Primitives and integrals

1 Subdivisions and Darboux Sums

Definition 1 Let n ∈ N∗ . An n-th order subdivision of an interval [a, b] is a finite set l =
{x0 , x1 , · · · , xn } ⊂ [a, b], such that
a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b.
We called the step of the subdivision l the real number h = max (xi − xi−1 ).
1≤i≤n
We say that h is the uniform step of the subdivision when xi = x0 + ih, i = 1 · · · n with
b−a
h= ·
n
Example 1 In this example, we provide some subdivisions of the interval [0, 1] :
1 1 1 3 1 2 2 1 5
l1 = {0, , 1}, l2 = {0, , , , 1}, l3 = {0, , , 1}, l4 = {0, , , , 1}.
2 4 2 4 3 3 5 2 6
1 1 1
l1 , l2 , and l3 are uniform with steps of h1 = , h2 = and h3 = · In contrast, l4 is not
2 4 3
2
uniform and has a step of h4 = ·
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1.1 Darboux Sums

Let f be a bounded function on [a, b]. We consider a subdivision l of [a, b] denoted as:
l = {a = x0 < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b}.
For i = 1, · · · n, we define
mi = inf f (x) and Mi = sup f (x).
x∈[xi−1 ,xi ] x∈[xi−1 ,xi ]

Definition 2 The lower Darboux Sum associated with f is given by:

n
X
s[a,b] (f, l) = mi (xi − xi−1 ).
i=1

The upper Darboux Sum associated with f is given by:

n
X
S[a,b] (f, l) = Mi (xi − xi−1 ).
i=1

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1 SUBDIVISIONS AND DARBOUX SUMS

Remark 1 The two quantities S(f, l) and s(f, l) are finite, because supx∈[xi−1 ,xi ] and inf x∈[xi−1 ,xi ]
are finite real numbers since f is assumed to be bounded. Furthermore, s(f, l) ≤ S(f, l) because
inf x∈[xi−1 ,xi ] ≤ supx∈[xi−1 ,xi ] .
Geometric Interpritation: The upper (respectively, lower) Darboux sum is the sum of the
areas of the upper rectangles with base [xi−1 − xi ] (respectively, the lower rectangles).

1.2 Riemann-integrable function

Definition 3 An integral is a mathematical operation that, given a function, finds the area
under the curve of that function over a specified interval.

Definition 4 Let f be a bounded function on [a, b]. We say that f is Riemann-integrable (or
integrable in the Riemann sense) on [a, b] if

s(f, l) = S(f, l).

Z b
This value is denoted by f (x)dx, which represents the integral of f over the interval [a, b].
a

Theorem 1

1. Every continuous function on a segment [a, b] ⊂ R is Riemann-integrable on [a, b].

2. If f is Riemann-integrable on [a, b] (with a < b), then f is also Riemann-integrable on

[a, b] and we have:
Z b Z b
f (x)dx ≤ |f (x)|dx.
a a

This inequality is a consequence of the absolute value inequality for integrals.

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2 PRIMITIVE FUNCTIONS

1.2.1 Properties of the Riemann Integral

Let f and g be two bounded and integrable functions on an interval [a, b]. The following
properties hold:

1. Positivity: If f ≥ 0 on [a, b], then

Z b
f (x)dx ≥ 0.
a

2. Monotonicity: If f ≤ g on [a, b], then

Z b Z b
f (x)dx ≥ g(x)dx.
a a

3. Linearity:
Z b  Z b Z b
αf (x) + βg(x) dx = α f (x)dx + β g(x)dx, ∀(α, β) ∈ R2 .
a a a

2 Primitive functions
Let’s assume that I ⊂ R is an interval.

Definition 5 Let f : I → R. A primitive of f is a derivative function F : I → R, such that

F 0 (x) = f (x), ∀ x ∈ I.

Theorem 2 Every continuous function on I admits primitives on I.

Remark 2 If a function f admits a primitive, that primitive is not unique.

Proposition 1 If F is a primitive of f on I then, the function G : I → R is also a primitive

of f if and only if F − G = c, where c ∈ R is a constant.

Example 2 The function f : I → R defined by f (x) = x3 has as a primitive the function

1 1
F (x) = x4 , also G(x) = x4 + 5 is a primitive of f because F (x) − G(x) = c = −5 ∈ R.
4 4

2.1 Primitive function at a point

Theorem 3 Let f be a continuous function on I, x0 ∈ I and y0 ∈ R. Then, there exists a
primitive F of f , only one, such that F (x0 ) = y0 .
Geometric interpretation: Among all the curve presenting the premitives of f on I, there
exists one and only one passing through the point (x0 , y0 ).

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2 PRIMITIVE FUNCTIONS

Example 3 Let f be a function defined on R by:

f (x) = x2 − 3x + 2.

Determine the primitive F of f on R which vanishes at the point x0 = 1.

Indeed: The set of primitive functions of f has the form:

x3 3 2
F (x) = − x + 2x + c, c ∈ R.
3 2
The condition F (1) = 0, gives
1 3 5
F (1) = − + 2 + c = 0 ⇐⇒ c = − ·
3 2 6
Then, the only primitive function of f at the point x0 = 1 is given by:

x3 3 2 5
F (x) = − x + 2x − ·
3 2 6

2.2 Primitive functions of elementary functions

In the following table, u is a derivable function on I.

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2 PRIMITIVE FUNCTIONS

2.3 Operations on primitive functions

Let f and g be two derivable functions on I, with c ∈ R is a constant.

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3 INTEGRALS

Example 4 Determine the primitive of the function: f (x) = x(1 + x2 )3 on R.

1
Indeed: The function f is continuous on R and has the form: f (x) = u0 (x)u3 (x), where
2
2 0 1 2 4
u(x) = 1 + x and u (x) = 2x. Then: F (x) = (1 + x ) + c, where c ∈ R.
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3 Integrals
Definition 6 Let f be a function defined on I and F its primitive and a, b ∈ I. The quantity
F (b) − F (a) (also noted by [F (x)]ba ) is the integral of f between a and b and we note:
Z b
F (x) = f (x)dx.
a

Attention:

1. The order of a and b in the integral is very important.

2. The number a is the lowest upper bound and b is the highest upper bound of the integral:
Z b
f (x)dx = [F (x)]ba = F (b) − F (a).
a

3. The result of calculating the integral dosen’t depend on the chosen primitive.
Indeed: If F1 and F2 are two primitives of f , then F1 = F2 +c, where c ∈ R is a constant.
Then,

[F1 (x)]ba = [F2 (x) + c]ba = F2 (b) + c − F2 (a) − c = F2 (b) − F2 (a) = [F2 (x)]ba .

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3 INTEGRALS

Example 5
Z 2
1. Calculate the integral: (2x2 + 3)dx.
−1
2
Let f (x) = (2x +3) which is a continuous function on [−1, 2]. Then, F (x) = x3 +3x+c
2
3
is the primitive of f on [−1, 2]. Therefore,
Z 2 h2 i2
(2x2 + 3)dx = F (2) − F (−1) = x3 + 3x = 15.
−1 3 −1

Z
1 3
2. (cos 4x − 3 sin 2x + cos x)dx = sin 4x + cos 2x + sin x + c, c ∈ R.
4 2

Theorem 4 Consider the continuous function F : [a, b] → R which admits a continuous

derivative function on [a, b]. Then,
Z b
F 0 (x)dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

Theorem 5 Consider the continuous function f : [a, b] → R. Then, for all x ∈]a, b[, we have
Z x
d
f (x)dt = f (x).
dx a

Proposition 2 Let f and g be two integrable functions on [a, b]. We have,

Z b  Z b Z b
1. f (x) + g(x) dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx.
a a a
Z b Z b
2. λf (x)dx = λ f (x)dx, where λ ∈ R.
a a
Z a
3. f (x)dx = 0.
a
Z b Z a
4. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx.
a b
Z b Z c Z b
5. f (x)dx = f (x)dx + f (x)dx, ∀c ∈ [a, b].
a a c

3.1 Integrals and area

Let (C) be the representative curve of the function f in an orthogonal reference form. D is
the region bounded by (C), the abscissa axis and the equation lines x = a and x = b.
The unit of area is the area of the rectangle framed by the chosen coordinate system.

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3 INTEGRALS

Theorem 6
Z b
1. Positive function: If f is a positive continuous function on [a, b], then D = f (x)dx.
a

2. Negative function: If f is a negative continuous function on [a, b], then

Z b Z a
D=− f (x)dx = f (x)dx.
a b

3. Function for any sign: If f is a continuous function with any sign on [a, b], then
Z b Z c Z d Z b
D= f (x)dx = f (x)dx − f (x)dx + f (x)dx.
a a c d

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3 INTEGRALS

3.2 The integral calculation

In this subsection, we will present 3 methods to calculate the integrals.
u0
(a) Direct Integral: This concerns integrals of functions of the form u0 un , n , · · · where u
u
is a function whose primitive is known.

Example 6 Z 3
xdx h√ i3 √ √
√ = 2
x + 1 = 10 − 5.
2 x2 + 1 2

(b) Integration by parts: it is a technique in calculus that allows you to find the integral
of the product of two functions by applying a specific formula derived from the product
rule for differentiation.
The formula for integration by parts is often written as:
Z Z
u(x)v (x)dx = u(x)v(x) − u0 (x)v(x)dx.
0

Or, Z b h ib Z b
0
u(x)v (x)dx = u(x)v(x) − u0 (x)v(x)dx.
a a a

Example 7
Z
1. I = xex dx. Let
u = x ⇒ u0 = 1 dx
v 0 = ex dx ⇒ v = ex .
Then, Z
x
I = xe − ex dx = xex − ex + c = (x − 1)ex + c.

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3 INTEGRALS
Z 2
2. I = ln x dx. Let
1
1
u = ln x ⇒ u0 = dx
x
v 0 = dx ⇒ v = x.
Then,
i2 Z 2
h x
I = x ln x − dx = −2 ln(2) − [x]21 = −2 ln(2) + 1.
1 1 x

(c) The variable change method: it is a technique used in calculation to simplify and
solve integrals by moking a change of variable. This method is particularly useful when
dealing with complex integrals or when the integral involves a composite function. The
general idea is to replace the variable of integration with a new variable that simplifies
the integral.

Theorem 7 Let g : [c, d] → R a continuous differentiable function and strictly mono-

tonic. Suppose that g([c, d]) = [a, b]. For all f : [a, b] → R, we have
Z b Z d
f (x)dx = f (g(t))g 0 (t)dt.
a c

Example 8
Z 2
dx
1. I = . Put:
1 ex + e−x
u(x) = ex ⇒ du = ex dx.
On the other hand,

x=1⇒u=e and x = 2 ⇒ u = e2 .

Thus,
Z e2
du 2
I= 2
= [arctan]ee = arctan(e) − arctan(e2 ).
e u +1
Z √
2. I = 1 − x2 dx. Put:
x = sin t ⇒ dx = cos tdt.

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3 INTEGRALS

Then,
Z p Z Z
2 2
I = 1 − sin t cos tdt = cos tdt = (cos(2t) + 1)dt
Z Z
1
= 2 cos(2t)dt + dt
2
1
= sin(2t) + t + c
2
1
= sin t cos t + t + c
2
1 p
= sin t 1 − sin2 t + t + c
2
1 √
= x 1 − x2 + arcsin x + c.
2

Dr. Kicha Abir

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