CHAPTER 4

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BACTERIA

Bacteria:are members of the prokaryote group without membrane bounded organelle
 are cellular
 have both DNA and RNA
 prokaryotic nucleus
 70s ribosomes
 some motility
 replicate by binary fission
Gross morphology
 Shape
o Prokaryotes come in a variety of shapes including
 spheres (cocci),
 rods (bacilli),
 ovals (coccobacilli),
 curved rods (vibrios),
 rigid helices (spirilla), and
 flexible helices (spirochetes)
 Pleomorphic – bacteria that have many different shapes (like jello –
spreads out in different shapes)
o The shape is determined by the rigidity of the cell wall!
 Arrangement
o Pairs – Diplo
o Chains – Strepto
o Grape cluster – Staphylo
o square planar configurations - tetrads
o cubic configurations - sarcinae
o Arrangement is determined by degree of attachment at time of cell
division. E.g. cocci diplococci, streptococci, staphylococci

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4. General characterstics of bacteria
  Size
 Range from 0.2 ~ 5 μm.
 Cocci: sphere, 1μm
 Bacilli: rods , 0.5-1 μm in width -3 μm in length
 Spiral bacteria: 1~3 μm in length and 0.3-0.6 μm in width
 The smallest bacteria, Mycoplasma, are about the same size as the
largestvirus (Pox).
 A largest bacterium is Bacillus Anthracis.
Varies with kinds of bacteria, and also related to their age and external environment

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4. General characterstics of bacteria
Bacterial Cellstructure
The structure of a typical bacterial cell consists of the following organization: (I)
structures external to the cell wall, (2) the cell wall itself, and (3) structures internal to
the cell wall.

o Essential components o Granule

o Nuceloid (genome)
o Cytoplasm
o Cytoplasmic membrane
o Cell wall
o Ribosomes
o Mesosomes
o Periplasm
Non-essential components
o Capsule
o Pili/Fimbria
o Glycocalyx
o Flagellum
o Spore
o Plasmid
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4. General characterstics of bacteria
 1. Structures external to the cell wall
Among the possible structures external to the bacterial cell wall are the Glycocalyx,
flagella, axial filaments, fimbriae, and Pili.
Glycocalyx
Glycocalyx (meaning sugar coat) is the general term used for substances that surround
cells. The bacterial glycocalyx is a viscous (sticky), gelatinous polymer that is external to
the cellwall and composed of polysaccharide, polypeptide, or both.
Its chemical composition varies widely with the species.
If the substance is organized and is firmly attached to the cell wall, the glycocalyx
is described as a capsule.
If the substance is unorganized and only loosely attached to the cell wall, the
glycocalyx is described as a slime layer.

Flagella
Some prokaryotic cells have flagella (singular: flagellum), which are long filamentous
appendages that propel bacteria. Bacteria that lack flagella are referred to as
Atrichous(without projections). Flagella may be peritrichous (distributed over the
entire cell) or polar (at one or both poles or ends of the cell). If polar, flagella may
beMonotrichous (a single flagellum at one pole), Lophotrichous (a tuft of flagella
coming from one pole), or Amphitrichous (flagella at both poles of the cell).One
advantage of motility is that it enables a bacterium to move toward a favorable
environment or away from an adverse one. The movement of a bacterium toward or
away from a particular stimulus is called taxis. Such stimuli include chemicals (chemo
taxis) and light (photo taxis).
Fimbriae and Pili
Many gram-negative bacteria contain hair like appendages that are shorter, straighter,
and thinner than flagella and are used for attachment and transfer of DNA rather than
for motility. These structures, which consist of a protein called pilin arranged helically
around a central core, are divided into two types, fimbriaeand pili, having very different
functions. Fimbriae (singular: fimbriae) can occur at the poles of the bacterial cell or
can be evenly distributed over the entire surface. Pili (singular: pilus) are usually longer

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4. General characterstics of bacteria
than fimbriae and number only one or two per cell. Pili are involved in motility and DNA
transfer
2. Cellwall
The cell wall of the bacterial cell is a complex, semi rigid structure responsible for the
shape of the cell.
 It is the outer most layers of almost all bacteria.
 Contains antigens which can be identified in the lab.
 It is osmotically resistant and has gram staining properties.
 The cell walls of most bacteria gain their relatively rigid quality from a unique
macromolecule called Peptidoglycan (PG).
 This compound is composed of a repeating framework of long glycanchains
cross-linked by short peptide fragments to provide a strong but flexible support
framework.
 Peptidoglycan is only one of several materials found in cell walls, and its
amount and exact composition vary among the major bacterial groups.
 it contains transpeptidase which makes cross-linking between two tetra peptide
so it’s a good target for drugs (penicillin inhibits synthesis of Peptidoglycan by
inhibiting transpeptidase)
 It is much thicker in G+ bacteria.
Based on structure/composition of cell wall bacteria classified in to two as
Gram positive bacteria
 consists of a single 20 to 80 nm thick homogeneous Peptidoglycan or murein
layer
 Peptidoglycan composed of
o N-acetylglucosamine
o N-acetylmuramic acid and
o several different amino acids
Other components of G+ bacterial cell wall
Teichoic acids
 polymers of glycerol or ribitol joined by phosphate groups
 Amino acids such as D-alanine or sugars like glucose are attached to the
glycerol and ribitol groups.
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4. General characterstics of bacteria
  The teichoic acids are connected to either the Peptidoglycan itself by a covalent
bond with the six hydroxyl of N-acetylmuramicAcid called wall teichoic acid.
 Or to plasma membrane lipids; called lipoteichoic acids.
 Teichoic acids appear to extend to the surface of the Peptidoglycan, and,
because they are negatively charged, help give the gram-positive cell wall its
negative charge and determine its antigenic property.
 The functions of these molecules are still unclear, but they may be important in
maintaining the structure of the wall.
 Teichoic acids are not present in gram-negative bacteria.

Gram negative Cell Wall

 More complex than Gram + cell wall
 Have thin layer of peptidoglycan
 It has a 2 to 7 nm peptidoglycan layer
 surrounded by a 7 to 8 nm thick outer membrane
 Outside of peptidoglycan is outer membrane
 has an extensive space surrounding the peptidoglycan called periplasmic space
Periplasmicspace
 The space between cell membrane and wall
 May be filled with a loose network of peptidoglycan.
 The substance that occupies the periplasmic space is the periplasm.

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4. General characterstics of bacteria
  Gram-positive cells may have periplasm even if they lack a discrete, obvious
periplasmic
 The periplasmic space of gram-negative bacteria contains many proteins that
participate in nutrient acquisition
 The periplasmic space also contains enzymes involved in peptidoglycan
synthesis and the modification of toxic compounds that could harm the cell
Outer Membrane
 is found in G- bacteria only and consists of:
o Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) which contain the endotoxin
o Lipoprotein
o Phospholipids
o Porin proteins allows passage of sugars, amino acids, vitamins and
penicillin
Lipopolysaccharides
 large, complex molecules contain lipid and carbohydrate,
 Consist of three parts: (1) lipid A, (2) the core polysaccharide, and (3) the O
side chain.
The lipid A
 The core polysaccharide region contains two glucosamine sugar derivatives,
each with three fatty acids and phosphate or pyrophosphate attached.
 It is buried in the outer membrane and specifically considered as endotoxins in
gram –ve bacteria.
Core polysaccharide
 Joined to lipid A.
The O side chain or O antigen
 is a polysaccharide chain extending outward from the core. It has several
peculiar sugars and varies in composition between bacterial strains.
 Determines the antigenic property in gram–ve bacteria.

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4. General characterstics of bacteria
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4. General characterstics of bacteria
 3. Structures internal to the cell wall
The Plasma (Cytoplasmic) Membrane
The plasma (Cytoplasmic) membrane (or inner membrane) is a thin structure lying
inside the cell wall and enclosing the cytoplasm of the [Link] plasma membrane of
prokaryotes consists primarily of phospholipids, which are the most abundant chemicals
in the membrane, and proteins. Eukaryotic plasma membranes alsocontain
carbohydrates and sterols, such as cholesterol. Because they lack sterols, prokaryotic
plasma membranes are less rigid than eukaryotic membranes.
Functions
The most important function of the plasma membrane is to serve as a selective
barrier through which materials enter and exit the cell. In this function, plasma
membranes have selective permeability (sometimes called semi permeability).
Plasma membranes are also important to the breakdown of nutrients and the
production of energy.
Materials move across plasma membranes of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells by
two kinds of processes: Passive(simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis)and
Active transport
Cytoplasm
For a prokaryotic cell, the term cytoplasm refers to the substance of the cell inside the
plasma membrane. Cytoplasm is about 80% water and contains primarily proteins
(enzymes), carbohydrates, lipids, inorganic ions, and many low molecular weight
compounds. Inorganic ions are present in much higher concentrations in cytoplasm than
in most media. Cytoplasm is thick, aqueous, semitransparent, and elastic. The major
structures in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes are a nucleoid(containing DNA), particles
called ribosomes, and reservedeposits called inclusions.
The Nucleoid
The nucleoid of a bacterial cell usually contains a single long, continuous and frequently
circularly arranged thread of double-stranded DNA called the bacterial chromosome.
This is the cell's genetic information, which carries all the information required for the
cell's structures and functions.

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4. General characterstics of bacteria
The chromosome is attached to the plasma membrane. Proteins in the plasma
membrane are believed to be responsible for replication of the DNA and segregation of
the new chromosomes to daughter cells during cell division. In addition to the bacterial
chromosome, bacteria often contain small usually circular, double-stranded DNA
molecules called plasmids. These molecules arc extrachromosomal genetic elements;
that is, they are not connected to the main bacterial chromosome, and they replicate
independently of chromosomal DNA.
Ribosomes
All eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells contain ribosomes. Which function as the sites of
protein synthesis. Cells that have high rates of protein synthesis, such as those that are
actively growing, have a large number of ribosomes. The cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell
contains tens of thousands of these very small structures, which give the cytoplasm a
granular appearance. Prokaryotic ribosomes are called 70S ribosomes and those
ofeukaryotic cells are known as 80S ribosomes.
Inclusions
Within the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells are several kinds of reserve deposits, known
as inclusions. Cells may accumulate certain nutrients when they are plentiful and use
them when the environment is deficient. Some inclusions are common to a wide variety
of bacteria,whereas others are limited to a small number of species and therefore serve
as a basis for identification.
Endospores
When essential nutrients are depleted, certain gram-positive bacteria, such as those of
the genera Clostridium and Bacillus, form specialized "resting" cells called
[Link] members of the genus Clostridium cause diseases such as
gangrene. Tetanus, botulism, and food poisoning. Some members of the genus Bacillus
cause anthrax and foodpoisoning. Unique to bacteria, endospores are highly durable
dehydrated cells with thick walls and additional layers. They are formed internal to the
bacterial cell membrane. When released into the environment, they can survive extreme
heat, lack of water, and exposure to many toxic chemicals and radiation.

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4. General characterstics of bacteria