Unit-3
Analog and Digital Electronics
Introduction:
Analog electronics involves the use of continuous time
(analog) signals. Analog electronics mostly uses passive
circuit components like resistors, capacitors, etc. But
sometimes, active components like transistors are also
used. Analog electronic systems consumes more power.
Digital electronics uses discrete time signals or two state
signals. Digital electronics uses active elements only.
Digital electronic systems consumes comparatively less
power.
Operation and characteristics of electronic devices:
PN Junction Diodes:
• A PN junction diode is a semiconductor device that allows
the flow of electric current in one direction and blocks the
flow in the opposite direction.
• It is created by joining two types of semiconductors – P-type
and N-type – together.
• The interface between the P-type and N-type regions is
known as the PN junction.
Formation of PN Junction Diode:
• PN junction diode is formed either from Ge or Si
crystal.
• When a p-type material is intimately joined to an
n-type a PN junction is formed.
• Actually, PN junction is fabricated by special
techniques like growing, alloying, and diffusion
methods.
• Before joining both types of semiconductors are
electrically neutral.
• In the p-type material holes are the majority
carriers and electrons are the minority carriers, in n-type material electrons, are the majority carriers
and holes are the minority carriers.
PN Junction Diode under Open Circuit Condition:
• After joining P-type and n-type materials, the crystal becomes a single piece as shown in the figure
below.
• The plane dividing the two is called the PN
Junction.
• The p-type region has holes as the majority of
charge carriers and similarly, the n-type region
has electrons as the majority of charge carriers.
• In addition to these majority charge carriers, there
are a few minority charge carriers in each region.
• In the p-region, electrons are the minority charge
carriers, and in the n-region holes are the minority
charge carriers.
• The majority of carriers near or at the junction diffuse across the junction and recombine.
• After a few recombinations of majority carriers at the junction, the process stops. This is because the
electrons crossing over the junction into the p-type material are repelled by the large negative ions.
• Similarly, holes crossing over the junction are repelled by the large positive ions in the n-type material.
• The immobile ions at the junction create a zone depleted of majority carriers called the depletion region
as shown in the figure above.
• Thus there is no current flow under open circuit conditions. The thickness of this region is of the order
of 10-6 m. The potential difference across the depletion region is called the potential barrier.
• The potential barrier can be increased or decreased by applying an external voltage.
Working of PN Junction Diode:
• When an external voltage is applied to the PN junction diode, it is said to be based. In order to consider
the working of a PN junction diode, let us consider the effect of biasing across the PN junction diode.
• There are two types of Biasing:
1. Forward Bias
2. Reverse Bias
1. Forward-biased PN Junction diode:
• A forward biasing can be applied to a PN junction
diode by connecting the positive terminal of the
battery to the p-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery to the n-type
semiconductor, as shown in the figure below.
• When an external voltage is applied to a PN
junction diode, the chances of the potential barrier
and permitting the current flow means, the
junction is said to be in the forward-biased
condition.
• If the forward bias is greater than the potential
barrier, the majority of carriers move toward the junction and cross it resulting in a considerable current
flow. The current that flows due to the majority of carriers is called forward current. It increases with
forward bias.
2. Reverse-biased PN Junction diode:
• A reverse biasing can be applied to a PN junction
diode by connecting the positive terminal of the
battery to the n-type semiconductor and the
negative terminal of the battery to the p-type
semiconductor as shown in the figure.
• When an external voltage applied to a PN junction
diode increases the potential barrier means, then it
is called reverse bias.
• The applied reversed voltage established an
electric field that acts in the same direction as the
potential barrier.
• Due to this, the resultant field at the junction gets
strengthened and the barrier height also gets
increased.
• This increased potential barrier prevents the flow of charge carriers across the junction.
• However, a very small amount of current flows in the circuit due to the motion of minority carriers.
This current is called reverse current.
• Thus, when a PN junction diode is forward biased, the junction has a low resistance path, and hence
current flows in the circuit.
• On the other hand, when it is reverse biased, it has a high resistance path and no current flows in the
circuit. Hence a PN Junction diode can be used as a rectifier, i.e., for converting alternating current
into direct current.
VI Characteristics of PN Junction Diode:
• It is very important to study how a device responds when it is connected to an electrical circuit. The
behaviour of a diode can be obtained by means of a graph known as volt-ampere or VT characteristics.
• VI Characteristics is a graph between the applied voltage across the terminal of the device and the
current flowing through it.
• The characteristics of a diode are studied under two conditions:
1. Forward Biasing characteristics
2. Reverse biasing characteristics
1. Forward Characteristics of PN Junction Diode:
• The circuit diagram for obtaining the forward characteristics of a diode is shown in the Figure below:
• When the PN Junction diode is forward biased and the applied voltage is gradually increased in steps,
at some forward voltage (Vf), 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si, the potential barrier is altogether eliminated
and the current starts flowing. This voltage is known as threshold voltage (Vth) Knee voltage or Cut-in
voltage.
• The milliammeter readings are noted at various steps of the applied voltage and a graph is plotted
between voltage and current, as shown in the figure above. From the graph, it is seen that practically
no current flows until the barrier
voltage (VB) is overcome, this is
shown by point A in the graph.
• Once the external voltage exceeds the
barrier potential or the threshold
value, the current increases
exponentially, as shown by portion
AB in the graph.
• This portion is known as the linear
operating region of the diode. At
point A,
Vf=Vth=VB
• From the graph, the forward resistance of the diode is Rf=ΔVf/ΔIf
• If the forward voltage is increased beyond a safe limit, damage is likely to occur to the diode due to
overheating.
2. Reverse Characteristics of PN Junction Diode:
• The circuit diagram for obtaining the reverse characteristics of a diode is shown in the figure below.
• When the PN junction diode is
reverse biased, majority carriers are
blocked and only a small current due
to minority carriers flows through the
diode.
• As the reverse voltage is increased
from zero in suitable steps, the
reverse current very quickly reaches
its maximum or saturation value
which is called reverse saturation
current (Ir) or leakage current.
• The diode current is recorded at each step of reverse voltage (Vr) and a graph is drawn with reverse
voltage along the horizontal axis and the diode current along the vertical axis. Curve OCD as shown
above the figure is obtained. The curve OCD is called the reverse characteristics of the diode.
• It can be seen from the graph that when the applied reverse voltage is below the breakdown voltage
(VBR), the diode current is small and remains constant (portion OC of the curve).
• When the reverse voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage, the leakage current suddenly and sharply
increases. The curve CD indicates zero resistance at this point. The reverse current is of the order of
microampere (uA) for Ge and nano ampere (nA) for Si.
• Any further increases in voltage are likely to produce damage to the PN junction diode unless protected
by a current-limiting resistor.
• The reverse resistance of the diode from the slope of the curve is Rr = ΔVr/ΔIr
Combined Forward and Reverse VI characteristics of PN Junction Diode:
• The combined forward
and reverse
characteristics are shown
in the figure below for
both Ge and Si.
• It can be seen from the VI
characteristics curve that
the leakage current of the
Ge junction is much more
than that of the Si
junction. Also, Note the
difference in the scale of
voltage and current in the
forward and reverse
characteristics.
Applications of PN Junction Diodes:
• PN junction diodes have numerous applications in electronic devices. Some of the common
applications are:
Rectifiers: PN junction diodes are widely used as rectifiers in electronic circuits. They allow the current to
flow in one direction and block it in the opposite direction, making them ideal for converting AC (alternating
current) to DC (direct current).
Voltage Regulators: PN junction diodes can be used as voltage regulators by combining them with resistors
or other electronic components. This allows the diode to regulate the voltage across a circuit and prevent
voltage spikes.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs): LEDs are a type of PN junction diode that emits light when forward biased.
They are used in various applications, such as lighting, displays, and indicators.
Solar Cells: Solar cells are devices that convert sunlight into electricity. They are made up of PN junction
diodes that absorb photons from sunlight and generate a flow of current.
Advantages PN Junction Diode:
• PN junction diodes are inexpensive and widely available.
• They are small in size, making them ideal for use in compact electronic devices.
• They have a fast response time and can switch on and off quickly.
Disadvantages PN Junction Diode:
• PN junction diode has a limited current rating and voltage rating.
• They are susceptible to temperature variations and can be damaged by excessive heat.
• They have a high reverse leakage current, which can cause power dissipation.
Zener Diode:
• Zener diode is defined as the semiconductor which is heavily doped to operate in reverse direction or
in breakdown region.
• The Zener diode behaves just like a normal general-purpose
diode consisting of a silicon PN junction and when biased in
the forward direction, that is Anode positive with respect to
its cathode, it behaves just like a normal signal diode passing
the rated current.
• However, unlike a conventional diode that blocks any flow
of current through itself when reverse biased, that is the
Cathode becomes more positive than the Anode, as soon as
the reverse voltage reaches a pre-determined value, the
zener diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction.
Zener Diode Circuit:
• We can define Zener diode as a single diode connected in
a reverse bias. It can be connected in reverse bias positive
as in the circuit shown below:
V-I Characteristics of Zener Diode:
• The diagram given below shows the V-I characteristics of the Zener diode.
• When the Zener diode is connected, in forward bias, diode acts as a normal diode. But Zener breakdown
voltage occurs when the reverse bias voltage is greater than a predetermined voltage.
Working of Zener Diode:
• The basic principle behind Zener diode working is based on the cause of breakdown when the diode is
in the reverse biased condition.
• For a Zener diode there are two types of breakdown:
1. Zener breakdown
2. Avalanche breakdown
Zener breakdown:
• This is observed in zener diodes having V between 4 to 6 volts.
• The valence electrons are pulled into conduction band due to intense electric field appearing across the
narrow depletion region.
• The V-I Characteristics of Zener breakdown is very sharp.
• The breakdown voltage decreases with the increase in temperature.
Avalanche Breakdown:
• This is observed in zener diodes having V above 6 volts.
• The valence electrons are pushed into conduction band due to the energy imparted by colliding
accelerated minority carriers.
• The V-I Characteristics of Avelanche breakdown increases gradually. It is not as sharp as zener
breakdown.
• The breakdown voltage increases with the increase in temperature.
• A conventional reverse biased diode, when subjected to its breakdown voltage allows a significant
amount of current. But when this reverse breakdown voltage is exceeded, the diode experiences an
avalanche breakdown.
• When we increase the voltage through Zener in reverse bias mode, first current increases uniformly
with it but after it reaches the breakdown state, the current increases massively for a very small or
negligible change in voltage. The change is sharper in Zener than the normal diode.
Causes of Breakdown:
• The breakdown is caused by two effects, the Avalanche effect and the Zener effect. The Zener effect is
dominant in voltages up to 5.6 volts and the avalanche effect takes over above that.
• They are both similar effects, the difference being that Zener effect is a quantum phenomenon and the
avalanche effect is the movement of electrons in the valence band like in any electric current.
• Avalanche effect also allows a larger current through the diode than the Zener effect.
Application of Zener Diode:
Following are the applications of Zener diode:
Zener diode as voltage regulator:
• Zener diode is used as Shunt voltage regulator for regulating voltage across small loads. The
breakdown voltage of Zener diodes will be constant for a wide range of current.
• Zener diode is connected parallel to the load to make it reverse bias and once the Zener diode exceeds
knee voltage, the voltage across the load will become constant.
Zener diode in over-voltage protection:
• When the input voltage is higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the resistor drops
resulting in short circuit. This can be avoided by using Zener diode.
Zener diode in clipping circuits:
• Zener diode is used for modifying AC waveform clipping circuits by limiting the parts of either one or
both the half cycles of an AC waveform.
Advantages of Zener diode:
1. The size of the Zener diode is so small that it can be used in smaller circuits and also in cell phones.
2. Zener diodes are less expensive when compared to other diodes.
3. Zener diodes can be used for controlling, regulating, and stabilizing the voltage in the circuit.
4. These diodes have a very high-performance standard.
5. The compatibility of the Zener diodes is good that they are used in regulating voltage.
Transistor:
• A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power.
• It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
• The term transistor was derived from the words “Transfer” and “Resistor”.
• These two words d escribe the operation of transistor, which is the transfer of an input signal current from a
low resistance circuit to a high resistance circuit.
• Transistor is a three-terminal device.
BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor):
Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET):
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor):