UNIT-IV

BIOMASS, WAVE AND TIDAL ENERGY SYSTEMS

Introduction
What is Biomass?
Biomass is renewable organic material from plants or animals that can be
used to produce energy in the form of heat. Biomass materials include wood and
wood processing wastes (pellets, chips, sawdust, and residue from pulp and paper
mills), along with agricultural crops (corn, soybeans, sugarcane, switch-grass) and
solid wastes from municipal recycling (paper, cotton, yard clippings).

The energy produced from biomass is the result of releasing the stored chemical
energy produced by the photosynthesis of the plant. This energy can be released by
direct combustion of the material or can be converted to a refined liquid or gas fuel
by additional chemical processes. Combustion is the most common method for
using the energy from biomass. All biomass can be burned to generate electricity
or to produce heat required for industrial applications.

The two main processes of energy conversion are

1) Thermal biomass energy conversion

2) Biological biomass energy conversion

1) Thermal biomass energy conversion:

Thermal conversion can happen in three ways. They are

i) Combustion,

ii) Pyrolysis and,

iii) Gasification

i) Combustion of course means that biomass is burned, similar to coal and oil, to
make electricity. When mixing biomass with coal, this co-firing process is very
efficient. Solid municipal waste is also burned to generate electricity.
 ii) Pyrolysis is a chemical process of decomposition of biomass materials. It is a
heating process without the involvement of oxygen. The recycling of used
vehicle tyres use pyrolysis.

iii) Gasification involves processes that turn parts of solid biomass materials
into gas.

2. Biological biomass energy conversion

Biological biomass energy conversion can happen through digestion and

fermentation of biodegradable wastes occurs in large digester power plants
where bacteria convert waste into gas. The produced gas drives turbines that
generate electricity from these wastes. The solids that are left behind may be
used as fertilizer, depending on the biomass materials used.

4.1 Combustion
Biomass combustion is a complex process that consists of consecutive
heterogeneous and homogeneous reactions. The main process steps are drying,
de-volatilization, gasification, char combustion, and gas-phase oxidation. The
time used for each reaction depends on the fuel size and properties, on temperature,
and on combustion conditions.

Batch combustion of a small particle shows a distinct separation between a volatile

and a char combustion phase with time. For the design of combustion appliances,
the high content of volatiles (80% to 85%) needs to be respected. For large
particles, the phases overlap to a certain extent. Nevertheless, even for log wood
furnaces, a certain separation of distinct combustion regimes with time can be
found. Since automatic combustion systems are operated continuously, the
consecutive reactions occur simultaneously at different places in the furnace (e.g.,
in different sections on and above a grate). Hence the zones for different process
steps during combustion can be optimized by furnace design.

A distinct separation of different process steps can be advantageous with respect to

pollutant formation. The main combustion parameter is the excess air ratio that
describes the ratio between the locally available and the stoichiometric amount of
combustion air. For typical biomass, the combustion reaction can then be described
by the following equation if fuel constituents such as N, K, Cl, etc., are neglected:
 4.3 Gasification
The process to convert biomass solid raw material into fuel gas or chemical
feedstock gas (synthesis gas (H2 and CO)) is called gasification or thermochemical
gasification.

Gasification agent:

In order to convert solid biomass into inflammable gas, a substance to promote the
chemical reaction is necessary. This substance is called the gasification agent, and
mainly air (N2, O2), oxygen (O2), H2O, or CO2 are applied as an appropriate
mixture. Air (only O2 reacts) and O2 heat by oxidation, and increased O 2 decreases
the effective amount of inflammable gas.

Fundamental phenomenon of biomass gasification:

Fundamental gasification processes are as follows:

(a) Evaporation of surface moisture

Surface moisture evaporates from the raw material at the water boiling point
(depends on pressure). Inner moisture remains when the raw material is large.

(b) Evaporation of inherent moisture

Following surface moisture evaporation, inherent moisture evaporates at 110-

120°C.

(c) Volatilization

Thermal decomposition of biomass begins at 200-300°C, and CO, CO2, H2 and

H2O are vaporized as gas. Thermal decomposition is a heat generating reaction,
which is a characteristic phenomenon of biomass (CnHmOp).
(d) Volatilization and gasification reaction

The temperature is raised further during volatilization, and the volatile matter of
the lightweight hydrocarbons (CxHy: where x and y are integers of at least 1; a low
value of x indicates lightness and a high value of x indicates heaviness) is
transformed into heavy CxHy with a high boiling point. Subsequently, the C xHy
reacts with the gasifying agent for conversion to lightweight molecule clean gas,
although tar and soot can form when diffusion of the gasifying agent is slow and
the CxHy condenses.

(e) Char gasification

Following volatilization of the volatile content in the raw material biomass, the
fixed carbon and ash become char, and the char is heated to the surrounding
temperature. The subsequent reaction with the gasifying agent transforms the
carbon into CO and CO2. However, in cases where the gasifying agent contains
excess steam and the surrounding temperature is over 750°C, a wet gas reaction
occurs (C+H2O, (CO+H2)) producing gas composed mainly of CO, CO2 and H2.

(f) Char residue

The reaction rate of the wet gas reaction is slow, and char residue can easily form.
The formation of tar, soot and char tends to reduce efficiency, as well causing
equipment trouble.

The most commonly built gasifiers are classified as:

Up draft gasifiers (fig. 1)

Down draft gasifiers (fig. 2)

Cross draft gasifiers (fig. 3)

 4.4 Anaerobic Digestion
The treatment of any slurry or sludge (mud)containing a large amount of organic
matter utilizing bacteria and other organisms under anaerobic condition is
commonly referred as anaerobic digestion. Anaerobic digestion consists of the
following three stages: (i) the enzymatic hydrolysis, (ii) acid formation and (iii)
methane formation.

i) Enzymatic hydrolysis: In this stage, a group of facultative microorganisms acts

upon the organic matter and convert insoluble, complex, high molecular
compounds of biomass into simple, soluble, low molecular compounds. The
organic substances such as polysaccharide, protein and lipid (wax or oil) are
converted into mono-saccharide, peptide, amino acids, and fatty acids. Then they
are further converted into acetate, propionate and butyrate.

ii) Acid formation: The micro-organisms of facultative and anaerobic group

collectively called as acid formers, hydrolyze and ferment the productions of first
phase i.e., water soluble substances into volatile acid. The major component of
the volatile acid is the acetic acid. In addition to acetate or hydrogen and carbon
dioxide, some other acids like butyric acid and propionic acid are also
produced.

iii) Methane formation: Finally, acetate or hydrogen plus carbon dioxide are
converted into gas mixture of methane (CH 4) and CO2 by the bacteria, which are
strictly anaerobes. These bacteria are called methane fermentators. For efficient
digestion, these acid formers and methane fermentators must remain in a state of
dynamic equilibrium. The remaining indigestible matter is referred as “slurry”.

4.5 Pyrolysis

Principles of Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is one of the most common methods in thermal conversion technology of

o
biomass. In pyrolysis, biomass is heated to moderate temperatures, 400-600 C. In
the absence of stoichiometric oxygen to produce oil that can be used as a feedstock
in existing petroleum refineries. This is a high throughput process that has a
potential for requiring relatively low capital investment. In gasification, biomass is
o
heated to high temperatures, >700 C, to produce a synthesis gas (H 2 and CO),
which can be converted in a catalytic step to liquid transportation fuels.

This technology builds upon decades of experience with gasification of coal. Both
approaches have the potential advantages of being relatively insensitive to
feedstock type, both suffer from production of unwanted byproducts. In pyrolysis,
oxygen-containing compounds (aldehydes, ketones, phenolics and organic acids)
make the oil too unstable and acidic for introduction into existing pipelines, tankers
and refineries.

Biomass Pyrolysis Techniques

Depending on the operating conditions, the pyrolysis process can be divided into
three sub classes. Conventional slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis and flash
pyrolysis. The range of important operating parameters for pyrolysis processes is
given in the following table. At present, the preferred technology is fast or flash
pyrolysis at high temperature with very short residence time.

Main operating parameters for pyrolysis process

Pyrolysis Processes

i) Slow pyrolysis:

Slow pyrolysis is a conventional pyrolysis process whereby the heating rate is kept
o
slow (approximately 0.1-1 C/s). This slow heating rate leads to higher char yield
than the liquid and gaseous products. Slow pyrolysis has been utilized for
thousands of years primarily for the production of charcoal. In slow wood
o
pyrolysis, biomass is heated to ~500 C. The vapour, residence time in the reactor,
gas-phase products have ample opportunities to continue to react with other
products to form char.

ii) Fast Pyrolysis:

o
Fast pyrolysis uses much faster heating rates (about 10-200 C/s) and is considered
as a better process than slow pyrolysis for producing liquid or gases. In fast
pyrolysis the liquid product yield is higher since the fast heating rates allow the
conversion of thermally unstable biomass compounds to a liquid product before
they form undesired coke. Typically, fast pyrolysis processes produce 60-75 % wt
of liquid bio oil, 15-20% wt of solid char and 10-20 % wt of non- condensable
gases depending on the feed stock used. Fast pyrolysis occurs on the timescale of a
few seconds or less. Therefore, chemical reaction kinetics, heat and mass transfer
processes and phase transition phenomena play important role in product
distributions.

iii) Flash pyrolysis:

Flash pyrolysis is an improved version of fast pyrolysis, whereby the heating rates
 o
are very high, >1000 C/s, with reaction times of few to several seconds. Entrained
flow or fluidized bed reactors are considered the best reactors for this purpose. Due
to the rapid heating rates and short reaction times, for better yields, this process
requires smaller particle size compared to the other processes.

4.6 Biomass Cogeneration

Cogeneration is a combined production of heat and electricity, suitable for fossil
fuel or biofuel (biomass) combustion systems.

Steam Cycle

High temperature, high pressure steam is generated in the boiler and then enters the
steam turbine. In the steam turbine, the thermal energy of the steam is converted
into mechanical work. The low-pressure steam leaving the turbine enters the
condenser housing and condenses on the condenser tubes. The condensate is
transported by the water supply system to the boiler, where it is reused in a new
cycle.

The process of producing electricity and heat from steam includes the following
components: a biomass combustion system (combustion chamber), a steam system
(boiler plus distribution systems), a steam turbine, an electricity generator and the
heat distribution system for heating from the condenser. At present, electricity and
heat generation in biomass power plants with a steam cycle remains the most
developed technology, adapted to high temperatures and high power; however, this
technology is not suitable for cogeneration systems with a power of less than 100
kW compared to its low electrical efficiency and high investment costs.
Biomass cogeneration plants generally use grid combustion systems with a thermal
combustion capacity of 20 to 30 MW. In the case where chemically untreated
wood biomass is used, the steam temperature reaches 540 ̊ C. The achievable
annual electrical efficiency depends on the steam parameters (temperature and
pressure) and the temperature level required for the heating process. Annual
electricity efficiencies generally range from 18% to 30% for biomass cogeneration
plants and generate electricity between 2 and 25 MW. Below are the advantages of
the use of steam cycle:

 The use of water as a heat transfer fluid has great advantages, such as its high
availability, non-toxic, non-flammable, chemical stability, low viscosity
(less friction losses);

 Thermal efficiency greater than 30%;

 Low pump consumption.

Major pollutant (chemical) produced from burning biomass is most dangerous:

particle pollution, known as soot.

4.7 Performance analysis and Testing

Biogas offers a sustainable and cost-effective source of energy along with several
environmental benefits. Socio-economic factors play an imperative role in
adopting biogas plants. On one hand, the number of animals, number of meals and
distance from the city are positively influencing households to adopt biogas
technology. The number of animals played a significant role in adopting biogas
technology. Higher the chances of adopting biogas plants due to abundance of
animal manure. Reduction in burns is another key factor towards adoption decision
of biogas users, as due to this technology, firewood has been replaced with gas
stoves, which are safer, and provide an efficient source of energy. Moreover, this
technology has provided a convenient way of life particularly for rural women and
saved a lot of time that was being consumed in collecting firewood for preparing
meals. Women get more benefits from this technology as compared to men.

Biogas plants are of many different sizes starting from 4m 3 to 10m3 and are
being operated in different villages at household levels. A biogas plant size of
10m3 size was found to be the most economical biogas plant with the highest
benefits. It is obvious from the result that overall, the average performance
efficiency of biogas plant is 82 percent. Thus, there is stillroom for improvement
to increase efficiency by 18 percent (100 percent) efficient level can be attained.
Even with the huge potential and several advantages of renewable energy, the role
of biogas technology still lags behind ambitious claims made because of initially
higher investment, lack of research in bioenergy field, inefficient practices of
government organisations and poor economic arrangements.
Biomass Testing Methods
Laboratory technicians test biomass samples to determine energy output,
combustion qualities, moisture levels, elemental components and more. The main
elemental components of biomass are carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen and
nitrogen.
We offer the following testing methods from our accredited laboratories:

Proximate analysis: Proximate analysis tests a sample’s percentage of moisture,

volatile matter, fixed carbons and ash.

Ultimate analysis: Ultimate analysis quantifies a biomass sample’s elemental

composition by determining levels of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
sulfur.

Calorific value determination: Determining a sample’s calorific value specifies

the amount of heat it can produce.

Particle size analysis: Particle size analysis is the process of measuring the size of
the particles that make up the biomass sample. This assessment provides insight
into combustion efficiency, application-specific suitability and handling properties.

4.8 Case studies of Biomass systems for thermal applications

and Power generation
Introduction to Biomass Systems

 Biomass systems utilize organic materials like agricultural residues, wood

chips, animal waste, and dedicated energy crops to generate energy.
 They are employed for thermal applications (e.g., heating and steam
generation) and power generation through combustion, gasification, or
anaerobic digestion.
  Benefits include carbon neutrality, waste management, and rural
development.

Case Studies of Biomass Systems for Thermal Applications

1. Industrial Heat Generation

 Location: Denmark
 System: Wood chip-fired boiler system.
 Details:
o Used in a district heating system to supply heat to residential and
industrial areas.
o High-efficiency boilers convert wood chips into hot water for central
heating.
o CO₂ emissions reduced by 80% compared to fossil fuel systems.
 Outcome:
o Achieved significant energy cost savings and reduced dependency on
fossil fuels.

2. Agro-residue-based Boilers

 Location: India
 System: Rice husk-fired boiler for a rice mill.
 Details:
o Utilized rice husk, a by-product of rice milling, to generate steam for
process heating.
o The system replaced diesel-fired boilers, reducing operational costs
and emissions.
 Outcome:
o Enhanced energy efficiency by 25%.
o Demonstrated the economic viability of using agro-waste for thermal
applications.

3. Community Cooking Solutions

 Location: Kenya
 System: Biomass pellet stoves.
 Details:
o Introduced in rural communities to replace traditional open-fire
cooking.
 o Pellets made from agricultural waste provided clean, efficient
combustion.
 Outcome:
o Reduced indoor air pollution and respiratory issues.
o Cut down wood fuel consumption by 50%.

Case Studies of Biomass Systems for Power Generation

1. Biogas Power Plant

 Location: Germany
 System: Anaerobic digestion plant using animal manure and food waste.
 Details:
o Produced biogas (methane) used in a combined heat and power (CHP)
engine.
o Generated 2 MW of electricity for the local grid and heat for nearby
facilities.
 Outcome:
o Avoided methane emissions from open manure storage.
o Enhanced sustainability of the local agricultural sector.

2. Sugar Mill Cogeneration

 Location: Brazil
 System: Bagasse-fired power plant.
 Details:
o Bagasse (sugarcane residue) was used to generate steam and
electricity in a cogeneration system.
o Supplied surplus electricity to the national grid.
 Outcome:
o Improved energy efficiency by integrating heat and power production.
o Provided renewable energy for 20,000 homes annually.

3. Gasification-Based Power Plant

 Location: Thailand
 System: Rice husk gasification.
 Details:
o Gasifier converted rice husk into syngas, used to run an internal
combustion engine.
 o Generated 500 kW of electricity for a local community.
 Outcome:
o Reduced dependency on diesel generators.
o Created additional income streams for rice farmers by utilizing waste.

Key Lessons from Case Studies

1. Economic Viability:
o Biomass systems can lower operational costs when utilizing locally
available feedstock.
o High upfront costs are offset by long-term savings and subsidies.

2. Environmental Benefits:
o Significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions compared to fossil
fuels.
o Efficient waste management minimizes environmental pollution.

3. Challenges:
o Feedstock supply chain management is critical for consistent
operation.
o Technological and financial barriers need to be addressed, especially
in developing countries.

4. Scalability and Community Impact:

o Systems tailored to local needs and resources can achieve high
acceptance.
o Positive social impact includes job creation and improved health
outcomes.

5. Policy Support:
o Incentives, subsidies, and supportive regulations are crucial for
widespread adoption.

4.9 Principles of Tidal Power Generation

Define Tide?
The periodic rise and fall of the water level of sea, which is carried by the
action of sun and moon on water of the earth is called the tide.

Ocean energy: There are two types of energy that can be produced by the ocean:
thermal energy from the sun’s heat and mechanical energy from the motion of
tides and waves.
Ocean thermal energy can be converted into electricity using a few different
systems that rely on warm surface water temperatures. “Ocean mechanical
energy” harnesses the ebbs (receding tides) and flows of tides caused by the
rotation of the earth and the gravitational influence of the moon. Energy from
wind-driven waves can also be converted and used to help reduce one’s electricity
costs. There are also lesser-developed technologies that leverage ocean currents,
ocean winds and salinity gradients as sources of power conversion. Cold ocean
water from deep below the surface can be used to cool buildings (with
desalinated (purified) water often produced as a by-product), and seaside
communities can employ the methods to tap natural ocean energy described above
to supplement municipal power and energy needs. Ocean energy is an evolving
source of alternative energy production, and with more than 70 percent of the
surface of our planet covered by ocean, its future looks promising, depending on
geographies and regulatory guidelines.

Tidal Energy Generator

The energy obtained from the rise and fall of tides is called tidal energy.

Tidal barrages or dams are constructed across a narrow opening to the sea.
Water rushes into the dam when the sea level rises. This moves the blades of
the turbines, which are attached at the opening of the dam. This results in the
generation of electricity.

Working principle of Tidal power plants

Tide is periodic rise and fall of water level of the sea. Tides occur due to the
attraction of seawater by the moon. Tides contain large amount of potential
energy, which is used for power generation. When the water is above the mean
sea level, it is called flood tide. When the water level is below the mean level it is
called ebb tide.

Working

The arrangement of this system is shown in figure. The ocean tides rise and fall
and water can be stored during the rise period and it can be discharged during fall.
A dam is constructed separating the tidal basin from the sea and a difference in
water level is obtained between the basin and sea.

During high tide period, water flows from the sea into the tidal basin through the
water turbine. The height of tide is above that of tidal basin. Hence the turbine unit
operates and generates power, as it is directly coupled to a generator.

During low tide period, water flows from tidal basin to sea, as the water level in
the basin is more than that of the tide in the sea. During this period also, the
flowing water rotates the turbine and generator power.
The generation of power stops only when the sea level and the tidal basin level are
equal. For the generation of power economically using this source of energy
requires some minimum tide height and suitable site. Kislaya power plant of 250
MW capacity in Russia and Rance power plant in France are the only examples of
this type of power plant.
 4.10 Principles of Wave Power Generation

What is Wave Energy?

Wave energy is a form of renewable energy that can be harnessed from the
motion of the waves. There are several methods of harnessing wave energy that
involve placing electricity generators on the surface of the ocean.

Wave Energy Uses the Power of the Waves.

Ocean wave energy, or just simply Wave Energy, is another type of ocean based
renewable energy source that uses the power of the waves to generate electricity.
Unlike tidal energy, which uses the ebb and flow of the tides, wave energy
uses the vertical movement of the surface water that produce waves.

Wave power converts the periodic up-and-down movement of the oceans

waves into electricity by placing equipment on the surface of the oceans that
captures the energy produced by the wave movement and converts this mechanical
energy into electrical power.
Wave energy is actually a concentrated form of solar power generated by the
action of the wind blowing across the oceans surface. As the suns rays strike the
Earth’s atmosphere, they warm it up. Differences in the temperature of the air
masses around the globe causes the air to move from the hotter regions to the
cooler regions, resulting in winds.

Wave Energy Advantages

 Wave energy is an abundant and clean energy resource as the waves are
generated by the wind.

 Pollution free as wave energy generates little or no pollution to the environment

compared to other green energies.

 Reduces dependency on fossil fuels as wave energy consumes no fossil fuels

during operation.

 Wave energy is relatively consistent and predictable as waves can be accurately

forecast several days in advance.

 Wave energy devices are modular and easily sited with additional wave energy
devices added as needed.

 Dissipates the waves’ energy protecting the shoreline from coastal erosion.
 Presents no barriers or difficulty to migrating fish and aquatic animals.

Wave Energy Disadvantages

1. Visual impact of wave energy conversion devices on the shoreline and offshore
floating buoys or platforms.

2. Wave energy conversion devices are location dependent requiring suitable sites
were the waves are consistently strong.

3. Intermittent power generation as the waves come in intervals and does not
generate power during calm periods.

4. Offshore wave energy devices can be a threat to navigation that cannot see or
detect them by radar.

5. High power distribution costs to send the generated power from offshore devices
to the land using long underwater cables.

6. They must be able to withstand forces of nature resulting in high capital,

construction and maintenance costs.

4.11 Difference between tidal and wave power generations

The main difference between wave and tidal energy lies in their source. Wave
energy is derived from the wind's interaction with the ocean surface, while
tidal energy is a result of gravitational forces. Additionally, the technologies
used to harness each type of energy differ.

The difference between Tidal Energy and Wave Energy are as follows:

Tidal Energy Wave Energy

1. It is harnessed from the rise and fall 1. It is harnessed from waves moving along
of sea levels. the surface of the ocean.

2. It occurs due to the gravitational pull

2. It occurs due to wind.
of the moon and sun on the Earth.
3. Its intensity is affected by the location
3. Its intensity is affected by wind strength.
and position of the Earth.

4. It includes two types of energy- 4. It includes only one types of energy-

kinetic energy and potential energy. kinetic energy.

5. It is harnessed by using barrages, 5. It is harnessed using offshore and onshore

dams, tidal fences and tidal turbines. systems.

6. It is not a continuous source of energy

as it is generated for about 6-12 hours at 6. It is a continuous source of energy.
a time.

7. It is more reliable since it is based on 7. It is less reliable since it is based on the

the gravitational pull of the moon and effect of the strength of the wind on the
sun. surface of the water.

8. Its start-up cost is very high, due to its

8. Its construction cost is high, but the
design and development, which is required
maintenance cost is low.
for the technology.

4.12 OCEAN THERMAL ENERGY CONVERSION (OTEC)

POWER PLANTS
The ocean and seas constitute about 70% of the earth’s surface area and hence they
represent a large storage reservoir of the solar energy. In tropical waters, the
surface water temperature is about 27°C and at 1 km directly below, the
temperature is about 4°C. The reservoir of surface water may be considered a heat
source and the reservoir of cold water (1 km below) is considered a heat sink. The
concept of ocean thermal energy conversion is based on the utilization of
temperature difference between the heat source and the sink in a heat engine to
generate power.

The temperature gradient present in the ocean is utilized in a heat engine to

generate power. This is called OTEC. Since the temperature gradient is very
small, even in the tropical region, OTEC systems have very low efficiencies and
very high capital costs. There are two basic designs for OTEC systems.

i) Open cycle or Claude cycle.

ii) Closed cycle or Anderson cycle.

i) Open cycle or Claude cycle

In this cycle, the seawater plays a multiple role of a heat source, working fluid,
coolant and heat sink. Warm surface water enters an evaporator where the water is
flash evaporated to steam under particle vacuum. Low pressure is maintained in
the evaporator by a vacuum pump. The low pressure so maintained removes
the non- condensable gases from the evaporator. The steam and water mixture
from evaporator then enters a turbine, driving it thus generating electricity. The
exhaust from the turbine is mixed with cold water from deep Ocean in a direct
contact condenser and is discharged to the ocean. The cycle is then repeated. Since
the condensate is discharged to the ocean, the cycle is called open cycle.
Flash evaporation

In the evaporator the pressure is maintained at a value (0.0317 bar) slightly lower
than the saturation pressure of warm surface water at 27°C (0.0356 bar). Hence,
when the surface water enters the evaporator, it gets ‘superheated’. This super
heated water undergoes volume boiling, causing the water to partially flash to
steam.

ii) Closed OTEC cycle

Here, a separate working fluid such as ammonia, propane or Freon is used in

addition to water. The warm surface water is pumped to a boiler by a pump. This
warm water gives up its heat to the secondary working fluid thereby losing its
energy and is discharged back to the surface of the ocean. The vapours of the
secondary working fluid generated in the boiler, drive a turbine generating power.
The exhaust from the turbine is cooled in a surface condenser by using cold deep
seawater, and is then circulated back to the boiler by a pump.

Advantages of OTEC

1. Ocean is an infinite heat reservoir, which receives solar incidence throughout the
year.

2. Energy is freely available.

Disadvantage of OTEC

1. Efficiency is very low, about 2.5%, as compared to 30-40% efficiency for

conventional power plants.

2. Capital cost is very high.

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