Flowers, also known as blossoms and blooms, are the reproductive

structures of flowering plants. Typically, they are structured in four circular

levels around the end of a stalk. These include: sepals, which are modified
leaves that support the flower; petals, often designed to attract pollinators;
male stamens, where pollen is presented; and female gynoecia, where pollen
is received and its movement is facilitated to the egg. When flowers are
arranged in a group, they are known collectively as an inflorescence.

The development of flowers is a complex and important part in the life cycles
of flowering plants. In most plants, flowers are able to produce sex cells of
both sexes. Pollen, which can produce the male sex cells, is transported
between the male and female parts of flowers in pollination. Pollination can
occur between different plants, as in cross-pollination, or between flowers on
the same plant or even the same flower, as in self-pollination. Pollen
movement may be caused by animals, such as birds and insects, or non-
living things like wind and water. The colour and structure of flowers assist in
the pollination process.

After pollination, the sex cells are fused together in the process
of fertilisation, which is a key step in sexual reproduction. Through cellular
and nuclear divisions, the resulting cell grows into a seed, which contains
structures to assist in the future plant's survival and growth. At the same
time, the female part of the flower forms into a fruit, and the other floral
structures die. The function of fruit is to protect the seed and aid in its
dispersal away from the mother plant. Seeds can be dispersed by living
things, such as birds who eat the fruit and distribute the seeds when
they defecate. Non-living things like wind and water can also help to disperse
the seeds.

Flowers first evolved between 150 and 190 million years ago, in the Jurassic.
Plants with flowers replaced non-flowering plants in many ecosystems, as a
result of flowers' superior reproductive effectiveness. In the study of plant
classification, flowers are a key feature used to differentiate plants. For
thousands of years humans have used flowers for a variety of other
purposes, including: decoration, medicine, food, and perfumes. In human
cultures, flowers are used symbolically and feature in art, literature, religious
practices, ritual, and festivals. All aspects of flowers, including size, shape,
colour, and smell, show immense diversity across flowering plants. They
range in size from 0.1 mm (1⁄250 inch) to 1 metre (3.3 ft), and in this way
range from highly reduced and understated, to dominating the structure of
the plant. Plants with flowers dominate the majority of the world's
ecosystems, and themselves range from tiny orchids and major crop plants
to large trees.

Etymology

In botany, flowers are defined as the reproductive structures of angiosperms

(flowering plants),[1] while cones are regarded as
the gymnosperm equivalent.[2][note 1] Bloom is similarly defined, but may also
be used to describe the collective of flowers on a plant, as in the
phrase: covered with bloom.[4] Flower is also commonly used to describe the
whole of a plant that produces flowers.[4]

Flower entered Middle English via Old French flor from

earlier Latin flōs, flōris and before that Proto-Italic *flōs, all of which had the
same meaning 'flower'.[5][6] The spelling flour was more common in English
until the 17th century, when it became specialised to mean "ground grain" —
originally an instance of figurative flower meaning "best part; finest".
[7]
The Old English word for flower was blossom,[8] which is still used today,
but refers especially to the flowers of edible fruit trees, and not to the whole
flowering plant.[4] Flower, bloom, and blossom are all cognates and are
derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *bʰleh₃ōs ('blossoming').
[6]
Both bloom and blossom refer to flowers as well as the state of flowering;
as in the phrases: in bloom or in blossom.[4]

Function

The main purpose of a flower is reproduction of the individual,[9] aiding in the

survival of the species.[10] Flowers not only produce spores, which
become gametophytes that produce sex cells, leading to fertilised cells, but
also develop and help disseminate seeds.[11] Sexual reproduction between
plants results in evolutionary adaptation, which improves species survival.
Plants favour cross-pollination because it promotes the joining of sex cells
from genetically distinct plants of the same species, thereby
increasing genetic diversity. Facilitating this process is a key function of
flowers and is often reflected in their form and structure. [11] Features
designed to attract pollinators are among the most common adaptations.[12]

Structure

Main article: Floral morphology

Diagram of flower structure

The structure of a flower, termed its morphology,[13] can be considered in two

parts: the vegetative part, consisting of non-reproductive structures such
as petals; and the reproductive or sexual parts. A stereotypical, or complete,
[14]
flower is made up of four kinds of structures arranged in sets called
whorls. They grow around the tip of a short stalk or axis, called a receptacle.
[15]
The four main whorls (starting from the base of the flower and working
upwards) are the calyx, petals, androecium, and gynoecium.[16]

Vegetative

Main article: Perianth

The non-reproductive or vegetative part of the flower, known collectively as

the perianth, consists of calyx (the modified outer leaves), and the petals.
The receptacle is the thickened part of the flower stalk, called the pedicel,
which supports all of the other flower structures. [14][17]

Calyx

The sepals, collectively called the calyx, are modified leaves that occur on
the outermost whorl of the flower. They are leaf-like, [18] in that they have a
broad base, pores, green pigment, and may have analogous outgrowths from
the stem. Sepals are often waxy, tough, and grow quickly to protect the
flower as it develops.[17][19] Although they sometimes fall off at maturity,
sepals more commonly persist to protect the fruit and aid in its dispersal.
[20]
The sepals in some flowers may be partially or completely fused together.
[19][21]

Petals

The petals, collectively called the corolla,[20] are almost or completely

fibreless leaf-like structures that form the innermost whorl of the perianth.
They are often delicate and thin and are usually coloured, shaped, or
scented, to encourage and facilitate pollination. [22] The petals may be fused
together.[23] Petals also tend to have patterns only visible
under ultraviolet light, which is visible to pollinators but not to humans. [22] In
some flowers, petals and sepals are indistinguishable from one another.[24]

Reproductive

Diagram of an anther in cross section. 1: Filament; 2: Theca; 3: Connective

(the conducting vessels in red); 4: Pollen sac (also called sporangium)
Diagram of angiosperm ovule

Main article: Plant reproductive morphology

All flowering plants are heterosporous, that is, every individual plant
produces two types of spores. Spores are formed from mature plants, which
contain two sets of chromosomes, and are divided into microspores and
megaspores—the precursors to pollen and embryo sacs respectively. Pollen
and embryo sacs are the male and female gametophytes, sex cell-producing
structures, and contain just one set of chromosomes. Microspores are
produced by meiosis inside anthers, the male part of flowers,[20] and
megaspores are produced inside ovules contained within the ovary.[25][26] As
with all heterosporous plants, the gametophytes also develop inside the
spores.[25]

Male

The androecium is the whorl of male parts called stamens, which

produce pollen. Stamens consist typically of an anther, made up of four
pollen sacs arranged in two sheaths called thecae, connected to a filament,
or stalk.[20][23] The anther contains microspores which become pollen, the
male gametophyte, after undergoing meiosis.[25] Although they exhibit the
widest variation among floral organs,[note 2] the androecium is usually confined
just to one whorl and to two whorls only in rare cases. [23]

Female

The gynoecium, consisting of one or more carpels, is the female part of the
flower and found on the innermost whorl.[20] Each carpel consists of:
a stigma, which receives pollen; a style, the stalk; and an ovary, which
contains the ovules, and the female gametophytes by extension. Carpels
may be fused together and are often described collectively as a pistil. Inside
the ovary, the ovules are attached to the placenta by structures called
funiculi.[28][29]

Variation
Diagram showing that: hermaphrodite flowers have both sexes, monoecious
plants have sexes on different flowers, and dioecious plants have either just
female or just male flowers.

A healthy (left) and infected (right) Hydrangea flower. Phytoplasma has

caused the flower to develop leaves in place of petals—an example
of phyllody.[30]

Although most plants have flowers with four whorls—protective leaves,

petals, male parts, and female parts—and their typical sub-structures, they
vary greatly between flowering plants.[14][31] This variation encompasses all
aspects of flowers, including size, shape, and colour. [14] Flowers range in size
from 0.1 mm (1⁄250 in) (duckweed) to 1 m (3.3 ft) in diameter (corpse flower).
[14]
Additionally, the four main parts of a flower are generally defined by their
positions and not by their function. Many flowers lack some parts, have parts
that are modified for other functions, or contain parts that look like what is
typically another part.[14][32][33] In some flowers, organs such as stamens,
stigmas, and sepals are modified to resemble petals. This is most common in
cultivation (such as of roses), where flowers with many additional "petals"
are found to be more attractive.[34][35]

Most flowers have symmetry.[36] When the flower is bisected through the
central axis from any point and symmetrical halves are produced, [37] the
flower is said to be regular (as in sedges). This is an example of radial
symmetry. If there is only one plane of symmetry (as in orchids),[38] the
flower is said to be irregular. If, in very rare cases, they have no symmetry at
all they are called asymmetric.[39][40] Floral symmetry is a key driver of
diversity in flower morphology, because it is one of the main features derived
through flower-plant coevolution. Irregular flowers often coevolve with
specific pollinators, while radially symmetric flowers tend to attract a wider
range of pollinators.[41][note 3]

In the majority of species, individual flowers have both female parts and
male parts — such flowers are described as being perfect, bisexual,
or hermaphrodite. In some species of plants, the flowers are imperfect or
unisexual: having only either male or female parts. If unisexual male and
female flowers appear on the same plant, the species is called monoecious.
However, if an individual plant is either female or male, the species is
called dioecious.[43] Many flowers have nectaries, which are glands that
produce nectar: a sugary fluid used to attract pollinators. Their shape varies
between different plants,[44] are they not considered as an organ on their
own.[44]

Some flowers are lacking or have only a highly reduced stalk, and so
are attached directly to the plant.[45] There are several structures, found in
some plants, that resemble flowers or floral organs. These include: coronas,
crown-like outgrowths;[46] and pseudonectaries, that look like nectaries but do
not contain nectar.[47] In plants where disease has taken hold, phyllody—leafy
flower parts—may occur.[48]

A dandelion inflorescence is made up of many small

flowers grouped closely together to look like a single flower
(a pseudanthium).