Brushless DC (BLDC) motor

A Brushless DC (BLDC) motor is constructed with a stationary stator containing copper

windings and a rotating rotor with permanent magnets. Its working principle involves an
electronic controller that energizes the stator coils in a specific sequence, creating a rotating
magnetic field. This field interacts with the rotor's magnets, causing them to pull and push the
rotor into continuous rotation, a process known as electronic commutation. This replaces
mechanical brushes to reduce wear and improve reliability.

Construction
Stator: This is the stationary part and contains the copper windings, or coils, which are
stationary. It is connected to an electronic control circuit.
Rotor: This is the rotating part and is equipped with permanent magnets

Fig. 1 BLDC

Fig.2 Operation and working principle

Working Principle of Brushless DC Motor

BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e., the Lorentz force
law which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field it experiences a
force. As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In
case BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent magnet moves.

Working principle
Electronic Commutation: Unlike brushed motors that use mechanical brushes, BLDC motors
use an electronic controller and sensors to switch the current to the stator windings. This
electronic commutation is what makes the motor "brushless".

Fig.3 Block diagram of electronic commutation

Magnetic Field Generation: When the electronic controller supplies DC power to the stator
windings, it creates an electromagnet. The controller energizes the coils in a sequence,
producing a rotating magnetic field that moves around the stator. A 3-phase electronic
commutator energizes coil A, coil B and coil C in a sequence as shown in fig.2.
Rotor Rotation: The rotor's permanent magnets are attracted to the rotating magnetic field in
the stator. As the rotor turns to align with the stator's field, the electronic controller instantly
switches the current to the next set of coils.
Torque Production: This continuous switching of the stator's magnetic field pulls and pushes
the rotor magnets along, creating a smooth and continuous torque that keeps the motor
spinning.
Position Sensing: Sensors, typically Hall-effect sensors, are used to detect the rotor's position.
The controller uses this real-time feedback to know exactly when to switch the current to the
next windings, ensuring precise and continuous rotation.
Advantages
BLDC motor has several advantages over conventional DC motors and some of these are
• It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems
• High efficiency due to the use of permanent magnet rotor
• High speed of operation even in loaded and unloaded conditions due to the absence of
brushes that limits the speed
• Smaller motor geometry and lighter in weight than both brushed type DC and induction AC
motors
• Long life as no inspection and maintenance is required for commutator system
• Higher dynamic response due to low inertia and carrying windings in the stator
• Less electromagnetic interference
• Quite operation (or low noise) due to absence of brushes
Disadvantages
• These motors are costly
• Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive
• Not much availability of many integrated electronic control solutions, especially for tiny
BLDC motors
• Requires complex drive circuitry
• Need of additional sensors

Applications of Brushless DC Motors (BLDC)

Brushless DC Motors (BLDC) are used in a wide variety of applications, including varying
loads, constant loads, and positioning applications in industrial control, automotive, aviation,
automation systems, healthcare equipment, and more. Some specific applications of BLDC
motors include:
1. Electric Vehicles (EVs): BLDC motors are used in electric and hybrid vehicles for
propulsion, providing high efficiency and performance compared to traditional internal
combustion engines.
2. Industrial Automation: BLDC motors are used in robotics, CNC machines, belt driven
systems, and other automated systems for precise motion control and high efficiency.
3. Consumer Electronics: BLDC motors are used in appliances like air conditioners,
refrigerators, washing machines, compressors, fans, pumps, blowers, and dryers for
improved efficiency and reliability.
4. Aerospace: BLDC motors are used in aircraft systems for actuation, such as in-flight
control surfaces, landing gear, and fuel pumps, due to their high power-to-weight ratio and
reliability.
5. Medical Devices: BLDC motors are used in medical equipment like surgical tools, pumps,
and ventilators for precise control and reliability.
6. Computer Peripherals: BLDC motors are used in hard disk drives (HDDs), optical disk
drives (ODDs), and cooling fans for their reliability and efficiency.
7. Renewable Energy: BLDC motors are used in wind turbines and solar tracking systems for
their efficiency and ability to operate in harsh environments.
8. Home Automation: BLDC motors are used in smart home devices like smart locks,
curtains, and HVAC systems for their efficiency and quiet operation.

Stepper Motor
• A stepper motor is an electric motor whose main feature is that its shaft rotates by
performing steps, that is, by moving by a fixed amount of degrees.
• Stepper motors convert electrical pulses into precise mechanical movements by rotating
the shaft in fixed angles per pulse.
• Includes permanent magnet, variable reluctance, and hybrid stepper motors, each with
unique performance traits.
• As all with electric motors, stepper motors have a stationary part (the stator) and a
moving part (the rotor). On the stator, there are teeth on which coils are wired, while
the rotor is either a permanent magnet or a variable reluctance iron core.

Fig. 4 Cross-Section of a Stepper Motor and waveforms

By energizing one or more of the stator phases, a magnetic field is generated by the current
flowing in the coil and the rotor aligns with this field. By supplying different phases in
sequence, the rotor can be rotated by a specific amount to reach the desired final position. The
positioning of a motor is decided by the step angle and is expressed in degrees. The resolution
or the step number of a motor is the number of steps it makes in one revolution of the rotor.
The smaller the step angle, the higher the resolution of the positioning of the stepper motor.
A standard motor will have a step angle of 1.8 degrees with 200 steps per revolution. The
various step angles like 90, 45, and 15 degrees are common in simple motors.
The fig. 4 shows four-phase excitation (A, B, C, D).

Fig.4
Each phase is energized in sequence using square pulses.
Step rotation occurs when the pulses shift from one phase to the next.
This is typical for full-step drive:

Phase A → Phase B → Phase C → Phase D → repeat.

The timing of these pulses determines speed and direction:

Faster pulses = higher speed.

Reverse sequence = reverse rotation.

Types of Stepper Motor

Main types of stepper motors, they are:
• Permanent magnet stepper motor
• Variable reluctance stepper motor

Permanent magnet stepper motor

It’s an electromechanical energy conversion device, which converts electrical energy to
mechanical energy. In a stepper motor, both the rotor and stator magnetic fields are excited
such that interaction of the rotor magnetic field and stator magnetic field produces torque. In a
permanent magnet stepper motor, the rotor coils are not excited, instead, we use permanent
magnets. Due to the absence of rotor excitation, the losses are also reduced.
Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor Construction and operation
It consists of two fundamental parts. The stationary part also called the stator. In stator, stator
poles are placed such that, when excited with windings as shown in the diagram, each stator
pole forms one magnetic pole. The two coils AA’ connected in series to form a winding of
Phase A. Similarly, the two coil BB’ is connected in series forming a phase B winding. The
figure below shows 4/2 Pole Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Mode 1– In this mode, the A phase of the stator poles is excited together with series winding
to create two pairs of magnetic poles. When the A phase is excited, it forms the North and
South pole. At this moment, the rotor magnetic poles are attracted to the stator magnetic poles.
Mode 2 – In this mode, the B phase of the stator poles is excited together with series winding
to create two pairs of magnetic poles. When the B phase is excited, it forms the North and
South pole. At this moment, the rotor magnetic poles are attracted to the stator magnetic poles.
Which makes the rotor rotate in the clockwise direction from Mode 1.
Mode 3 and Mode 4 are as shown in fig. 6. With 3600 rotations of the rotor, one revolution is
completed.
The torque produced is proportional to the sine of the angle between the rotor magnetic axis
and the stator magnetic axis:
𝑇 = 𝐾𝑡 ⋅ 𝐼 ⋅ sin⁡(𝛿)

Where:
• 𝐾𝑡 = Torque constant (depends on motor design)
• 𝐼= Phase current
• 𝛿= Angle between rotor and stator magnetic axes
Applications
The applications of a permanent magnet stepper motor are
• Aeronautical industry
• Robotics
• Toys
• Manufacturing
• Control industry
• Mills and printing

Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor

The principle of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor is based on the property of the flux lines
which capture the low reluctance path. The stator and the rotor of the motor are aligned in such
a way that the magnetic reluctance is minimum.
Working of a Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
Let a four-phase or (4/2 pole), variable reluctance stepper motor is shown below. Here, (4/2
pole) means that the stator has four poles and the rotor has two poles.
The four phases A, B, C, and D are connected to the DC source with the help of a
semiconductor, switches SA, SB, SC, and SD respectively, as shown in the above figure. The
phase windings of the stator are energized in the sequence A, B, C, D, A. The rotor aligns itself
with the axis of phase A as winding A is energized. The rotor is stable in this position and
cannot move until phase A is de-energized. Phase B is excited and phase A is disconnected.
The rotor moves 90 degrees in the clockwise direction to align with the resultant air-gap field
which lies along the axis of phase B. Similarly phase C is energized, and phase B is
disconnected, and the rotor moves again in 90 degrees to align itself with the axis of the phase.
Thus, as the Phases are excited in the order as A, B, C, D, A, the rotor moves 90 degrees at
each transition step in the clockwise direction. The rotor completes one revolution in 4 steps.
The direction of the rotation depends on the sequence of switching the phase and does not
depend on the direction of the current flowing through the phase. Thus, the direction can be
reversed by changing the phase sequence like A, D, C, B, A.

Driving Pulse

Phase A

Phase B

Phase c

Phase D

Servo Motor
A servo motor is defined as an electric motor that provides precise control of angular or linear
position, speed, and torque using a feedback loop system. A servo motor is an electric motor
that adjusts its position, speed, or torque in response to controller inputs.
The servo motor utilizes advanced control systems like PID and fuzzy logic to adjust movement
according to input and feedback signals for optimal performance.
Types of Motors: Different types include AC and DC servo motors, with subtypes like
synchronous, asynchronous, brushed, and brushless, each tailored for specific applications.
Feedback Mechanism: Effective use of sensors such as potentiometers and encoders help in
precise monitoring and adjustments of motor positions, speeds, or torques.
Servo motors are widely used in robotics projects, Arduino projects, RC vehicles, and home
automation.
Servo Motor Working Principle
The servo motor working principle involves four key components working together: a DC/AC
motor, a potentiometer, a gear assembly, and a control circuit. The gear assembly is used to
reduce RPM and to increase the torque of the motor.
At the initial position of the servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is such
that there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer.

This diagram represents a closed-loop control system used in a servo motor. The main purpose
of a servo system is to control the position (or speed/torque) of the motor shaft accurately.
1. Target Position (Reference Input)
This is the desired position that we want the servo motor shaft to reach.
Example: Rotate the shaft to 90°.
2. Comparator (Error Detector)
The circular block with + and – signs compares:
Target (desired) position
Current (actual) position from the feedback
It generates an error signal:
Error=Target Position−Current Position
If the error is:
Positive → motor moves in forward direction
Negative → motor moves in reverse direction
3. Controller
The controller processes the error signal and decides:
How fast to move the motor, in which direction to move
Common controllers used: P Controller, PI Controller, PID Controller (most common in servo
systems). Its job is to reduce the error to zero.

4. Driver (Power Amplifier)

The driver amplifies the control signal from the controller because the controller output is too
small to drive the motor directly.
Functions of the driver:
Supplies required current and voltage and Protects the motor from overload
5. Servo Motor
The motor converts electrical energy into mechanical motion (rotational movement of the
shaft). As it rotates, it moves towards the target position. This movement is taken as the Output.
6. Encoder (Feedback Element)
The encoder is a position sensor mounted on the motor shaft.
It measures:
Current shaft position and Speed of rotation
This feedback is sent back to the comparator as Current Position.
7. Closed-Loop Operation (How the System Works Together)
Step-by-step working:
A target position is given.
Comparator finds the difference between target and actual position.
The controller generates a correction signal.
The driver supplies power to the motor. The motor moves the shaft. Encoder measures the new
position. Feedback is sent back and compared again.
This repeats until: Error≈0
When error becomes zero, the motor stops exactly at the required position.

Universal Motor
Working Principle
The universal motor is a unique type of motor which runs on either DC or single-phase AC
supply. It works on the principle that a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
experiences a force. In a universal motor, the armature winding and field winding are connected
in series. When AC supply is applied, the direction of current in both armature and field
reverses simultaneously every half cycle. Hence, the direction of torque remains the same.
Therefore, the motor continues to rotate in the same direction on both AC and DC supply.

Torque equation:

T ∝ϕIa

Since flux ϕ∝Ia

T∝Ia2

This gives very high starting torque.

Diagram and Parts

The parts of a universal motor

Frame: The frame is a rolled steel or cast-iron shell that holds the field core laminations.
Field core: The field core is made up of laminations that contain field poles of a two-pole
motor. (the motor shown in the diagram has two poles.)
Armature: An armature coil is used to run the motor.
Brushes: Brushes conduct current between stationary wires and moving parts.
Field winding: The field winding forms an electromagnet that produces field flux within which
the rotor armature of the DC motor rotates.

Applications
Electric drill, Mixer grinder, Vacuum cleaner, Hair dryer, Sewing machine, Food processor,
Portable power tools
Advantages (Exam Points)

• Operates on both AC and DC

• Very high starting torque
• High speed operation
• Compact and light weight
• Suitable for portable appliances

Disadvantages (Exam Points)

• Poor efficiency
• High noise due to brushes
• Sparking at commutator
• High maintenance
• Poor speed regulation
• Not suitable for continuous duty