: Sun angles

cos θ = sin 21.1 sin −22.11 cos 31
+ cos −22.11 cos 15 cos 45.95 sin 31
+ cos 21.1 cos −22.11 cos 45.95 cos 31
− sin −22.11 cos 15 sin 31
+ cos −22.11 sin 15 sin 45.95 sin 31
cos θ = 0.7778, θ = 38.940
121

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate the angle of incidence of beam radiation
on a photovoltaic array for the following situation:
Location: Mumbai (190 07’ N, 720 51’E)
Slope of PV array: 280
Surface azimuth angle: 200
Date: 18 August 2020
Time: 1030 h (LAT)
Solution:
n = 230 on 18 August

360
𝛿 = 23.45 sin (284 + 230) = 12.7860
365

At 1030 h, ω = 22.50
Using general form of cos θ expression as given in next slide..
122

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Solution contd…
cos θ = sin 19.12 sin 12.786 cos 28
+ cos 12.786 cos 20 cos 22.5 sin 28
+ cos 19.12 cos 12.786 cos 22.5 cos 28
− sin 12.786 cos 20 sin 28
+ cos 12.786 sin 20 sin 22.5 sin 28
cos θ = 0.935 , θ = 24.010
123

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Question: Calculate the length and direction of the
shadow cast on the ground by a 1m long vertical stick
for the following situation.
Location: Mumbai (19007’N, 72051’E)
Date: February 13
Time: 1000 h (IST)
Equation of time correction on 13 Feb is -14 min.
Solution:
360
On Feb 13, n = 44, δ = 23.45 sin 284 + 44
365
δ = −13.950
LAT = 1000 h − 4 82.500 − 72.850 min −14 min
LAT = 9.123 h, ω = 12 − 9.123 15 = 43.150
124

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Zenith angle θz
cos θz = sin 19.12 sin −13.95
+ cos 19.12 cos −13.95 cos 43.15 = 0.5889
θz = 53.920
Length of pole 1
Length of shadow = = = 1.372 m
tan 90 − θz tan 90 − 53.92
𝛼𝑎 = 90 − 53.920 = 36.080
The solar azimuth angle 𝛾𝑠 gives the direction of shadow cast:
cos 𝜃𝑧 sin 𝜙 − sin 𝛿 0.5889 sin 19.12 − sin −13.95
cos 𝛾𝑠 = =
sin 𝜃𝑧 cos 𝜙 sin 53.92 cos 19.12
𝛾𝑠 = 55.40
125

Solar geometry: Sun angles

1) The direction of sun is 55.40 east of south in the

morning.
2) If measured from north then the direction of
shadow cast would be 55.40 west of north.
3) The co-ordinates of point s (x, y):
length of pole × sin γ s length of pole × cos γ s
x= and y =
tan α a tan α a
1m × sin 55.4
x= = 1.129 m
tan 36.08
1m × cos 55.4
y= = 0.7793
tan 36.08
s (x, y) = s (1.129 m, 0.7793 m).
126

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the morning
127

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Significance of solar azimuth angle in the afternoon
128

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

Figure: Annual change in the position of the Earth in its revolution

around the Sun.
129

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• In this graphic, we are viewing the Earth from a position in
space that is above the North Pole (yellow dot) at the summer
solstice, the winter solstice, and the two equinoxes. Note how
the position of the North Pole on the Earth's surface does not
change. However, its position relative to the Sun does change
and this shift is responsible for the seasons. The red circle on
each of the Earths represents the Arctic Circle (66.5 degrees
N). During the June solstice, the area above the Arctic Circle
is experiencing 24 hours of daylight because the North Pole is
tilted 23.5 degrees toward the Sun. The Arctic Circle
experiences 24 hours of night when the North Pole is tilted
23.5 degrees away from the Sun in the December solstice.
During the two equinoxes, the circle of illumination cuts
through the polar axis and all locations on the Earth
experience 12 hours of day and night. Seasons are
appropriate only for the Northern Hemisphere.
130

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

Figure: During the June solstice the Earth's North Pole is tilted 23.5 degrees
towards the Sun relative to the circle of illumination. This phenomenon keeps
all places above a latitude of 66.5 degrees N in 24 hours of sunlight, while
locations below a latitude of 66.5 degrees S are in darkness. The North Pole
is tilted 23.5 degrees away from the Sun relative to the circle of illumination
during the December solstice. On this date, all places above a latitude of 66.5
degrees N are now in darkness, while locations below a latitude of 66.5
degrees S receive 24 hours of daylight.
131

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

On June 21 or 22 the Earth is positioned in its orbit so that the

North Pole is leaning 23.5° toward the Sun. During the June
solstice (also called the summer solstice in the Northern
Hemisphere), all locations north of the equator have day
lengths greater than twelve hours, while all locations south of
the equator have day lengths less than twelve hours. On
December 21 or 22 the Earth is positioned so that the South
Pole is leaning 23.5 degrees toward the Sun. During the
December solstice (also called the winter solstice in the
Northern Hemisphere), all locations north of the equator have
day lengths less than twelve hours, while all locations south of
the equator have day lengths exceeding twelve hours.
132

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

Figure: During the equinoxes, the axis of the Earth is not tilted toward or
away from the Sun and the circle of illumination cuts through the poles.
This situation does not suggest that the 23.5 degree tilt of the Earth no
longer exists. The vantage point of this graphic shows that the Earth's
axis is inclined 23.5 degrees toward the viewer for both dates. The red
circles shown in the graphic are the Arctic Circle.
Day lengths on both of these days (Sept 22 and March 20), regardless of
latitude, are exactly12 hours.
133

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

On September 22 or 23, also called the autumnal

equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, neither pole is
tilted toward or away from the Sun. In the Northern
Hemisphere, March 20 or 21 marks the arrival of
the vernal equinox or spring when once again the
poles are not tilted toward or away from the Sun. Day
lengths on both of these days, regardless of latitude,
are exactly 12 hours.
134

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

Figure : Relationship of maximum Sun height to latitude for the equinox

(left) and June solstice (right).
135

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
The red values on the right of the globes are maximum solar altitudes
at solar noon. Black numbers on the left indicate the location of the
Equator, Tropic of Cancer (23.5 degrees N), Tropic of Capricorn (23.5
degrees S), Arctic Circle (66.5 degrees N), and the Antarctic Circle
(66.5 degrees S). The location of the North and South Poles are also
identified. During the equinox, the equator is the location on the Earth
with a Sun angle of 90 degrees for solar noon. Note how maximum Sun
height declines with latitude as you move away from the Equator. For
each degree of latitude travelled maximum Sun height decreases by the
same amount. At equinox, you can also calculate the noon angle by
subtracting the location's latitude from 90. During the summer solstice,
the Sun is now directly overhead at the Tropic of Cancer. All locations
above this location have maximum Sun heights that are 23.5 degrees
higher from the equinox situation. Places above the Arctic Circle are in
24 hours of daylight. Below the Tropic of Cancer the noon angle of the
Sun drops one degree in height for each degree of latitude travelled. At
the Antarctic Circle, maximum Sun height becomes 0 degrees and
locations south of this point on the Earth are in 24 hours of darkness.
136

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
Summer solstice

Noon time solar angle

i.e., solar altitude angle
at noon time.
αa= π/2-ϕ+δ
137

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
Winter solstice
138

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
The location on the Earth where the Sun is directly
overhead at solar noon is known as the subsolar
point. The subsolar point occurs on the equator during
the two equinoxes. On these dates, the equator is lined
up with the ecliptic plane and the poles are in line with
the circle of illumination. During the summer solstice,
the subsolar point moves to the Tropic of Cancer (23.5°
N) because at this time the North Pole is inclined 23.5°
toward the Sun.
Fig shows how the subsolar point gradually changes
from one day to the next over a period of one-year.
Note that on this graph, the subsolar point is located at
the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S) during the December
solstice when the South Pole is angled 23.5° toward
the Sun.
139

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

Figure: Angle of the Sun’s declination and latitude of the subsolar

point throughout the year. Seasons are for the Northern
Hemisphere.
140

Solar geometry: Sun angles

Front view of the earth The Sun-Earth movement
(looking parallel to the
equatorial plane)

Top view of the earth

(looking from the north pole)
141

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Two types of motion are involved between the earth and
the sun; the revolution and the rotation of the earth.
• The earth revolves around the sun once every year. The
motion of earth’s revolution happens in a plane called
elliptic plane.
• Apart from this, the earth rotates about its own polar axis
once every day (3600 in 24 hrs).
• The polar axis of the earth is inclined by an angle of
66.550 to the plane of the earth’s revolution, the elliptic
plane or inclined by 23.450 from perpendicular to the
elliptic plane.
142

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• The rotation of earth on its inclined polar axis with respect
to the elliptic plane causes the different seasons on the
earth, not the revolution of the earth.
• In front view, the equatorial plane and polar axis are shown
as dotted lines, perpendicular to each other (marked by A’,
B’, C’ and D’ in above fig).
• The solid lines of the front view represents the line joining
the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth.
• In the top view, the north pole is shown as a dot with
symbol N next to it (marked by A,B,C and D in above fig).
• The light grey and dark grey areas of the earth represents
the illuminated (by sunlight) and non-illuminated areas
respectively.
143

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
Tropic of cancer
Normal to horizontal surface
ϕ = 23.450 N

β = 00 470 , θz = ϕ - δ = 23.450- (-23.450) = 470

Sun’s rays at pt ‘A’ Sun’s rays and
Sun’s rays at pt ‘A’ normal to
ϕ horizontal surface
δ
θz = ϕ - δ = 23.45-23.45
θz = 00

β = 00
δ = - 23.450
Tropic of capricorn
ϕ = - 23.450 S δ = + 23.450
144
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement

The Arctic (66.50N) and Antarctic (66.50S) Circles mark the

maximum reach of the sun's rays at the solstices. The Tropics of
Cancer and Capricorn mark the locations where the rays of the
noon sun are perpendicular to the ground at the solstices.
145
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
• Let us consider a location A on the earth surface as shown in fig.
The equator, tropic of cancer and tropic of capricorn are shown in
fig.
• It can be seen from the fig that, on June 21 (summer solstice), the
location, point A, at tropic of cancer (latitude 23.450 north) will
become directly overhead to the sun at noon. Therefore, locations
at tropic of cancer will get maximum radiation on June 21, which
should be a summer season for those locations (but winter season
for the location in the southern hemisphere).
• Also, on June 21 (δ = + 23.450), at point ‘A’ on tropic of cancer (ϕ
= 23.50), the angle of incidence (θ = θz) on a horizontal surface at
point ‘A’ is θz = ϕ - δ.
• θz = ϕ - δ = 23.50-23.450= 00, hence the angle of incidence on a
horizontal surface at point A, on June 21 will be 00. Due to this
zero incidence angle, the amount of radiation reaching at point A
will be maximum on June 21 at tropic of cancer.
146
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
• Similarly, on December 21 (known as winter solstice),tropic of
capricorn (latitude - 23.450 south) will become directly overhead
to the sun at noon. Therefore, December should be the summer
season for the locations lying at the latitude of the tropic of
capricorn (but winter season for the locations in the northern
hemisphere).
• On December 21 (δ = - 23.450), at point ‘A’ on tropic of cancer (ϕ
= 23.50), the angle of incidence (θ = θz) on a horizontal surface at
point ‘A’ is θz = ϕ - δ.
• θz = ϕ - δ = 23.50-(-23.450) = 470, hence the angle of incidence on
a horizontal surface at point A, on 21 December will be 470. Due
to this angle the amount of radiation reaching the point A will be
less than the case of point A on June [Link], it will be a
winter season at point A. Thus, during December the locations at
the tropic of cancer will have winter season.
147
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
• In between December and June, the earth passes
through a phase in which the equatorial regions
become perpendicular to the sunrays at noon. This
happens on September 22 and March 20 of each year
(positions B and D in fig ).These days are known as
solar equinox.
• On the day of solar equinox, since the sun becomes
exactly overhead, the sunrays need to travel less
distance through the earth’s atmosphere, there is less
absorption and scattering and hence the equator
receives maximum solar radiation during this period.
• Equinox is the moment at which the center of the
visible sun is directly above the equator.
148

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Summer solstice
149

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Summer solstice
• In the northern hemisphere, the sun shines
vertically above the tropic of cancer (23.450N) on
June 21.
• This position is called ‘summer solstice’ as the
sun seems to stand still (sun standing still).
• So, at this time of the year, the northern
hemisphere has summer with longer days and
shorter nights.
• While the southern hemisphere, receiving
slanting rays, has winter with shorter days and
longer nights.
150

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Winter solstice
151

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Winter solstice
• On December 22 the southern hemisphere lean
(move into a sloping position) most towards the
sun and the sun’s rays fall vertically on the tropic
of Capricorn (23.450S).
• Hence, at time of the year, the southern
hemisphere has summer with longer days and
shorter nights.
• While the northern hemisphere has winter with
shorter days and longer nights. This position is
called ‘winter solstice’.
152

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Two equinoxes
153

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Two equinoxes
• On September 22, the sun’s rays fall vertically on the
equator. As a result, on this day, the sun illuminates the
northern and southern hemisphere equally, making the
days and nights are approximately equal length all over
the earth.
• Since the days and nights are of equal length, the
season is neither too hot or nor too cold.
• After this date the position of the earth, revolving around
the sun, is such that the northern hemisphere starts
tilting away from the sun and the southern hemisphere
tilts gradually towards the sun.
• So, in the northern hemisphere, the days starts getting
shorter and the nights longer. This position is called
‘autumnal equinox’. Conversely, it is spring in the
southern hemisphere.
154

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement: Two equinoxes
• Similarly, on March 20, the sun’s rays again fall
vertically on the equator, making the days and
nights of approximately equal length all over the
earth again, like the 22nd of September.
• This time, it is autumn in south and spring in the
north. This position is called the ‘spring equinox’.
• After this date, the northern hemisphere starts
leaning towards the sun, so the days will start
getting longer and nights shorter.
155

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
156

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• The earth’s daily rotation about the axis
through its two celestial poles (North and
south) are perpendicular to the equator but it
is not perpendicular to the plane of the
earth’s orbit.
• The measure of the tilt or obliquity of the
earth’s axis to a line perpendicular to the
plane of its orbit is currently about 23.50.
157

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
158

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

• Plane of the sun: The plane parallel to the

earth’s celestial equator and through the
center of the sun is called plane of the sun.
• The earth passes alternatively above and
below this plane making one complete elliptic
cycle every year.
159

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Summer solstice:

The sun declination angle δ = +23.450 =ϕ on the summer solstice.

160

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Summer solstice:
On the occasion of the summer solstice, the
sun shines down most directly of the tropic of
cancer in the northern hemisphere, making
an angle δ =+23.450 with the equatorial
plane.
161

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Summer solstice:
In general the sun declination angle δ is
defined to be that angle made between a ray
of the sun, when extended to the centre of
the earth ‘O’ and the equatorial plane. We
take δ to be positively oriented.
Whenever the sun’s rays reach ‘O’ by
passing through the Northern hemisphere.
162

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Summer solstice:
On the day of summer solstice, the sun is
above the horizon for the longest period of
time in the northern hemisphere. Hence it is
the longest day for daylight there.
Conversely, the sun remains below the
horizon at all point within the Antarctic circle
on this day.
163

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Winter solstice:

ϕ = -23.450
164
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
• Declination angle range:
165

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Vernal and autumnal equinox:
− There are two occasions throughout the year when
the center of the earth lies in the plane of the sun.
− Since the earth’s North-South axis of rotation is
perpendicular to this plane, it follows that, on these
two days, every location on the earth receives 12
hours of sunshine.
− These two events are known as the vernal and
autumnal equinoxes.
166

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Vernal and autumnal equinox:
− The sun declination angle has measure, δ = 00
on the days of the vernal and autumnal equinox.
− Note that:
− The earth is above the plane of the sun during its
motion from autumnal equinox to winter solstice to
vernal equinox. Hence δ<0 during the autumn
(Sept 1, Oct, Nov 30 ) and winter (Dec 1, Jan, Feb
28).
− The earth is below the plane of the sun as it
moves from vernal equinox to summer solstice and
back to autumnal equinox i.e., during spring
(March 1, April, May 31) and summer (01 June,
July, 31 August).So δ > 0 during these seasons.
167

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
• Vernal and autumnal equinox:

− The Sun is directly overhead at "high-noon" on the

equator twice per year, at the two equinoxes.
Spring (or Vernal) Equinox is usually March 21,
and Fall (or Autumnal) equinox is usually
September 22.
− Except at the equator, the equinoxes are the only
dates with equal daylight and dark. At the equator,
all days of the year have the same number of
hours of light and dark.
168
Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

Derivation: Find out the minimum distance between

the two flat plate collectors or two SPV panels (Dmin):
When a row of collectors are mounted to avoid shading, the
minimum distance between the two collectors needs to be
find out.
Solution:
To find solar altitude angle at 1200 h LAT ? , αa + θz = 900
1. For a horizontal surface (β = 00, θ = θz)
169
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
At 1200 h LAT, ω = 00 , since cos0 = 1,
Above expression becomes,
cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ
cos θz = cos( ϕ − δ) i. e. , θz = ϕ − δ
𝛼𝑎 = 90 − θz
𝛼𝑎 = 90 − ϕ − δ = 90 − ϕ + δ
Therefore solar altitude angle at noon time, 𝛼𝑎
𝛼𝑎 = 90 − ϕ + δ
170
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
2. Winter solstice Dec 21, δ = -23.450, the sun is directly above the
tropic of Capricorn at 1200 h LAT i.e., the sun is directly overhead at
noon on Dec21.
𝛼𝑎 = 90 − ϕ + (−23.45)
𝛼𝑎 = 66.5 − ϕ (i. e. , θz = ϕ + 23.450 ) (1)
* For tropic of Capricorn ϕ = − 23.450 S , therefore, December
should be the summer season for the locations lying at the latitude of
the tropic of Capricorn, southern hemisphere (but winter season for
the locations in the northern hemisphere because amount of
radiation reaching in the northern hemisphere will be less, hence 𝛼𝑎
value is least and θz value is most for the locations in northern
hemisphere at the time of winter solstice Dec 21).
Also, for tropic of Capricorn, 𝛼𝑎 = 900 and θz = 00 .
171
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
3. Summer solstice June 21, δ = +23.450, the sun is directly above
the tropic of Cancer at 1200 h LAT i.e., the sun is directly
overhead at noon on June 21.
𝛼𝑎 = 90 − ϕ + (+23.45)
𝛼𝑎 = 113.45 − ϕ (i. e. , θz = ϕ − 23.450 ) (2)
* For tropic of Cancer ϕ = + 23.450 N, therefore, June should be
the summer season for the locations lying at the latitude of the
tropic of Cancer, northern hemisphere (but winter season for the
locations in the southern hemisphere because amount of
radiation reaching in the southern hemisphere will be less,
hence 𝛼𝑎 value is most and θz value is least for the locations in
northern hemisphere at the time of summer solstice June 21).
Also, for tropic of Cancer, 𝛼𝑎 = 900 and θz = 00 .
172
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
4. On equinox days (March 21 and Sept 22), δ
= 00, the sun is directly above the equator at
1200 h LAT.
θz = ϕ – δ
θz = ϕ (3)
Since θz + αa = 900
αa = 900 – ϕ (4)
• The equator (ϕ = 00) is the circle where the
sun is directly overhead at noon on the
equinox days i.e., March 21 and Sept 22.
at 1200 h LAT, θz = 00 and αa = 900 .
173
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
• From above equation (1), (2), (3) & (4), it is found that on Dec
21 at 1200 h LAT, the value of θz is maximum and αa is
minimum.
• Thus shadow would be longest on Dec 21(δ = - 23.450) at
1200 h LAT compare to shadow on June 21 (δ = + 23.450) &
March 21 and Sept 22 (δ = 00) at 1200 h LAT.
θz(δ=−23.45 0 ) > θz(δ=00 ) > θz(δ=+23.45 0 )

θz = ϕ + 23.450 > θz = ϕ > 𝜃z = ϕ − 23.450

i.e., αa(δ=−23.45 0 ) < αa(δ=00 ) < αa(δ=+23.45 0 )

i.e., Lshadow (δ=−23.45 0 ) > Lshadow (δ=00 ) > Lshadow (δ=+23.45 0 )

since αa + θz = 900 , αa + (ϕ + 23.450 ) = 900

αa = 66.50 − ϕ, since θz is at 1200 h LAT, αa is solar
altitide angle at noon on Dec21.
174

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement

• On Dec 21, June 21, March 21 & Sept 22 at 1200 h

LAT, the sun’s beam is normal to the surface
therefore its projection will be on line due south as
the surface is facing due south. Hence solar azimuth
angle will be zero (γs = 00 ).

• Also, normal to the inclined surface facing due south

and its projection will be on line due south. Hence
surface azimuth angle will also be zero (γ = 00 ).
175
Solar geometry: Sun angles
The Sun-Earth movement
176

Solar geometry: Sun angles

The Sun-Earth movement
0 0
For a collector facing due south γ = 0 , γs = 0
(Angle between BC and line due south is zero).
AB
sin β = , AB = L sin β
L
AB AB
tan αa = =
BC Dmin
AB L sin β
tan 66.5 − 𝜙 = =
Dmin Dmin
L sin β
Dmin = BC =
tan 66.5 − ϕ
For all values of 𝜙, 𝛾𝑠 should be zero on Dec21,
June21, March 21 and Sept22 at 1200 h LAT.
177

How does the amount of the sun’s rays and

amount of day light vary?
178

How does the amount of the sun’s rays and

amount of day light vary?
• The angle of incoming solar radiation influences seasonal
temperatures of locations at different latitudes.
• When the sun’s rays strike Earth’s surface near the equator, the
incoming solar radiation is more direct (nearly perpendicular or
closer to a 90˚ angle).
• Therefore, the solar radiation is concentrated over a smaller
surface area, causing warmer temperatures.
• At higher latitudes, the angle of solar radiation is smaller, causing
energy to be spread over a larger area of the surface and cooler
temperatures.
• Because the angle of radiation varies depending on the latitude,
surface temperatures on average are warmer at lower latitudes
and cooler at higher latitudes (even though higher latitudes have
more hours of daylight during the summer months).
179

Apparent motion of the sun

180

Apparent motion of the sun

181

Apparent motion of the sun

182

Apparent Motion of the Sun

183

Apparent motion of the sun

• It will be useful at this stage to describe the apparent
motion of the sun as seen from the earth.

• To an observer on the earth, on any given day (any δ) the

sun rises in the east, moves in a plane tilted at an angle of
(90-ϕ) with the horizontal and finally sets in the west.

• Thus, the apparent plane in which the sun moves intersects

the horizontal plane in a line pointing east-west.

• However because of declination angle this E-W line of

intersection doest not coincide with the E-W line passing
through the observer O.
184

Apparent motion of the sun

• For a location in northern hemisphere, this

line is to the south in winter (declination
negative), to the north in summer (declination
positive) and coincides with the E-W line
passing through the observer on the two
equinox days of March 21 and September 22
(declination zero).
185

Apparent motion of the sun

At the equator, the sun rises in the east

and sets in the west every day.
At the equinox (approximately March 21
or September 22), it rises exactly due
east, goes through the zenith, and sets
due west as shown in fig.

ϕ = 00 and δ = 00 ( ∵ θz = ϕ − δ = 00 )
186

Apparent motion of the sun

Most observers are not at the equator,
so they see that the sun’s path on any
given day is the projection of a circle at an
oblique angle with respect to the horizon.

The sun follows a path that is at an angle

of 90-L (where L is the observer's latitude)
on the day of equinox.
At other times also, the sun’s path is at an
angle of 90-L and traces a line that is north
or south of this line.

Fig shows the sun’s path at latitude 400N

(for example, in the central united states, in
Spain, or in Japan).
187

Apparent motion of the sun

188

Apparent motion of the sun

• Have a look at how the position of the sun with respect
to an observer at a given location changes over a day.

• With respect to an observer, the sun rises in the east

and sets in the west.

• The apparent motion of the sun (‘apparent’ since, in

reality, it is the earth that is moving) for an observer at
a location of latitude ϕ always happens in a plane that
is tilted to 90-ϕ from the horizon.
189

Apparent motion of the sun

• The plane of apparent motion of the sun is represented by a
straight double line which is making an angle of 90-ϕ with
horizon (shown by N-S line, the north-south axis).

• The east–west axis is exactly perpendicular to the N-S line, into

the paper.

• An observer is located at point O facing south.

• For an observer, the sun rises at point A in the morning; as the

time progresses the height of the sun or solar altitude angle (α)
increases.

• At noon, the sun reaches its peak position, point B, which is

corresponding to the highest solar altitude angle of a given day.
190

Apparent motion of the sun

• Then the sun falls in the same plane as it moves towards
the evening.

• Solar altitude is normally measured with respect to the

southern point for location in the northern hemisphere
and vice-versa.

• The minimum value of α is 00 in the morning and

evening.

• The maximum value of α occurs when the sun is directly

overhead and is equal to 900.
191

Apparent motion of the sun

• The relative tilt of the earth with respect to the sun changes
maximum by 470 in a year.

• This is corresponding to the change of declination angle from -

23.450 to +23.450.

• Due to this reason, the maximum change in the solar altitude

angle for any location on the earth is 470.
– Because solar noon altitude angle, (αa)ω = 0 = 90-ϕ+δ = 90 – θz.

– On Dec 21 when sun is directly overhead at tropic of Capricorn at 1200 h

LAT, at tropic of Cancer θz= 470, hence (αa)ω = 0 at tropic of cancer = 90-47= 430.

– On June 21 when sun is directly overhead at tropic of Cancer at 1200 h

LAT, at tropic of Cancer θz= 00, hence (αa)ω = 0 at tropic of cancer = 90-0 = 900.

– Maximum change in the solar altitude angle = On Jun 21 (αa)ω = 0 at tropic of

0 0 0
cancer 90 - On Dec 21 (αa)ω = 0 at tropic of cancer 43 = 47 .
192

Apparent motion of the sun

• Though the angle of the plane of apparent motion of
the sun (π/2 - ϕ) with respect to horizon (N-S line, the
north-south axis) remains same throughout the year,
yet its position with respect to an observer changes
every day.

• For an observer (facing the south) in the northern

hemisphere, the apparent motion plane lies in front of
the observer in the winter (low solar altitude
angle).Thus the sun will rise and set in front of the
observer.
193

Apparent motion of the sun

• The summer position of the plane of the apparent
motion depends on the latitude of the location. If the
observer’s latitude is more than 23.450 (for example
Bhopal, Gwalior, Agra, Delhi etc.,), the plane of
apparent motion will always be ahead of the observer.

• If the observer’s latitude is less than 23.450, the plane

of apparent motion will go behind the observer in the
summer. In this case the sun would be rising and
setting behind the absorber.
194

Apparent motion of the sun

• The solar altitude angle (α) at noon time only, for the
locations at northern hemisphere can be estimated
using the following equation: α = 90 – ϕ + δ.
• α is presented with respect to the south, and also the
value of δ can be negative as well as positive.
• Thus, solar altitude will be minimum for the winter
season (negative δ) and maximum for the summer
season (positive δ).
• Knowledge of solar altitude angle is very useful in
deciding the orientation of solar energy collectors (PV
modules and solar thermal devices).
• If the collector is not tracking the sun, its surface
should be oriented such that the angle of the surface
normal with respect to the south is equal to the solar
altitude angle at noon time.
195

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

• Horizontal surface / collector surface:
– Angle of incidence on a horizontal collector surface is
given as cos θz= sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω.
– Above equation can be used to find out the sunrise and
sunset times, which normally are presented in sunrise and
sunset hour angle ωs.
– cos θz= sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ωs. (1)
– Due to the symmetry, the value of sunrise and sunset hour
angle will be the same.
– The sunrise and sunset hour angle will be the angle for
which the incidence angle of sunrays (θ) is 900 or zenith
angle (θz) is 900 (for a horizontal surface, θ = θz).
– The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or sunset
(ωs) on a horizontal surface can be found from equation
(1) if we substitute the value of 900 for the zenith angle.
196

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

– For θz = 900 Equation (1) becomes
– cos 90 = 0 = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ωs.
i.e., cos ωs = - tan ϕ tan δ
ωs = cos-1 (- tan ϕ tan δ) (2)
– Equation (2) will give a positive and a negative value of the hour angle
ωs .
– The hour angle (ωs) is considered positive before the noon and negative
after the noon.
– Since 150 of the hour angle is equivalent to 1 hour, the corresponding
day length (in hours):
2
Smax = ωs , Where ωs is in degrees.
15

– The day length is the duration from the sunrise hour angle to the sunset
hour angle. Due to symmetry both angles are same for the horizontal
collector. Thus, the day length will be equal to 2 ωs.
− In terms of the number of hours, the day length, Smax (the day length or
maximum number of sunshine hours) will be given as:
2 2
Smax = ωs = cos −1 − tan ϕ tan δ (3)
15 15
Where ωs is in degrees.
197

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

• Inclined surface / collector facing due south:
– If the collector surface is inclined and south facing,
the sunrise and sunset hour angles will be obtained
from following equation:
– Angle of incidence on an inclined surface facing
due south is given as cos θ = sin (ϕ-β) sin δ + cos
(ϕ-β) cos δ cos ω.
– The sunrise and sunset hour angle (ωst) for an
inclined surface facing due south will be obtained
using θ = 900.
cos 90 = 0 = sin (ϕ-β) sin δ + cos (ϕ-β) cos δ
cos ωst. (4)
− i.e., cos ωst = - tan (ϕ- β) tan δ
ωst = cos-1 [-tan (ϕ–β) tan δ] (5)
198

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

− The hour angle at sunrise or sunset as seen by an observer
on an inclined surface facing due south (γ=00) will also be
given by equation (2) i.e., ωs = cos-1 (- tan ϕ tan δ) = ωst , if the
day under consideration lies between September 22 and
March 21, and the location is in the northern hemisphere. This
is because during this period, the declination is negative and
the apparent plane of motion of the sun intersects the
horizontal plane in an E-W line which lies to the south of the
E-W line passing through an observer on the inclined plane.
− However, if the day under consideration lies between March
21 and September 22, the hour angle at sunrise or sunset
(ωst ) would be smaller in magnitude than the value given by
equation (2) and would be obtained by equation (5)
i.e., ωst = cos-1 [-tan (ϕ–β) tan δ]
199

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

− Thus the magnitude of ωst for an inclined surface facing
south (γ = 00) is given by:
ωst = min cos−1 − tan ϕ tan δ , cos −1 − tan ϕ − β tan δ

If the collector surface is inclined, but does not have exactly south
facing surface i.e., for a plane surface not symmetrically oriented,
hour angles at sunrise and sunset would be unequal in magnitude
apart from having opposite signs. Then the general form of cos 𝜃
expression can be used to find out the sunrise and sunset hour
angles (ωst ) by substituting 𝜃 = 900 in general form and by using
equation (2). Dpending upon the day of the year and the
orientation of the surface, proper judgment would need to be
expressed in selecting the correct values from the solution thus
obtained.
• Inclined surface facing due north (γ =1800):
ωst = min cos −1 − tan ϕ tan δ , cos −1 − tan ϕ + β tan δ
200

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

Question: Calculate the hour angle at sunrise and sunset on June 21 and
December 21 for a surface inclined at an angle of 100 and facing due south
(γ = 00).The surface is located in Mumbai (19007’ N, 72051’E).
Solution: (1) On June 21, δ = 23.450

ωst = min cos −1 − tan ϕ tan δ , cos −1 − tan ϕ − β tan δ

ωst = min cos −1 − tan 19.12 tan 23.45 , cos −1 − tan 19.12 − 10 tan 23.45

ωst = min 98.60 , 940 = 940

ωst = ±940 = Hour angle at sunrise/sunset

2 2
Day length or maximum number of sunshine hours, Smax = 𝜔𝑠 = × 940 = 12.53 hrs
15 15
12.53/2= 6.265 hrs= 6h 15 min 54 sec
Corresponding time (LAT)=1200 h±6h 15 min 54 sec
Sunrise time = 1200 h−6h 15 min 54 sec= 5 h 44 min 6sec
Sunset time = 1200 h+6h 15 min 54 sec= 18 h 15 min 54 sec
201

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

Question: Calculate the hour angle at sunrise and sunset on June 21 and
December 21 for a surface inclined at an angle of 100 and facing due south
(γ = 00).The surface is located in Mumbai (19007’ N, 72051’E).
Solution contd..
(2) On December 21, δ = - 23.450
ωst = min 81.40 , 860 = 81.40
ωst = ±81.40
ωst = ±81.40 = Hour angle at sunrise/sunset
2 2
Day length or maximum number of sunshine hours, Smax = 𝜔𝑠 = × 81.40 = 10.853 hrs
15 15
10.853/2= 5.426 hrs= 5h 25 min 36 sec
Corresponding time (LAT)=1200 h±5h 25 min 36 sec
Sunrise time = 1200 h−5h 25 min 36 sec= 6 h 34 min 24sec
Sunset time = 1200 h+5h 25 min 36 sec= 17 h 25 min 36 sec
202

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

Question: Find the solar altitude angle at 2 h after local
solar noon on 1 June 2012 for a city which is located at
26.750N latitude. Moreover, find the sunrise and sunset
hours and the day length.
Solution:
360
On 1 June, n = 152, δ = 23.45 sin 284 + 152
365
δ = 22.040
At 2 hours after local solar noon, LAT= 1400 hrs, ω = -300
θz + α = 900 , θz = 900 − α, cos θz = cos ( 900 − α) = sin α
cos θz = sin α = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
sin α = sin 26.75 sin 22.04 + cos 26.75 cos 22.04 cos (−30)
sin α = 0.885, α = sin−1 0.885 = 62.30
203

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

2 2
The day length = × ωs = × cos −1 (− tan ϕ tan δ )
15 15
2
The day length = × cos−1 − tan 26.75 tan 22.04
15
13.57
The day length = 13.57 hrs, = 6.78 hrs
2
Therefore, sun rise time = 1200 hrs-6.78 hrs = 0513 hrs
Sunset time = 1200 hrs+ 6.78 hrs = 1847 hrs
204

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

Question: Calculate the hour angle at sunrise and sunset on a plane
surface tilted at an angle of [Link] ϕ = 280 N, δ = −210 and
γ = 480 .
Solution: Since γ = + 480 i.e., surface is south-east oriented.
Also γ = +ve and δ is – ve, the hour angle at sunrise will be
obtained as ωs = cos−1 − tan ϕ tan δ = cos −1 − tan 28 tan −21
ωs = + 78.220
The hour angle at sunset will be obtained by substituting θ = 900 in
generalized form of cos θ, we get
cos 90 = 0
= sin 28 sin −21 cos 40 + cos −21 cos 48 cos ω sin 40
+ cos 28 cos −21 cos ω cos 40 − sin −21 cos 48 sin 40
+ cos −21 sin 48 sin ω sin 40
205

Sunrise, Sunset and Day length

0 = 0.00722 + 0.81996 cos 𝜔 + 0.44596 sin 𝜔
Solving by trial and error, 𝜔 = −620
Since 150 = 1 hr
From sunrise to sunset, total 𝜔𝑠 = 78.220 + 620 = 140.220
140.22
Therefore Maximum day length = = 9.348 hrs.
15
206

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

• We know that the angle of incidence of suns rays on solar
collector changes with the time of the day and with the day of
the year.
• Thus orientation of the collector should also be changing to
harness maximum sunlight.
• But often, due to economical reasons, it is preferred to have a
solar collector which has a fixed orientation throughout the
year or its orientation is changed only less often a year.
• The question is: How should the collector be optimally
oriented for capturing maximum possible sunlight?
• For a clear day, the intensity of solar radiation at a given
location is symmetrical around the solar noon time (ω = 00) or
LAT of the location. Also, the radiation intensity is maximum
at noon time.
207

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

• In order to find out the appropriate collector surface
orientation, the surface azimuth angle (γ) and the surface
inclination angle (β) should be optimized.
Differentiating general form of cos θ expression with respect to γ and β for ω =
0. i. e.,
cos θ = sin ϕ (sin δ cos β + cos δ cos γ cos ω sin β) + cos ϕ (cos δ cos ω cos β −
sin δ cos γ sin β) + cos δ sin γ sin ω sin β
d cos θ
=0
d γ, β
sin β
= tan ϕ − δ (1)
cos γ+β

For β = ϕ − δ
Above expression becomes
sin β sin β
= tan β =
cos γ+β cos β

β = γ + β , therefore., γ = 00 .
208

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

Hence, at β = ϕ − δ, optimal surface azimuth angle (γ)
would be zero γ = 00 . It implies that a fixed collector
surface, if installed in the northern hemisphere should be
facing true south γ = 00 and if it is installed in the
southern hemisphere, it should be facing true north γ =
1800 .
The optimum inclination of the surface would be given as:
β = ϕ − δ,
β = ϕ − δ can also be recognized by the fact that the
collector surface should be perpendicular to the sunrays at
the noon time (as radiation intensity is maximum at noon).
209

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

Question: Consider latitude of location 250N, calculate solar zenith angle
and inclination of south facing surface for 21 June, 21 March and 22
September and 21 December, for maximum solar collection at noon
time.
Solution:
1. Since α + θz = 900, therefore solar zenith angle at noon time (θz)= 900-
α. Also since β = ϕ − δ at noon time, it implies that the collector surface
normal should be inclined by angle ϕ − δ with respect to normal to the
horizontal plane.
π
[Link] elevation angle at noon time , αv ω=0 = −ϕ+δ
2
π
[Link], θz= 900 − − ϕ + δ = ϕ − δ. Also at noon time β =
2
ϕ−δ

[Link] 21 June δ = +23.450 and ϕ = 250 , θz = 1.550 . Also β =

1.550 for maximum solar radiation collection at noon time .
210

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

Question: Consider latitude of location 250N, calculate solar zenith angle
and inclination of south facing surface for 21 June, 21 March and 22
September and 21 December, for maximum solar collection at noon
time.
Solution contd…
5. For 21 March δ = 00 and ϕ = 250 , θz = 250 . Also β =
250 (for maximum solar radiation collection at noon time)

6. For 22 September δ = 00 and ϕ = 250 , θz = 250 . Also β =

250 (for maximum solar radiation collection at noon time)

7. For 21 December δ = −23.450 and ϕ = 250 , θz = 48.750 . Also β =

48.750 (for maximum solar radiation collection at noon time).
211

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

1. The solar altitude angle at noon time or Solar elevation angle at noon
π
time , αv ω=0 = − ϕ + δ,
2
For this solar altitude angle, the collector surface angle (β) should be
inclined by angle ϕ − δ with the horizontal plane.
It also implies that the collector surface normal should be inclined
by ϕ − δ with respect to normal to the horizontal plane.

2. Under this condition the solar incidence angle on the aperture plane of
the fixed collector surface is obtained by putting β = ϕ − δ in cos θ
expression for γ = 00.

3. For γ = 00 , cos θ = sin δ sin ϕ − β + cos δ cos ω cos(ϕ − β).

4. Therefore, cos θ = sin δ sin ϕ − ϕ + δ + cos δ cos ω cos ϕ − ϕ + δ .

5. cos θ = sin2 δ + cos 2 δ . cos ω.

212

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

• Since at noon time β = ϕ – δ, as the declination δ

changes every day; therefore the collector inclination β
should also be changing every day. This is not
practical.
• Instead, an average declination angle (average taken
over a week or a month or three months) can be used
in which case the only weekly or monthly adjustment
of the collector surface inclination will be required.
• Therefore above equation can be rewritten as
βaverage = ϕ – δaverage. Where δaverage is the average
declination over a given period and βaverage is optimal
inclination angle of the collector over that period.
213

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

• The average declination angle over a year is zero i.e.,

δaverage = [Link], the average inclination of a collector
over a year βaverage would be ϕ.
• βaverage = ϕ.
• In this case, the angle of incidence becomes

Since for γ = 00
cos θ = sin δ sin ϕ − βaverage
+ cos δ cos ω cos(ϕ − βaverage )
Therefore, in this case, the angle of incidence becomes
cos θ = 0 + cos δ cos ω cos 0
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚.
214

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

• For a fixed solar collector installed in the

northern hemisphere should be facing south and
should be inclined to an angle equal to the
latitude of the location.
• But adjustment of solar collector's inclination a
few times a year can enhance the energy
collection over the year.
• Collector inclination adjustment can also
improve the performance of the system for a
given season.
215

Optimal angle for fixed collector surface

• For daily optimal performance, the collector

should be inclined at an angle of β = ϕ – δ.
• For optimal seasonal performance one needs
to incline the collector as per the average value
of δ in that season.
• In the northern hemisphere, the δ in the summer
varies from 00 on March 20 to 23.450 on June 21
and it becomes 00 again on September [Link],
the average declination angle between March 20
and September 22 is about +150. Hence, for the
best performance, the collector should be
mounted at about ϕ – 150.
216

Optimal angle for fixed collector

surface
• Similarly, the average declination angle for
the winter between September 22 and March
20 is about – [Link] implies that the best
winter performance from the collector is
obtained when it is mounted at about ϕ +150.
217

Numerical 1
218

Numerical 1Soln
219

Numerical 1Soln
220

Numerical 1 Soln
221

Numerical 1 Soln
222

Numerical 1 Soln
223

Numerical 2
224

Numerical 2 Soln
225

Numerical 2 Soln
226

Numerical 2 Soln
227

Numerical 2 Soln
228

Numerical 3

• Example: A horizontal stick, 1m long, is fixed at a right angles

to a vertical south-facing wall (γ=00).Calculate the length and
direction of the shadow cast by the stick on the wall for the
following situation.
– Location: Jodhpur (260 18’ N, 730 01’E)
– Date: November 5
– Time: 0900 h (LAT).
Solution:
On Nov 5, n = 309, δ = -16.5460, For LAT 0900 h, ω = + 450
θz + αa = 900, cos θz = cos (90-αa) = sin αa
cos θz = sin αa= sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
cos θz = sin 26.30 sin (-16.546)+ cos 26.30 cos (-16.546)
cos 45
cos θz = 0.48148, αa = 28.780
229

Numerical 3 Soln

cos θz sin ϕ − sin δ

cos γs =
sin θz cos ϕ
Also, θz = 90 − αa
sin θz = sin 90 − αa = cos αa
0.48148 sin 26.30 − sin −16.546
cos γs =
cos 28.78 cos 26.30
= 0.633937
γs = 50.660
230

Numerical 3 Soln
231

Numerical 3 Soln
232

Numerical 3 Soln
233

Numerical 3 Soln
234

Numerical 4
235

Numerical 4 Soln
• The calculations will be done on April1 because the
solar altitude angle (αa) has the least value on that
day during April. Thus shadow would be the longest
on that day.
• On April 1, n = 91, δ = 4.0170, ϕ = 27.830N
• The calculation should be done at 1000 h and 1200 h
(LAT) to find out the longer of the two shadows.
• At 1000 h, ω = 300, αa+θz = 900
• cos θz = sin αa= sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
• cos θz = sin αa= sin 27.83 sin 4.017 + cos 27.83 cos 4.017
cos 30
• cos θz = 0.79666 = sin αa , αa = 52.810, θz = 37.190
236

Numerical 4 Soln
cos θz sin ϕ − sin δ
cos γs =
sin θz cos ϕ
cos 37.19 sin 27.83 − sin 4.017
cos γs = = 0.5647
sin 37.19 cos 27.83
γs = 55.610
OP Height of vertical wall
length of shadow cast , OS =
tan αa
4.2
length of shadow cast , OS =
tan 52.81
OS = 3.187 m

OP cos γs 4.2 cos 55.610

y = ,y =
tan αa tan 52.810
y= 1.8 m.
237

Numerical 4 Soln
at 1000 h LAT
238

Numerical 4 Soln
• Repeating the calculations for solar noon on
the same day i.e., at 1200 h LAT, ω = 00.

• cos θz = sin αa= sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω

• cos θz = sin αa= sin 27.83 sin 4.017 +

cos 27.83 cos 4.017 cos 0

• cos θz = 0.9147 = sin αa , αa = 66.160,

θz = 23.820
239

Numerical 4 Soln
cos θz sin ϕ − sin δ
cos γs =
sin θz cos ϕ
cos 23.82 sin 27.83 − sin 4.017
cos γs = =1
sin 23.82 cos 27.83
γs = 00 i.e., shadow cast OS on the N-S line.
OP Height of vertical wall
length of shadow cast , OS =
tan αa
4.2
length of shadow cast , OS =
tan 66.16
OS = 1.85 m
OP cos γs 4.2 cos 00
y = ,y =
tan αa tan 66.160
y = 1.85 m. i.e., OS = OQ = y.
240

Numerical 4 Soln

• Similarly at 1400 hrs LAT, ω = - 300

• cos θz = sin αa= sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω

• cos θz = sin αa= sin 27.83 sin 4.017 +

cos 27.83 cos 4.017 cos (-30)

• cos θz = 0.79666 = sin αa , αa = 52.810,

θz = 37.190
241

Numerical 4 Soln
cos θz sin ϕ − sin δ
cos γs =
sin θz cos ϕ
cos 37.19 sin 27.83 − sin 4.017
cos γs = = 0.5647
sin 37.19 cos 27.83
γs = 55.610
OP Height of vertical wall
length of shadow cast , OS =
tan αa
4.2
length of shadow cast , OS =
tan 52.81
OS = 3.187 m

OP cos γs 4.2 cos 55.610

y = ,y =
tan αa tan 52.810
y = 1.8 m.
242

Numerical 4 Soln

• From the above calculations, it is found that

– For LAT =1000 hrs , OS = 3.187m, y = 1.8 m
– For LAT =1200 hrs , OS= 1.85 m, y = 1.85 m
– For LAT =1400 hrs , OS= 3.187 m, y = 1.8 m
– Hence the minimum distance that should be left
on the ground between the wall and the
collectors = 1.85 m.
243

Numerical 4 Soln
at 1400 h LAT
244

Numerical 5
245
Numerical 5 Soln
246
Numerical 5 Soln
247

Numerical 5 Soln
248
Numerical 5 Soln
249

Numerical 5 Soln
250

Numerical 5 Soln
251

Numerical 5 Soln
252

Numerical 6
253

Numerical 6 Soln
254

Numerical 6 Soln
255

Numerical 6 Soln
256

Numerical 6 Soln
257

Numerical 6 Soln
258

Numerical 6 Soln
259

Numerical 6 Soln
260

Numerical 6 Soln
261

Numerical 6 Soln
262

Numerical 7
• Find the days of the year on which the sun is
directly overhead at 1200 h (LAT) at Pune
(18032’ N).
Solution:
• When the sun is directly overhead at 1200 h LAT, αa = 900
and θz = 00.
• Also at 1200 h LAT, ω = 00.
• Therefore cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos 00
cos θz = cos (ϕ - δ)
θz = (ϕ - δ)
Since θz = 00 , therefore, ϕ = δ. Since ϕ = 18.530
therefore δ = 18.530
263

Numerical 7 Soln
360
18.53 = 23.45 sin (284 + n)
365
360
0.7902 = sin (284 + n)
365
360
sin−1 0.7902 = ( 284 + n ) = 52.20
365

360 0 0 0 0
Therefore, 365
( 284 + n ) = 52.2 , 127.8 , 412.2 , 487.8 , …………

Choosing the two smallest consecutive values on the right hand side which yield
positive values of n, we have
360
365
( 284 + n ) = 412.2 n =134
360
And ( 284 + n ) = 487.8 n =211
365

The dates corresponding to n =134 and 211 are May 14 and July 30 respectively.
264

Numerical 8

• Find the days of the year on which the sun is directly

overhead at 1200 h LAT at ϕ = 00.
Solution:
• When the sun is directly overhead at 1200 h LAT, αa = 900
and θz = 00.
• Also at 1200 h LAT, ω = 00.
• Therefore cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos ω
cos θz = sin ϕ sin δ + cos ϕ cos δ cos 00
cos θz = cos (ϕ - δ)
θz = (ϕ - δ)
Since θz = 00 , therefore, ϕ = δ. Since ϕ = 00
therefore δ = 00
265

Numerical 8 Soln
360
0 = 23.45 sin (284 + n)
365
360
0 = sin (284 + n)
365
360
sin−1 0 = ( 284 + n ) = 00, 1800, 3600 , 5400 , 7200….
365

y = sin θ
θ = sin−1 (y)
266

Numerical 8 Soln
360
( 284 + n ) = 00 n = - 284 (Not possible)
365
360
( 284 + n ) = 1800 n = - 101.5 (Not possible)
365
360
( 284 + n ) = 3600 n = 81 (March 22)
365
360
( 284 + n ) = 5400 n = 264 (Sept 22)
365

Choosing the two smallest consecutive values on the right hand side which
yield positive values of n, we have n = 81 and n = 264.
The dates corresponding to n = 81 and 264 are March 22 and Sept 22
respectively.
267

Numerical 9
• Calculate and plot the variation of the angle of incidence of beam
radiation on May 1st on a flat surface located in Mumbai (19007’N,
72051’E). The surface is tilted at an angle of 100 with the horizontal and
is pointing due south. Would you prefer to plot the variation against
IST or LAT?
Solution: Location: Mumbai φ = 19.120N, Longitude = 72.850E
β = 100, γ = 00,
On May 1, n = 121
360
δ = 23.45 sin 284 + 121 = 14.900
365
For an inclined surface facing due south, γ = 00
cos θ = sin δ sin ϕ − β + cos δ cos ω cos(ϕ − β)
cos θ = sin 14.90 sin 19.12 − 10 + cos 14.90 cos ω cos(19.12 − 10)
cos θ = 0.0407 + 0.9542 cos ω
268

Numerical 9 Soln
Hour angle at sunrise/sunset:
ωs = cos −1 (− tan ϕ tan δ) = cos −1 (− tan 19.12 tan 14.90)
ωs = ± 95.290
ωst = cos−1 − tan ϕ − β tan δ
ωst = cos−1 − tan 19.12 − 10 tan 14.90
ωst = ± 92.50
Therefore hour angle at sunrise/sunset = ± 92.50
2 2
∴ Day length = ω = × 92.5 = 12.333 hrs
15 st 15
12.333
∴ = 6h 10′ 00" = 6.1665 hr
2
Corresponding time (LAT) = 1200 h ± 6 h 10 min
Sunrise time : 1200 h − 6 h 10 min = 5 h 50 min = 0550 h
Sunset time : 1200 h + 6 h 10 min = 18 h 10 min = 1810 h
269

Numerical 9 Soln
We would prefer to plot θ against LAT, because a variation
symmetrical about noon would be obtained. The following table
gives the values of θ for various values of ω.
LAT ω (deg) cos θ θ (deg)
0550 92.5 0 90
0600 90 0.0407 87.7
0700 75 0.2877 73.3
0800 60 0.5178 58.8
0900 45 0.7154 44.3
1000 30 0.8671 29.9
1100 15 0.9624 15.8
1200 0 0.9949 5.8