portions of DNA in the faiher mateh the one In the ‘chill thea it confirms paternity TMUMAN 01 = Genome is the total genetic content of any cell i ‘an organism. In humans there are up to 100,000 genes 7 ‘The human genome project aims at 8) Gene mappings this is the process of dentifing speeafc postions Gecupied by apecifie genes ont chromosome €. qyatic fibrosis gene fs found on chromosome 7, sickle cell gene is located. on, chromosome L1 and haemophilia gene fs located on Nehromosome, © Sequencing of genes: this is the process of apatveng DNA To Feveal tie order of bases in all ehsaosones snce of human genome projects, 4 Meenttication of defective genes, hence facilitating heir correction, AL Keentiicaton of genes that are susceptible to cenain diseases so that individuals can take ‘prevenve measles, ‘i Predicing the protein that the gene produces some of which are disadvantageous. This provides 2 opportunity to produce drugs to enhance or ‘Sahibr the activity of such proteins. seestions 4) Gre reasons why humans are not commonly ‘used as specimens for genetic studies ~ Humans take longer to mature for observations to be made. + Humans cannot be contained under some set experimental conditions. 4) State how genetic knowledge has been used to ‘smmprove pea plant farming. ~ Artificial selection/ cross breeding/ polyploldy/ genetic engineering resulting tn varieties with destrable traits, . is IC 21 EVOLUTION Is the emergence of complex te fom re xing imple Me forensgrodat cover a long period of tie complex organisms from simple pre-existing ka forms ove a lng peri of tie. rganle evolution It proves scentie explanations for the rex dlversity/ variation observed in organisms az in thelr similares n structure and function + enables organisms to change and adapt tp their environment. These adaptations he them to survive and breed passing thes adaptations tothe young one. ‘THEORIES THAT EXPLATH 7 1GIN OF. A. Special creation theory. jt explains that t& whole universe and all i contains action of « supreme being (God), = It holds the following was created b i Views on the origin ang natuce of fe: 4 Life was brought into existence by a suprene being. Life forms were created in a perfect form and hhave remained unchanged over time. ‘This knowledge is based on faith and cannot te disputed, It cannot be contradicted/ proved & science because it is not scientifically testable” B. Chemical evolution theory, + lt explains that life occurred/ originated whe simple chemical compounds reacted to form sizzle life forms/ fist living organisms. jdt explains that fe began by a catalytic effect lightning or some other catalysts bringing togetbe clements (Hydrogen, Onygen and nitrogen) to fers simple molecules e.g, water H20), Ammonia (SE and Methane (CHS) ~ Purther, combinations of such compounds possibly resulted in the formation of complex se replicating molecules (ONA) which forms the genet rateril of living eel ~ Successive replication of these molecules and further development ted to formation of simp® forms of the lving eels. = Chemical theory holds the fllowing views abo:: origin and nature of it; 1. Life came into existence through combinations chemical substances. ‘ U, ‘The initial fe forms were simple and ‘hae ‘changed over the years to form present day complet organisms, Scientific experiments, artifacts and fossil recorés provide evidence/ proof to this theory. — x »recall ben vet dayltincbeglet > Lee Bema wet tal nt qetttvm isthe sessvelan bungee ‘EVEN! + They include: A Fossil reconts | '8 Geographical distribution of organisms ©, Comparative embyoogy, D Comparative anatomy. [Link] biology, F. Comparative serology. ‘A OSSIL RECORDS. ~ Fossils are remains of ancestral forms that were acedentally preserved in some naturally curring matenals €g. sedimentary rocks, plant resins and amber. - The study of fossil scaled Palaentology, ‘he fossils are arranged from the oldest to the latest. The age of the fossil is determined through tive carbon, erminerallzation. process by ‘shich hard parts eg. bones, teeth, shells and woody parts of plants are converted into rock/ 4H) Preservation of entire organisms or its parts ih ‘amber, plant resins and ice. 448) Impressions such as moulds and casts- If an organism is totally dissolved or liquefied in sedimentary rock, it my leave behind impressions of its outer surface in the rock known a3 moulds. If ‘the mould is filled with other minerals itis called a cast. Importance of fossils | + They give direct evidence ofthe ype of animals and plants that existed ata ceftin geological see. By comparing the fossls of diferent xgasizns spose ttl the phylogenetic relationships between the organisms. | Example: Fossils show that the different groups of ‘organisms arose at diferent times on earth earliest oss is or Mone, loved by Proto fend then Pung. Plantae and animalia appeared fater + They also show gradual increase in complenity from simple organisms to more complex ‘Ofganisms. The older rock stata at lover layer Contain fpsils showing simple structures white the younger roc strata at upper layers contain fossils shoWing more complex structures \ + They show hhylogenetic relationship of - organisms, \* jamuo| Fig. Foust formation In aquatie environment, Examoteg Ie incteans in compli af ina of « horse A Human fogs show presse wctense i set sizes tothe prevent age WL Charles Darwin proposed that human beings (oma sapiens} descend fen age ke ereaviren +The oder of evahuton inehvtes Provan, Horo fabs, Homa erectus and Hama sapiens Features of Home saplens/ humans/ Advantages «wolutlon has gloen man ovee other animals, i Abily to think) ratonaize large ben evga. A Abily ta communicate through spenea AW, Upright posture/ ability to wale 09 ty hint limbs/ti-pedal locomotion Binocular vision ¥. Modifieation of the limbs/ opposabe th manipulate object Disadvantages/ lta tensons why losall records ar lnconiglete {.Partal/ entice decomposition of dead crgarinens/ organic mater 1, Some parts/ entre dead organsams ace exten oy LL. Soft-bodied organisms do not foanilize Ww. Natural disasters e.g earthquakes, earth ‘movements faulting, mass movement, folding, Distortion due to sedimentation, earth ‘movement, earthquakes. ° ctu 8 be —— ee ii m7 T Hamas T-Tower brain se, ~ | Efasiane bra ‘capacity, 2-Wias larger incor | 2. Has soley Theor fandcanine teeth for | and eanine teth for defense and killng | defense and kaling prey. pres ‘3. Hasnartower and [3, Has broad and elongated pets fauened pele 4. Locomotion is 4. Locomotion te aquadruperal/ on four | bipedal) on two mba limbs. 5, forelimb are used for arboreal locomotion and valking with ‘opposable thumb. 6 Wind foot has | 6. The had far baw opposable toe for | non-opposable 5. Fore Gmibs are used | for, manipulation! win | pposable thumb, | thumb frasping tree branches. | mainly for stability on. the ground,earch od cians Ths co ct 19 causing the organisms eee xoutionary bes cote ert in the formation of new different THs Tact toms thowe found in exer esas sonar bu separate regions ‘ 1h America resembles the Camel of thought to have originated a Sol oj Assan aU ci chanmerica tro NoMa and leopard in Africa resemble 0 Mel sah America a aed monkey of Nrica resemble the long ‘! rooney of South Ameria. are ee ‘Wome. change rere Mats lan ada tee Dea he Uses ef Seah Avera ORGANISMS, 7 = This sles to the Aispeson/ distribution of Conganisms on wpe zxgrephic locations due to feographical isolation. ‘ Geographies! Astrfoatlon as, gvldence/impertance of copilneatsl drift, Alstetbutton, : .¥ Ne suvie ta tele "The theory of continental drt explains that ia the past the present day continents formed on€ large single land mass/pangea. The anizols migrated freely allover the land mass. ‘The land mass later broke up into parts which sited from one another forming the present day continents. A eee ace igving the OTRaniome utenary nes ration of new differen, these found in othes x event oa the fr sa resembles the Camel of tonic eater ae Bart enema te ' + ‘afr . Pasar te! Cas purl imAMcm resemtte at Mane Si to nro Neca resemble the long. a onsets Kens Wy Suse We agesee de eatin maphry en ered on be pital be i cer nd haa seals. (Iq = Larger to accommodate large stzed brain tn 2. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF CED rrimitumsd —- cristae iptv t tena eason forthe difference i, Serr bial ditsrtion as. rane GtAPhetl distribution, the vide eilnestal rit, ed to survive In thele ee The Uheory of continental dt explains that it~ Thogy aaatt al hot). t thicker fur were adi non eretlon for tnsulations te passed from parent to te past the present day continents formed one large single land mass/pangea. The aniaals- ‘migrated [reel all ver the land mass ‘The land mass later Uroke up into parts which drifted from one another forming the present day continents. a anne (© Samuel obar i imcroup age SST ee te een tance es val "Oise are diagrams representing development Sees of dillerentvertebentes D9 ) ©. J ® chicken human + =) State the evidence of evolution illustrated by the ‘vertebrates in the diagram. (Lik) ) ; Comparative embryo! _ 31 Suagest why the suvetire labeled J has been Pexeined thoughout the evotion a oh. mi) Siar bacrwieel Cd Snr Malis ext = loped used for propulstor/ 4. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY, = Anatomy is the study of srw ‘izadasitien/diferences betneen organisms = Some group of organisms show basi suctural sizailariles suggesting tat they have commen] related ancesty. 2 "When anatomical vtuctures show many ifterences they have less evolutionary fationship. = "There are three evidences under comparative anatomy namely: : ia) Divergent evolution. b) Convergent evolution ) Presence of vestigial organs. ) + This is a type of evolution where one basic ‘structural form is modified to give rise to various different forms. Sethe type of evolution where organisms with the ‘same embryonic origin become adapted to exploit Gifferent habitate/ 10 a diferent ecological niche in fa given habitat is called adaptive radlacion, 2 These organisms have homologous struct fomologous structures are structures with ‘similar/ common embryonie origin but modified to perform different functions. PPherefore organisms with homologous structures have the same embryonle orlgin, 4 tt Unis tthe Keats chat ene with five igitayingers. These fimby are mortified fetform dierent functions ¢ Up aeeet 0 ba rae pe rm 0 28 " W The fce tint of @ horse Is moriied foe running 1M) The forelinty of a whale/ turtle FY moked for wining {6} The foretinb of «tne for wating. ‘A Forelionh of human bs mortified foe grasping 1) Adaptations of beaks of birds to diferent feering mse 1) Short stout beaks for seed eaters, AW) Long slender beaks for nectar feeders AM) Large benkes for fruit eaters. Ie} Strong hooked beaks for flesh enters/ carnivorous birds. ¢) Adaptations/ modifications of foot structure is birds for,various functions and habitats ¢¢. 1) The webbed feet of ducks for swimming. M) Heavy feet of eagles for grasping and tearing rey It tn the family Diptera, the hind pair of wings’ are ‘modied into litle rods called halters, which serve ‘as organs that maintain balance during fight {o) The pericarp/ ovary wall becomes modified after ferlization of the ovules to asi in seed and fruit pers ‘Advantages/ie weegeat svolutlon/ adaptive radiation 4) It reduces competition of organisms for the available resources, Ui) It ead to formation of new species. ti) Organisms are able to occupy new habitats. Fig. Divergent evolution Water birds1) Daring a lesan, tents observed the struct 8 cat and human free fodleran wale sveltinary rtonahie Sate te nase gen f the rire of th iba dents, : logous structure. WW Name the ype of evolution illustrated by the * ‘Structure of the limbs observed, 2 anatomy. 01 State the significance of the type of evolution “Siusvated by the limbs. ~ Nllows organisms to exploit different 7 reduce competition. 2) The diagrams below illustrate some forms of beaks i birds. 4) Which disgram represents the beak fom which others are lcely to have evolved? a“ 1M) Explain your answer in (a) above. Beak M ts simpler/ basle/ orlginal hence kely to be original beak. The birds separated to occupy different niches and specialized for different dlets, This led to more compies/ developed beaks over time, CONVERGENT EVOLUTION, = This is a type of evolution where structures with yditresh coinyoae wis we woitel -rform similar fufictions. Pitnese organisms have analogous structure 2 Analogous structures are. structures with diterent embryonic origin but adapted to perform ‘similar functions. This is due to exploitation adapted (or Might. The wadner nucle while w exoskeleton trom too of mollusc #9. ammnals and thone of arthenpada/ iam ge cneneek (om. and stem of a plant enue tame neat pat hese wr fancy ge Pant of tnapakataton wing membrane () Inaoct wing ~voins Forpwing SS a © fRESLICE OE ESIOIAL STRUCTURES, “functional in the course of time and therefore fesse ors a eel 1 type, chan a dipsinn uncon in ‘man but in herbivores it is well developed and is. ee ia sala pee aes e Buea Peete a aes uae Guinten! ie En vous a ainn sad * Therefore, organisms with vestigial organs os lh rephediemneny Hal 5. CELL BIoLoGy, z, The cells of all higher organisms show basic ‘inularties in their structure and function henceate shown rae ew ORAS canis art ant ve SEIN trctures anche satan? stent anal geen ec wah CORSA arch eae pt a ESANN Meernoeetn sin eae SSS Show dierent ancestral git ” Re Bato as an eine of ena ‘resence of stot cell organelles aveechondets, eidovomes, iysoromes) allt Soteqtoal ehesatenls (ATP/Protetna/ DNAK Soentar Blood plemente ta Ulsvues of eons roUN ‘Sestonats show that they have common sastagenette ort, ‘\ COMPARATIVE SEROLOOY, Anadscs of Mot proteins and antigens reveal sseosenetc/ evetutionary relationships. amiss that are elosel related 0 ‘Dhow proveins. in ore sman serum is injected into a rabbit, the the serum will act ag antigens and 2 proteins, he blood with antibodies is drawn from rabbit and mixed with serum from other als antigen-antibody" ell" tke place Jeading to a precipitate/agglutination. greater the amount of, state/agelutination formed the closet the cesural relationship e.g. apes and chimpanzee duce a lot of precipitate due to antigen: Exsbody reaction hence closer evolutionary relancaship. 4 = Fig. Serological tests MECHANISM LUT! © The following theories explain how evolution occurred: ‘A. Lamarcl’s theory- Developed by Jean Baptise de ‘Lamarck in 1809. B. Charles Darwin's theory of natural selection. developed in 1859. A. LAMARCK’S THEORY. it is based on the following principles: L Use and disuse of structures—he proposed that when the environment demanded the need or use of fa particular structure in an organism, the organism developed that structure in response to the demand. fi, Acquired traits/eharacterisites are inherited- traits that are acquired by an individual during its lifetime were transmitted to their offspring and ‘Samuel obare_ rabSt will produce antibodies against > > ‘Wibsueat generations vewling i ton of new forme) species a Reawon why Lamare) ‘aber Characteriatice are determined by gene tonne in feprenctive cet ony Role of Lamareh's theory of evolution ST eaplaine the too teeing phenatyple han vat ties ta explain the ovewrtence of vestigial organs Examples A. Development of present day long necked guration frown short: necked! ancestral forme = Original, all giraffes fad shart necks and et on Ata and other short shuts When low growing plants became sentce, the giraen started to stretch {heir necks to reac taller planta aril feed on leaves {0 avold competition with other browsers Their necks stretched and became long and the tong ‘necked tralt wns panned on to the offapring 2. Appearance flightless birds €[Link], kiwi = The functlonleas wings resulted from theie disuse in an environment not requiring Might. ‘CUARLES DARWIN THEORY OF MATURAL, EL Watural selection Ia the process through which, nature selects those Individuals/ organixins ‘which are well adapted and allows them to survive and rejects those that are poorly adapted. Favorable/ advan characteristics are called adaptations. Explanation of natural selection theory: Tt ig observed that variations occur within ‘members of a population. These variations arise by ‘chance and from within the individual. = Through sexual reproduction these characteristics ‘are transmitted to offspring/ inherited. + Some of those variations offer en advantage to the individuals while others are disadvantageous. ‘The offspring outnumber the parents but oaly a {ew survive to adulthood and reproduce. This is due to environmental pressure eg. predation, diseases and competition for food and breeding’ sites. Therefore the numbers of population remain relatively constant. ‘This means that the members of the population are constanlly competing with each other in an effort to survive. This is called strugele for existence, = Tm the struggle for existence, individuals with ‘advantageous variations are well adapted to the environment. Since they are suited to the environment, they are selected hence survive and reproduce. Those that are poorly adapted perish and do not transmit their characteristics. This is called survival for the fMttest, vantages of natural selectlor 1. Elimination of disadvantageous trai characteristics and perpetuatio 2, etter adapted organis ‘adverse conditions in the dusted organisms are eliminated. rene scerenenannen ns tn emanatecompete terse, “Wo WehN arene Peer gee etien peeeen feemple ey + ne areca MIND FONG © Ge QE m nek lee, Th Sertet ewes were feet oe wav whe te coach high trwnchwen wtete nt her eee waned end ene ote of wertetion tn eretetien Vermtion art rem materials ft ephation i ¢ en pe are © seen mane Advastagrows varwtiont we felerted kr onl et hence tenamined tom ent generation to fe mest Owe a tong period ef time. variations the Popalation trade te emergence of new apecies, pence extorin, Sed end becume fete True about vanations fo species Some ef those varstone are faverable/ advantagnous making orpansme eurvive 1A servggie for exwtence. These erganiems repemduce and ass on the favorable mutations te the etepeing Miewse ade to new fecambmation and roaming over/eachange of genetc materials ot versions which are herediary/eheraed Study question, ¢ 8) Distinguish between stregele for existence ‘ang survival for the fittest. ‘Suniecle for existence, tend 10 ‘Tne 8 estuwton where organsems prature ‘more ofeprng ten the enmronment Son support hence Sey SUuEES 1 ex tian / GF BATES ay odeen To im the struggle far food, breeding sites, mates, strugeir agunst predaton, diseases. Survival forthe Gee als with Ths = 6 afuaten . eraniageons wats) coarser ( srewve and seuch Tepe pase the wats 19 she young once oe Yer poorly adapied die young and are eoenishst PY eee 1 Maucowe Stee NATURAL SELECTION 1 ACTION A Tha prpuced meth Bustos larlallndustrlal melanism inte ee at tas enh ar of two type peckled white and black melanic = efore industrial revolution, the white speckied form was well camouflaged against tee trunies ‘ath samiar pattern and colouration. ~ The white speckled moths/ forms were not easily seen and eaten by predatory birds hence they Population increased while the melanic forms were easily seen and eaten by predatory birds hence ‘their population decreased in population « Therefore the white colour was an advantageous characteristcs/ tait/ adaptation hence it way transmitted to the offspring leading to increase ‘number/ population. + AMter industiaization the tree trunks wag darkened by soot, This caused the melanic forms te blend well/ camouflage well with the background than he ae forms, 2 Ths led to increase in population of melanie forms While the lighter forms were easily seen and eae by predatory leading to decrease in populares: Therefore dark colour became an advantageans characeritic/ wait/ adaptation which was posse to the offspring anes © Samuel obareee ee ee entramentien © Seemeamen U8 rman, pevtletden and eeematten A toot poereeteg are chemealt © S9erO4 At Fete rrapec eel Frreiation ene iostvhoale poanens Fremmanee ee accpune it INEaGN 1 Soreve the chemical Cet Wanemat hie characteriate 2% themmale to thew ofepring th 8 25 population ef resistance forsee “eee of MAN 8 or # to cure bacterial d have a gene wi newer an enevme against Sos mongustoat hence making DDT meter hich make thers DOT fan insectcnle hg wach insects om wrains of pathogens 3. Some srains of fer tuberculosis that muses TB have developed tesstance tea smmonly used anubioucs against TH ‘Thos has made it dificult to cute and eradicate TO s= the population. This is because the mutant ‘eccena Ive long, reproduce and multiply, 4. The tuck population has diferent suains, Some crams have a gene that makes them neutralue the eBiects ef ecancide, ‘Thes gives them a selective advantage which enables stores to survive, reproduce and transmit the gene shew offspring. Overtime, the population of the resmstant strain increases, ©. Sickle cell tralt. there is high frequency ofthis stent gene in places where malaria incidences is “e bas an advantage because undiduals have natural immunity against malaria because plasmodsum parasite does not survive well in sickle celed red blood cells. ‘© Samuel cbaro rears. tien units the Nologteat signineunce cemtatog «dase of \ LA 2, otter te Sil the target pathogens © Stee fetes to te tat dy panne SD POETUAIEY ta donelon eomtane FaPGrY veareN GONG Fa tn Whe Arg horse mattoctive tequirs 4 hemah 1 gration af a Serene) et shave Frm thew for 4 new HWE oatabhahed emanens emerges Vara leant ge wih ate Wing semniane an ne femvageona ngewe sarcariony enahte “hey etter eephoit the envieanment Nene eraAniNON aE OH MARIE FepMtGe® goamng benefical exeiatinns w offen gs vem 112 leo meine tami8 with dieaetvantageonee less avtapted anid theretore noe the cnvitonment Therefare are wot gna grow reproduce and char wterisths hence they are chommaet For example, some strum of glasmentiom sparasten have a gene that sake nee then {esitant 19 some antibactertat drags Ss snoce Strains surcive, reproduce and tranam ope ene tothe offspring + This drug the sang without the gene for resistance are eliminannt by the antimalarial drag and do nat eirvive oo teproduce TWs way, natural selection stows ulvantageous variations % propagate, shir disadvantageous variations are eliminated 4. Explain how the process of evolution may 4 to formation of a new spectos/adaptation of species to the environment, « Organisms that give rise to new offsprings nil abvays produce offsprings which outnumber hee Parents; the offspringa will have many varvations: whieh arise from genetically inherited matertal, or ‘mutation; these variations are ewher advantageous, ‘oF clisadvantageous to the offspring, + ln the environment there are seatce resources + 4 sunlight, oxygen, water and the sindividtal we? ‘compete for these scarce resources, + Individual with avlvantageous traits) varvat wil compete/ struggle better for the rewutres, surewe to reproductive maturity awd pasa its he advantageous (rast to the young unr ah. gs etter adapted to the environment,en eeweee tr enerd accumalatinn ef Srearehn ahegen 2 atone nee persons ee sated te ereroneral te ecru ater East eran nye SE oe an pore) pe sane eet, 3/trople responses * feq@tstettopiom. thie is growth’ curvature = Te jostle a ent en ote Ce nar ous rath produces @ change ‘ye ahe whole organiern of ea lmwalt condition in the trees, rounding of the shale. apgett Face change in the actviey oF : seh Fegan & tem FaTUTE hash » fe eft tra at cncentrotn Povial pram. . slew coeition i the es, 4, mate leetrouning ef the celled sexy tnnfgces # change iO th actiity of pare 2 fre teceania €f Accumulation “of ieee, ei dari ont farastes, ehanges in temperature and ‘ge Soirtprnen enanee i on scorn f an organ: save. change in an activity 0 oa set tab Responsiveness) aay of tn organism to detect ana tespond hanges in the environment] stimulus Mr necepors =parts of the body Yehich receie us, Taliep ote by shch ng se. $a This Oe wrtng unree dierent parts of the body in an orderly seer wing about better performance of phynsloces physical or metabolic actions of the boy Vaneence presence of predators densi ‘Tepes of responses . A Tropisms/tropic responses /movements. ‘Taxis/tactic responses/movements. ©. Nastisms/nastic responses/movements. 4. TROPIC RESPONSES/ TROPISMS. jgiPtism fefers to a growth curvature in response Repcitiditectional external stimulus. — {xPenees are controled by ausaa hence ther oe ‘nual slow. paeiomh tesponse towards a stimulus is cal Be aHte topism while growth reeponae away fe ‘Re stimulus is called negative trsotons, qrats® to unidirectional light. tows rowth towards light is called positive Phototropism e ‘B. shoots are positively aegtOPic. Growth avray fro light is called ne Phototropiam e.g roots are negatively Shototropi espoeenattenlaias this is a growth curvature 7 pupesSe to chemical concentration e.g. growth # tmbyg YEE towards chemical secreed ye hence is se to canted Shemotrpig, NEBEE it is sald to be. po opi troplam: this is growth tyes ln Fesponse to gravity ¢ . Toot Upaypiales are positively geotroree while shoot 4s Tyg tWles are negatively georepie a pons this ig growth curvature Ydrotropie, YStet/ moisture e.g, roots are pos tes) hy