Module 1:
IoT Fundamentals
[Link] Renold, SCOPE,VIT Chennai
Definition of IoT
• A dynamic global network infrastructure with self-configuring
capabilities based on standard and interoperable communication
protocols where physical and virtual ‘things’ have identities,
physical attributes, and virtual personalities and use intelligent
interfaces, and are seamlessly integrated into the information
network, often communicate data associated with users and
their environments.
• Internet of things (IoT) describes devices with sensors,
processing ability, software and other technologies that connect
and exchange data with other devices and systems over
the Internet or other communication networks.
Characteristics of IoT
Dynamic & Self-Adapting
• IoT devices and systems can adjust their operations dynamically
based on changing conditions, user preferences, or environmental
factors.
Self-Configuring
• Definition: IoT devices have the ability to automatically set
themselves up and configure their settings to work within a network.
Interoperable Communication Protocols
• IoT devices can communicate with each other using a variety of
interoperable protocols and infrastructure.
Unique Identity
• Definition: Each IoT device has a unique identifier (e.g., IP address)
and intelligent interfaces to interact with users, environments, and
other devices.
• Integrated into Information Network:
• IoT devices are usually integrated into the information network that
allows them to communicate and exchange data with other devices
and systems. IoT devices can be dynamically discovered in the
network, by other devices and/or the network, and have the
capability to describe themselves (and their characteristics) to other
devices or user applications.
Evolution of IoT from M2M
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) and Internet of Things (IoT) are closely
related technologies.
• M2M is often considered the predecessor of IoT.
• Both involve devices communicating with each other, but IoT builds on
M2M with broader scope, scalability, and intelligence.
Difference between IoT & M2M
Impact of IoT on Businesses and
Society
a. Operational Efficiency
• Real-time Monitoring: Businesses can track assets, inventory, and
equipment in real time.
• Predictive Maintenance: IoT-enabled machines alert operators
before breakdowns, reducing downtime.
• Process Automation: IoT allows automated control of systems in
manufacturing, logistics, and service delivery.
b. Improved Decision-Making
• Data-Driven Insights: IoT devices generate vast amounts of data that
fuel analytics and AI.
• Faster Response Times: Businesses can react quickly to market or
operational changes.
c. Cost Reduction
• Energy Efficiency: Smart lighting and HVAC systems reduce utility
bills.
• Resource Optimization: IoT helps reduce waste in supply chains and
logistics.
Impact on Society
a. Smart Cities
• Traffic Management: IoT sensors control traffic lights and monitor
congestion.
• Waste Management: Smart bins notify authorities when they’re full.
• Public Safety: Surveillance systems and emergency response devices
enhance security.
b. Healthcare (IoMT – Internet of Medical Things)
• Remote Monitoring: Patients can be monitored from home using
wearable sensors.
• Early Diagnosis: Devices collect data that help in predicting and
preventing diseases.
• Elderly Care: Fall detectors and medication reminders improve senior
citizens' independence.
c. Environment and Sustainability
• Air and Water Quality Monitoring: Sensors detect pollution and
trigger corrective actions.
• Precision Agriculture: Farmers use IoT for optimal water and fertilizer
usage.
• Energy Grids: Smart meters and grids enable better energy
distribution and reduced carbon footprint.
• Challenges and Considerations
• Privacy and Security: IoT devices collect sensitive data, raising
concerns about misuse.
• Interoperability: Different devices and platforms must work
seamlessly together.
• Digital Divide: Unequal access to IoT benefits may widen the gap
between different socio-economic groups.
Things in IoT
A Thing is a physical smart object that connects to an IoT network. It's
not just any device — it's one that can:
• Sense its environment
• Process and filter data
• Communicate with other devices
• Take action based on received or sensed information
Core Components of a “Thing”
Sensor
• Purpose: Detects physical phenomena (e.g., temperature, light,
pressure).
Transducer
• Purpose: Converts a physical input (e.g., heat) into an electrical
signal.
Microcontroller
• Purpose: Acts like the brain. It processes and filters data from
sensors before sending or acting on it.
Transceiver (Transmitter + Receiver)
• Purpose: Sends and receives data to/from other devices or the cloud.
Actuator
• Purpose: Performs a physical action based on a signal (usually from
the microcontroller).
Thermocouple
•Made by joining two different metals at one end.
•When the junctions are at different temperatures,
a voltage is produced (Seebeck effect).
•Needs no external power (self-generating).
•Temperature Range: 260°C to 2300°C
•Key Feature: Wide temperature range and high sensitivity.
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector)
Resistance Element: The core of an RTD is a resistive element, typically made from
pure metals like platinum, nickel, or copper. The resistance of this element varies with
temperature, which is the basis for temperature measurement
Electrical Current: When an electrical current passes through the RTD, the resistance
of the metal changes in response to temperature variations. This change in resistance
is measured in Ohms
Measurement: The resistance value is then converted into a temperature reading using
known calibration curves. The relationship between resistance and temperature is
generally linear for small temperature ranges, particularly in platinum RTDs
Wiring Configurations: RTDs can come in different wiring configurations, including 2-
wire, 3-wire, and 4-wire setups. The 3-wire and 4-wire configurations are commonly
used to minimize the effects of lead resistance, ensuring more accurate temperature
readings. •Passive component — needs a power supply.
•Temperature Range: −200°C to 600°C
•Key Feature: High accuracy and good stability.
Thermistor
•A resistor whose resistance changes non-linearly with temperature.
•Two types:
•NTC (Negative Temperature Coefficient): Resistance decreases as temperature increases.
•PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient): Resistance increases with temperature.
•Temperature Range: −100°C to 500°C
•Key Feature: Fast response, good for moderate temperature ranges.
•Used in: Medical devices, home appliances, batteries.
Semiconductor Temperature Sensor
• Semiconductor temperature sensors operate based on the band-gap
energy of semiconductor materials and the behavior of diode junctions. As
temperature changes, the voltage across a diode junction varies, which can
be measured to determine the temperature.
• The band-gap energy refers to the energy difference between the valence
band and the conduction band in a semiconductor. As temperature
increases, more electrons gain enough energy to jump from the valence
band to the conduction band, altering the material's conductivity
Pressure Sensor
• Pressure is defined as the force applied per unit area.
• Piezoelectric materials generate an electric charge when
mechanical stress (like pressure) is applied. This means that when
pressure is exerted on a piezoelectric sensor, it deforms slightly,
producing an electrical signal proportional to the amount of
pressure applied.
• This property makes piezoelectric sensors particularly suitable
for dynamic pressure measurements,
Task:
Design a smart greenhouse that uses IoT to monitor and automate plant
care. Your system must meet the following specific requirements, each with
known operational sensing ranges. Based on this, choose the most
suitable type of sensor for each task and briefly explain why.
Sensor Characteristics
Accuracy
Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true or actual value.
For instance, if the actual temperature is 98 degrees Celsius and a sensor
consistently measures it as 98 degrees, it is considered both accurate and
precise. However, if the sensor measures 95 degrees Celsius, it has low
accuracy despite potentially being precise if it consistently measures 95
degrees under the same conditions
• Precision deals with the repeatability and reproducibility of
measurements. A precise sensor will yield similar results under the
same conditions, even if those results are not close to the true value.
For example, if multiple measurements of a constant temperature
yield values like 95.1, 95.2, and 95.0 degrees Celsius, the sensor is
precise but not necessarily accurate.
Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of the change in output to the change
in input. It indicates how responsive a sensor is to changes in the
measured variable. A highly sensitive sensor will detect small changes
in input, which is essential for applications requiring fine
measurements.
• The threshold is the minimum input level at which a sensor can
detect a change in output. This characteristic is crucial for ensuring
that the sensor can respond to relevant changes in the environment
• Resolution, on the other hand, refers to the smallest change in input
that can be detected by the sensor once the threshold has been
surpassed. It indicates how finely the sensor can measure changes.
Actuator
• The actuator receives the control signal and interprets it. Depending on its
type, it converts the electrical signal into mechanical motion.
• Electric Actuators: These convert electrical energy into mechanical
motion, often using motors. They are widely used in applications
requiring precise control, such as robotics and smart home devices.
• Hydraulic Actuators: These use hydraulic fluid to create motion. They
are capable of generating significant force and are commonly used in
heavy machinery and industrial applications.
• Pneumatic Actuators: These operate using compressed air or gas.
They are often used in environments where electrical hazards exist
and are known for their quick response times.
What is an IPv4 Address?
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit logical address that uniquely identifies
the connection of a device (host or router) to the Internet.
• It is important to note that the IPv4 address identifies the connection,
not the device itself. This means:
• If a device moves to a different network, its IP address will change.
• If a device has multiple connections to the Internet (e.g., through
two networks), it will have multiple IPv4 addresses.
[Link] Notation:
•The address is displayed as 32 bits (e.g., 11000000 10101000 00000001 00000001).
•Each group of 8 bits is called an octet or byte.
[Link]-Decimal Notation:
•To make the address more readable, it is written in decimal form, with dots separating the octets
(e.g., [Link]).
•Each octet is a number between 0 and 255 (since 8 bits can represent values from 0 to 255).
[Link] Notation:
•Each hexadecimal digit represents 4 bits, so a 32-bit address has 8 hexadecimal digits
(e.g., C0A8:0101).
•This notation is often used in network programming.
IPv4 address is divided into two parts:
1. Prefix: Identifies the network to which the device is connected.
[Link]: Identifies the specific device (node) within that network.
Classful Addressing
• It divided the entire IPv4 address space into five classes (A, B, C, D, and E),
each designed to accommodate networks of different sizes.
• This system was introduced to simplify IP address allocation but was later
replaced by Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) due to its inefficiencies and
lack of flexibility
Classless Addressing
• Classful addressing (Class A, B, C) wasted a significant portion of the
IPv4 address space because it allocated fixed-size blocks of addresses,
regardless of an organization's actual needs.
• For example, a small organization might receive a Class B block (65,536
addresses) even if it only needed a few hundred, leaving most of the
addresses unused.
• Classless addressing removes the rigid boundaries of classful addressing
(Class A, B, C) and allows for variable-length subnet masks (VLSM). This
means: IP address blocks are no longer tied to fixed sizes (e.g., /8, /16,
/24).
• Organizations can be assigned blocks of addresses that match their
specific needs, such as 2, 4, 8, 16, or more addresses.
•Classless addressing uses CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) notation to
specify the prefix length.
•Example:
• [Link]/18 means the first 18 bits are the network portion, and the
remaining 14 bits are for hosts.
For the block [Link]/18, determine the start and end address
• To avoid fragmentation and ensure efficient use of the address space,
larger subnets should be assigned addresses before smaller subnets.
• An organization is granted the block [Link]/24 (256 addresses).
The organization wants to divide this block into smaller subnets for
different departments.
• Department A needs 64 addresses.
• Department B needs 32 addresses.
• Department C needs 16 addresses.
• Department D needs 8 addresses.
Calculate Subnet Masks
Representation of IPv6
• An IPv6 address is 128 bits long and is written as a string
of hexadecimal digits
• The address is divided into eight groups of 16 bits each, with each
group represented by four hexadecimal digits (16 bits = 4 hex digits)
• These groups are separated by colons (:), resulting in the format:
x:x:x:x:x:x:x:x, where each x represents a 16-bit hexadecimal value.
Link-State (LS) Routing Algorithm
• The Link-State Routing Algorithm is a dynamic routing algorithm used
in computer networks to determine the most efficient paths for data
packets to travel between nodes. It is based on the principle of global
knowledge of the network, where each router has a complete map of
the network topology and uses this information to compute the
shortest paths to all other nodes.
Example:
Try
Performance Metrics
Performance Metrics
• Processing Time: This is the amount of time needed for examining the
packet header, determining the next stop, and checking bit-level
errors.
• Queuing Time: It is defined as the amount of waiting time needed
before transmission. It depends on the number of packets that are
already in the queue. If the queue is empty then queuing time is zero.
• Transmission Time: The amount of time required for transmitting all
the packets bits onto the communication link.
• Propagation Time: The amount of time required for bits to travel be
tween the source and destination.
Communication Model
• Server (IoT Backend or Gateway)
• Role: Acts as a central controller or processor.
• Functions:
• Receives the request from the client.
• Processes the request (e.g., verifying, logging, parsing).
• Fetches resources (e.g., retrieving stored data or real-time sensor values).
• Prepares a response based on the processed data.
• Sends the response back to the client.
Publish Subscribe
• Publisher
• Role: Sends messages without knowing who will receive them.
• Function:
• Publishes messages to specific topics (e.g., topic1, topic2).
• Doesn't directly communicate with consumers (subscribers).
Broker
•Role: Acts as an intermediary that handles all message routing.
•Functions:
•Receives messages from publishers.
•Routes them to appropriate consumers based on the topic.
•Maintains a list of which consumers are subscribed to which topics.
•Example Topics:
•Topic-1 → subscribed by Consumer1 and Consumer2
•Topic-2 → subscribed by Consumer3
Push-pull
• Publisher:
• Acts as the data producer.
• In IoT, this could be a sensor device, edge gateway, or smart camera.
• It pushes messages (like sensor readings or event data) into message
queues.
• Queues:
• Intermediate buffer storage.
• Temporarily holds the messages pushed by publishers until
consumers are ready to process them.
• Ensures decoupling between producers and consumers (they don't
have to be active at the same time).
• Consumers (Consumer-1, Consumer-2):
• These are data processing units or analytics engines.
• In an IoT system, they could be cloud services, mobile apps, or
actuators.
• They pull messages from the queue when they are ready to process
them.
• This pull mechanism allows better load balancing and scalability.
Exclusive Pair Model
• Bi-directional Communication
• Both parties — client and server — can send and receive messages.
• Communication flows both ways simultaneously (i.e., full-duplex).
• Persistent Connection
• A dedicated, long-lived connection is established between the client
and the server.
• Once established, this connection remains open until the client
requests it to be closed.
•One-to-one relationship between sender and receiver.
•No intermediaries like brokers or message queues (unlike publish-subscribe models).
•Low latency since communication is direct.
•Often uses custom or proprietary protocols over short-range links like Bluetooth, Zigbee, or direct Wi-Fi.
IoT Communication API
• An IoT Communication API (Application Programming Interface) is a set
of software interfaces and protocols that enable devices, applications,
and platforms in the Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystem to exchange
data efficiently and securely.
• REST-aware HTTP Client: This is the device or application initiating
the request to the REST API. In IoT, this could be a sensor, a smart
device, or an application that needs to interact with a server.
• It sends HTTP requests using methods like GET, POST, PUT, or DELETE
to perform operations (e.g., retrieve data, send data, update, or
delete resources).
• HTTP Packet: This represents the data being transmitted between the
client and server. It contains:
• HTTP Command: The method used (GET, POST, PUT, DELETE) to specify the
action.
• REST Payload: The data format, such as JSON or XML, which carries the actual
information (e.g., sensor readings in JSON format).
• HTTP Server: The server hosts the RESTful web service, which
processes the HTTP requests from the client.
• It interprets the HTTP method and payload, performs the requested
action, and responds accordingly.
• The server also handles Authorization to ensure the client has
permission to access or modify resources.
• Resources (URI - Uniform Resource Identifier): Resources are the
data or services the API exposes, identified by URIs (e.g.,
[Link]
• In IoT, a resource could represent a specific device, a sensor reading,
or a control endpoint (e.g., turning a device on/off).
• RESTful Web Service: This is the core of the API, running on the HTTP
server. It follows REST principles (stateless, resource-based, using
standard HTTP methods) to manage interactions between the client
and resources.
WebSocket API
IoT World Forum (IoTWF) Standardised
Architecture
• Seven-layer reference model developed in 2014 by a committee
led by Cisco, IBM, and Intel, among others, to provide a structured
framework for designing and implementing IoT (Internet of Things)
systems.
• Physical Devices and Controllers (Layer 1): Function:
This layer consists of the "things" in IoT—physical
devices like sensors, actuators, and controllers that
interact with the environment. These devices collect
data (e.g., temperature, motion) or perform actions
(e.g., turning on a motor).
• Role in IoT: Generates data and can be queried or
controlled over a network.
• Example: A temperature sensor in a smart
thermostat.
• Connectivity (Layer 2): Function: Focuses on reliable communication
between devices and the network. It handles data transmission,
protocol conversion, and network connectivity using technologies like
Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, or cellular networks.
• Role in IoT: Ensures data moves securely and efficiently between
devices and higher layers.
• Example: A gateway in a smart home that connects the thermostat to
the internet via Wi-Fi.
• Edge Computing (Layer 3): Function: Performs data processing at the
edge (close to the devices) to reduce latency and bandwidth usage.
This includes data filtering, aggregation, and transformation before
sending it to the cloud.
• Role in IoT: Enables real-time decision-making and reduces the load
on central servers.
• Example: A local hub in a smart home analyzing temperature data to
decide whether to adjust the thermostat.
• Data Accumulation (Layer 4): Function: Stores data received from the
edge for further processing. This layer acts as a buffer, converting
event-based data into query-ready formats for higher layers.
• Role in IoT: Manages the volume, velocity, and variety of IoT data,
often using databases or data lakes.
• Example: A cloud database storing historical temperature readings
from the thermostat.
• Data Abstraction (Layer 5): Function: Processes and abstracts data to
make it usable for applications. This includes data normalization,
aggregation, and integration from multiple sources.
• Application (Layer 6): Function: Hosts applications that analyze data
and provide actionable insights or control mechanisms. This layer
interacts with users through interfaces like mobile apps or
dashboards.
• Role in IoT: Delivers value to users by enabling monitoring, control,
and analytics.
• Example: A mobile app showing the user the current home
temperature and allowing them to adjust it.
• Collaboration and Processes (Layer 7): Function: Involves people and
business processes, enabling collaboration and decision-making
based on IoT data. This layer integrates IoT into broader business
workflows.
• Role in IoT: Ensures IoT data drives business outcomes and user
engagement.
• Example: The thermostat app sending a notification to the user’s
energy provider for a discount if energy usage is optimized.