Basic of Networks

Unit 2
Subject : Introduction to IoT
 Outline
• Introduction to Computer network and transmission media
• Types of connections, topologies
• Protocols and Standards
• ISO / OSI model
• TCP/IP model
• Connectionless service
What is Computer Network?
• Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers are
connected to each other to share information and resources.
Components of a data communication system

Simplified block diagram of data communication network

Data flow (simplex, half-duplex, and full duplex)
 NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links and are separated by unique device identifiers
(Internet protocol (IP) addresses and media access control (MAC).
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of
sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
• A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any medium which can transport
a signal carrying information.
• These hosts may be connected by a single path or through multiple paths
for sending and receiving data.
 Network Criteria
 Performance
Depends on Network Elements: Measured in terms of Delay and
Throughput
 Reliability
Failure rate of network components: Measured in terms of
availability/robustness
 Security
Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to: Errors
 Malicious users
 Network Types
Computer networks are classified according to various parameters:
1) Type of connection

2) Physical topology

3) Reach of the network

These classifications assist in determining network setup
requirements and selecting the proper network type.
 I. Connection types
Depending on the way a host communicates with other hosts, computer
networks are of two types.
(i) Point-to-point: Point-to-point connections are used to establish direct
connections between two hosts.

 Designed to work over duplex links.

 Functional for both synchronous as well as asynchronous systems.
 Point to Point connections find usage for specific purposes such as in optical
networks and communication systems.
(ii) Point-to-multipoint: In a point-to-multipoint connection, more than two
hosts share the same link. This type of configuration is similar to the one-to-
many connection type.
 The channel is shared between the various hosts, either spatially (FDMA) or
temporally(TDMA).
 Communication between a massive number of connected devices.
 Point-to-multipoint connections find popular use in wireless networks and IP
telephony.
 II. Physical topology
Depending on the physical manner in which communication paths
between the hosts are connected.
Types of network topologies :
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid
 1. Bus Topology
• Every computer and network device is
connected to single Backbone cable

• It transmits data only in one direction

• Cost effective

• Used in small networks

• Easy to expand joining two cables together

• It is used in early LAN connection

 2. Ring Topology
• It forms a ring as each computer is
connected to another computer, with the
last one connected to the first.
• Transmission is unidirectional & sequential
way that is bit by bit.
• Transmitting network is not affected by
high traffic or by adding more nodes, as
only the nodes having tokens can transmit
data.
• Cheap to install and expand.
 3. Star Topology
• Computers are connected to a single
central hub through a cable.
• Fast performance with few nodes and low
network traffic.
• Easy to troubleshoot & Easy to setup and
modify.
• Only that node is affected which has
failed rest of the nodes can work
smoothly.
• Hub can be upgraded easily.
 4. Mesh Topology
• Point-to-point connection to other devices or
fully connected.

• Traffic is carried only between two connected

devices.

• Robust, costly but not flexible.

• Fault is diagnosed easily.

• More cable resource used in setup.

 5. Tree Topology
• It has a root node and all other nodes are
connected to it forming a hierarchy.

• Also called hierarchical topology.

• Mostly used in Wide Area Network – WAN.

• Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.

• Easily managed and maintained.

 6. Hybrid Topology
• A network structure whose design contains more

than one topology is said to be hybrid topology.

• It is a combination of two or more topologies.

• Flexible & reliable as error detection and easy to

troubleshoot.

• Scalable as size can be increased easily.

Comparison of Topologies
 III. Network Reachability
Computer networks are divided into four broad categories based on network
reachability:
a) Personal Area Networks (PAN)

b) Local Area Networks (LAN)

c) Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)

d) Wide Area Networks (WAN)

 Personal Area Networks (PAN)
• PANs, are mostly restricted to individual/personal usage.

• PANs are wireless networks, which make use of low-range and low power
technologies such as Bluetooth/Zigbee. (IEEE 802.15.1/4)

• The reachability of PANs lies in the range of a few centimeters to a few meters.

• Data transfer speed is low.

• A good example of PANs may be connected wireless headphones, wireless speakers,

laptops, smartphones, wireless keyboards, wireless mouse, and printers within a
house.
Advantages:
• Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close
proximity.
• Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
• PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can
batteries driven.
• PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication protocols,
which helps to prevent unauthorized access to data and resources.
Disadvantages:
• Limited coverage area.
• PANs typically have limited bandwidth, which means that they may not be
able to handle large amounts of data or high-speed communication.
• May experience interference from other wireless devices.
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
• LAN is a network that is confined to a relatively small geographic locations.
• It is a collection of hosts linked to a single network through wired or wireless
connections.
• The Network components in a LAN are servers, hubs, routers, switches,
terminals, and computers.
• The data access rates within the LANs range from 100 Mbps to 1000 Mbps,
with very high fault-tolerance levels.
• LAN has a range up to 2km.
• A few lines Internet connection provide web access for an organization.
These lines are then redistributed to various hosts within the LAN.
• A good example of PANs School, colleges and Hospitals etc.
Advantages:
• Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
• Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and
scanners.
• Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
• Easy to set up and manage.
Disadvantages:
• Limited geographical coverage.
• Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades
to accommodate expanstion.
• May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
• The reachability of a MAN lies between that of a LAN
and a WAN.
• MANs connect various organizations or buildings
within a given geographic location.
• MANs are expensive and may not be owned by
individuals or organizations.
• An excellent example of a MAN is an Internet service
provider (ISP) supplying Internet connectivity to
various organizations within a city.
• Typical networking devices/components in MANs are
modems and cables. MANs tend to have moderate
fault tolerance levels.
• Range of about 10-50 km.
Advantages:
• Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than
LAN.
• Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
• Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
• May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
• May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• WANs typically connect diverse geographic locations. However, they
are restricted within the boundaries of a state or country.
• WANs connects two LANs or MANs and can use public switched
telephone networks (PSTNs) or satellite-based links.
• Due to the long transmission ranges, WANs tend to have more errors
and noise during transmission.
• The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.
• The fault tolerance of WANs are also generally low.
• Range more than 50 kms.
• WAN is difficult to design and maintain.
Advantages:
• Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
• Provides connectivity to the internet.
• Offers remote access to resources and applications.
• Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
• Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
• Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
• May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to longer
distances and multiple network hops.
• May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
 Layered Network Models
The intercommunication between hosts in any computer network is built upon the
premise of various task-specific layers, that deals with connecting systems that are
open for communication with other systems.
Two of the most commonly accepted and used traditional layered network models

Open Systems Interconnection Internet Protocol suite

(OSI) (IP)
 The benefits of using a layered Network model are:
• It facilitates troubleshooting and debugging.
• It focuses on details rather than general functions.
• It breaks the complex process of networking into manageable chunks.
• Prevents technology/capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
 OSI Model
• It is a conceptual framework that partitions any networked communication
device into seven layers.
• Each performing distinct tasks based on the underlying technology and internal
structure of the hosts.
ISO-OSI Model with seven different layers
1. Physical Layer
2. Data Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
How OSI Layer Works?
 1. Physical Layer:
 The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.
 Deals with issue relating to signal generation, signal transfer,
voltages, the layout of cables, physical port layout, line impedances,
and signal loss.
 Responsible for the topological layout of the network (star, mesh,
bus, or ring), communication mode (simplex, duplex, full duplex), and
bit rate control operations.
Physical Layer – Cont…
Carries the bit stream over a physical media.
Physical Layer is concerned with:
• Interface and Medium like guided cables
• Representation of bits
• Data rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Line configuration
• Physical topology
• Transmission mode
 2. Data Link Layer (media layer)
• The data link layer is mainly concerned with the establishment and
termination of the connection between two hosts.
• The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node)
to the next.
• The detection and correction of errors during communication.
 Data Link Layer – Cont…
Data link layer is concerned with:
• Framing – divide bits stream into data unit (frame)

• Physical addressing

• Flow control – avoid over overwhelming

• Error control – bit loses, retransmission

• Access control
 3. Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets
from the source host to the destination host.
• It provides a means of routing data to various hosts connected to
different networks through logical paths called virtual circuits.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a
packet.
Network Layer – Cont…
Network layer is concerned with:
• Addressing
• Sequencing of packets
• Congestion control
• Error handling
• Internetworking
Network layer is concerned with:
• Logical addressing e.g. [Link] (IP Address)
• Routing
 4. Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of a message from
one process to another.
• This layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as a
segment or datagram.
Transport Layer – Cont…
Transport layer is concerned with:

• Service-point addressing (port address)

• Segmentation and reassembly

• Connection control

• Flow and error control

 5. Session Layer
• The session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.
• It is responsible for establishing, controlling, and terminating of
communication between networked hosts.
• The protocol data unit associated with this layer is referred to as data.
• Session layer is concerned with:
Dialog control
Synchronization
 6. Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and
encryption.
This layer is concerned with the syntax which refers to order in which
data is presented and
semantics helps in interpreting a particular pattern.
Presentation layer is responsible for:
• Translation
• Encryption
• Compression
• Compatibility of the data
 7. Application Layer
The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.
It is directly accessible by an end-user through software APIs (application
program interfaces) and terminals.
This layer provides various services like: Network virtual terminal, File
transfer, Mail services, Directory services and management access.
Summary – OSI Layer
Networked communication between two hosts following the OSI model
TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)
 The Internet protocol suite is another conceptual framework that provides
levels of abstraction for ease of understanding and development of
communication and networked systems over the Internet.
Internet protocol suite predates the OSI model
It was originally defined as having four layers:
TCP/IP is a set of protocols developed to allow cooperating computers to
share resources across the network.
1. Application Layer
2. Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Interface Layer
Networked communication between two hosts
following the TCP/IP suite
TCP/IP Model Architecture
Difference:
Difference: Cont…
 Addressing
Addressing in networked devices plays a crucial role in ensuring the delivery of
packets to the designated/intended receivers.
Addressing scheme is synonymous with postal addresses used in real-life
scenarios.
Addressing mechanisms can be divided into two parts:
1. Data link layer addressing 2. Network layer addressing.
 Address Type: MAC Address (Media Access  Address Type: IP Address (Internet Protocol)
Control)  Used for communication between different
 Used for communication within the same local networks.
network (LAN).  IP address is a logical address, can be
 MAC address is hard-coded into the Network changed.
Interface Card (NIC).  Assigned by network administrator.
 It is a physical address, unique for every device.  Enables routing and path selection.
 Length: 48 bits (6 bytes), Written in hexadecimal  Two versions: IPv4 – 32 bits and IPv6 – 128
format. bits
 Assigned by the manufacturer.
Protocol Layers: Summary
IPv4 IPv6
 UART Protocol
 UART is a Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter protocol that is used for serial
communication.
 It is widely used for serial communication over a computer or peripheral device
serial port.
 It is used for converting parallel data from a CPU into serial data for transmission,
and vice versa.
 Asynchronous means there is no control over when data is sent or any guarantee
that both sides are running at precisely the same rate.
 UART Dataframe
Properties of UART
Asynchronous: It does not use a shared clock signal
to synchronize the sender and receiver.
It uses specific start and stop bits to frame the data.
Serial Communication: Data is sent one bit at a time • Start Bit (1 bit): The line is pulled low (logic 0) for
(bit-by-bit) over a single communication line. one bit period to signal the start of a frame.
Two-Wire Interface: Requires only two main wires • Data Bits (5–9 bits): Typically, 8 bits (one byte) are
for data transmission: Transmit (TX) and Receive sent, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB) sent first.
(RX), plus a common ground (GND). • Parity Bit (Optional): A single bit used for basic error
Full-Duplex: Allows simultaneous, bidirectional detection (even or odd parity).
communication. • Stop Bit(s) (1 or 2 bits): The line is pulled high (logic
Configurable Parameters: Both devices must be pre- 1) to indicate the end of the frame.
configured with the same baud rate, parity, data
bits, and stop bits.
Limitations
Limited Speed: Generally slower compared to synchronous protocols like SPI or I2C.
Point-to-Point: Designed to connect only two devices (direct, node-to-node).
No Receiver Clock: Because it is asynchronous, it can be prone to errors if the baud rates between the sender and receiver
differ by more than 3%.
Limited Distance: UART is for short-distance for on-board communication. (RS-232/RS-485 can extend range)
 Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
 The Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI) is a synchronous, full-duplex, four-wire serial communication protocol
widely used in embedded systems for short-distance, high-speed communication between a master
(microcontroller) and peripheral devices (sensors, LCDs, memory).
 SPI follows master-slave architecture.
 Supports variable frame sizes i.e. Flexible Data Lengths not restricted to 8-bit symbols.
 Operates at speeds exceeding 10 Mbps, generally faster than I²C or UART.
Cont…
It uses multiple lines (4) for data exchange.
• MOSI (Master Out Slave In): This line carries data from the master to the slave.
• MISO (Master In Slave Out):This line carries data from the slave to the master.
• SCK (Serial Clock): The master generates the clock signal on this line to synchronize data transmission.
Each clock pulse allows one bit of data to be transferred.
• SS/CS (Slave Select/Chip Select): The master uses this line to select which slave device to
communicate with. Pulling the SS line low enables the selected slave device, while pulling it
high disables it.
Steps involve in SPI communication process
Initialization: The SPI clock frequency, polarity, and phase are set by the
master device.
Slave selection: To initiate communication with a particular slave, the
master lowers the SS line of the target slave device.
Data transmission: The data exchange is synchronized by the SCLK line
which permits the transfer of one bit of data every clock pulse.
End of communication: The master deselects the slave device and ends
the communication session by pulling the SS line high after the data
transfer is finished.
 Inter integrated circuit(I2C)
I2C stands for Inter-Integrated Circuit
• It is synchronous communication protocol having
multiple master and slave architecture allows multiple
master devices to connect to multiple slave devices on
the same bus.
• It is a simple two-wire, half-duplex serial protocol used
to communicate.
• Open-Drain Configuration: requiring pull-up resistors to
maintain a high state, which enables wire-ANDing for
multi-master arbitration.
• Addressing Mechanism: Uses 7-bit or 10-bit addressing
to select specific slaves, eliminating the need for
individual chip-select lines(SS/CS).
• Clock Stretching: A slave device can hold the SCL line
low to signal that it is not ready to process more data,
forcing the master to wait.
Comparison Between I2C and SPI Communication Protocols
Feature I²C SPI
Duplex Half-duplex Full-duplex
Masters Multi-master Single master
Slaves Multi-slave Multi-slave
Wires 2 4
Speed Slower Faster
Clock Stretching Yes No
Acknowledgment Yes No
Overhead High Low
 Network Devices
• Network Devices (or networking hardware) are the physical appliances
required for communication and interaction between devices on a computer
network.
• These devices perform tasks such as signal regeneration, frame forwarding,
packet switching, routing, protocol conversion, and access control to ensure
reliable, efficient, and secure communication.
• Enable communication by transmitting and receiving data between devices.
• Allow devices to connect to networks efficiently and securely.
• Improve network performance by reducing congestion and managing traffic.
• Provide security by controlling access and preventing unauthorized activities.
• Extend network coverage and solve signal loss or attenuation problems.
• Common network devices are Repeater, Modem, Switch, Router, Gateway,
Firewall.
Repeater: A Repeater is a network device that operates at the Physical
Layer (Layer 1) and is used to regenerate and retransmit weak or
distorted signals to extend the transmission distance.
Working
• Receives weak signal
• Cleans and amplifies it
• Sends it forward without understanding the data
• Increases network coverage and distance
• Prevents signal loss over long cables
Modem (Modulator–Demodulator):A Modem is a communication
device that converts digital data into analog signals for transmission
and analog signals back into digital data for reception.
Working
• Modulation: Digital → Analog
• Demodulation: Analog → Digital
• Enables Internet connectivity
• Allows computers to communicate over telephone/cable lines
Switch: A Switch is a data link layer device that connects multiple
devices within a Local Area Network (LAN) and forwards data based on
MAC addresses.
Working
• Learns MAC addresses of connected devices
• Sends data only to the destination port
• Benefit to Network
• Reduces network congestion
• Improves speed and efficiency of LAN communication
Router: A Router is a network layer device that connects different
networks and routes data packets using IP addresses.
Working
• Analyzes destination IP
• Chooses best path using routing table
• Main Benefit to Network
• Enables inter-network communication
• Controls traffic flow and prevents broadcast storms
Gateway: A Gateway is a networking device that connects networks
using different protocols and performs protocol translation.
Working
• Converts data format and protocol
• Acts as entry/exit point for a network
• Main Benefit to Network
• Allows communication between incompatible networks
• Increases network flexibility
Firewall: A Gateway is a networking device that connects networks
using different protocols and performs protocol translation.
Working
• Inspects packets
• Allows or blocks traffic according to policy
• Main Benefit to Network
• Protects network from unauthorized access and cyberattacks
• Ensures data security and privacy
DMZ (Demilitarized Zone):A DMZ is a separate network segment
placed between the internal network and the Internet to host publicly
accessible services.
Working
• Public servers are isolated
• Internal network remains protected
• Main Benefit to Network
• Adds extra layer of security
• Prevents direct access to internal systems
Component Layer incorporated Purpose Use
Extends network
Repeater Physical Signal regeneration
distance
Modem Physical/Data Link Signal conversion Internet access

Switch Data Link LAN communication Faster data transfer

Inter-network
Router Network Network routing
connectivity

Connects different
Gateway Multiple Protocol translation
networks

Firewall Network/Transport Traffic control Network security

DMZ Architecture Network isolation Secure public access