Introduction

Geology is mainly about understanding Earth through time. The passage of the time and its
events (small and large) and intervals (short and long) are recorded in Earth’s rocks, especially in
layered rock sequences. These rocks contain different signals (rock type, fossils, magnetic and
chemical clues) that tell us Earth’s history.
By studying them, scientists discovered that Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. Stratigraphy
helps organize and analyze these rock layers, while chronostratigraphy and geochronology focus
directly on how rocks relate to time.
Geochronology is the science of dating and determining the time sequence of events in the
history of the Earth, rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the materials
themselves. Commonly it expresses the timing or “commonly absolute” age of events
(depositional, diagenetic, biotic, climatic, tectonic, magmatic) in Earth’s history (e.g., Hirnantian
glaciation, Famennian-Frasnian mass extinction). It can be relative or absolute geochronology.
The absolute one refers to all methods of numerical dating, which means that the geochronologic
units are “intangible” time units. Geochronology it include techniques like Radiometric Dating
(e.g., U,Th-Pb, K-Ar or Rb-Sr), Luminescence Dating (Measures the amount of light emitted
from minerals when they are heated or exposed to sunlight, which resets the "clock" on the
minerals), Fission Track Dating (By counting the tracks left by the spontaneous fission of U-238
atoms. This method provides insights into the thermal history of minerals like apatite),
Paleomagnetic dating, Biostratigraphy or Magnetostratigraphy (uses the magnetic properties of
rocks to determine age based on shifts in the Earth's magnetic field over time).
But on the other hand, chronostratigraphy is the element of stratigraphy that deals with the
relative time relations and ages of rock bodies. It deals explicitly with relative time relations of
bodies of rock, typically stratified rocks. Which means that the chronostratigraphy units are
“tangible” time-rock units. It include all methods (e.g., biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy,
chemostratigraphy, cyclostratigraphy, sequence stratigraphy) for:
(1) establishing the relative time relationships of stratigraphic successions regionally and
worldwide; and
(2) formally naming bodies of stratified rock that were deposited contemporaneously with units
formally defined at their base, ideally by a GSSP (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point
= “golden spike”) that represents a specific point in time.

Geochronology, biostratigraphy, and chronostratigraphy are all closely related disciplines and are
commonly applied towards the same problems. Biostratigraphy is only concerned with assigning
a sedimentary sequence to a particular geological period based on the fossil assemblages present
within the rock. Chronostratigraphy is similar to biostratigraphy, but it attempts to assign an
absolute age for a particular fossil assemblage. Geochronological units are referred to as periods
of time when chronostratigraphic units are only referred to in their geological context.
 Figure 1. fossil-containing strata Fossils help geologists establish the ages of layers of rock. In
this diagram, sections A and B represent rock layers 200 miles (320 km) apart. Their ages can be
established by comparing the fossils in each layer. Encyclopedia Britannica,

Geological time or earth's history is mainly conveyed using the Geological Time Scale (GTS).
The most familiar units are geological periods (e.g., Jurassic, Cambrian), which represent
intervals of time (in geochronology). Each time unit has a corresponding rock or time-rock unit
(in chronostratigraphy), Regarding the “period” the equivalent or corresponding unit called
“system”.
Thus, conceptually, the GTS can be expressed by two ways or it has a “dual and parallel
hierarchy” of chronostratigraphic (or time-rock) units used to designate rock bodies that formed
contemporaneously and geochronologic (or time) units used to designate intervals in which they
formed or during which other events occurred (e.g., evolution, extinction, deformation,
transgression).

Geochronologic (time) units:

These describe the timing of earth's history. It can be assignment:

A. By years (numeric ages)

Date: a specific moment/age — expressed with units:
Ma = million years (e.g., 18 Ma)
Ka = thousand years
Ga = billion years (giga-years)
Example: “The Gulf of Suez rifting lasted 18 Ma.” → numeric duration/age statement.

Interval: span between two dates (e.g., from 23 Ma to 5 Ma). expressed by m.y., my, [Link].
B. By names or ranks (named time-units)
Eon (largest)
Era (subdivision of eon)
Period (fundamental time unit; subdivision of era)
Epoch (subdivision of period; often Early/Middle/Late)
Age (smallest commonly used subdivision of an epoch)
Chron (very short intervals; less commonly used)

Examples:
Archaeozoic Eon → ended at ~2.5 Ga (2,500 Ma).
Proterozoic Eon → ~2.5 Ga to ~541 Ma (often rounded).
Phanerozoic Eon → ~541 Ma to present.

it remains more common to convey geological time information in terms of GTS units rather
than by numbers of years, because it is usually easier and more useful to establish relative
correlations than to establish the numerical ages of rock phenomena.

Chronostratigraphic (or time-rock) units:

These name the rock bodies (or the material record) that were deposited during the
corresponding geologic time (geochronologic) units

Eonothem (e.g., Phanerozoic) ↔ Eon (e.g., Phanerozoic)

Erathem (e.g., Mesozoic) ↔ Era (e.g., Mesozoic)
System (e.g., Cretaceous) ↔ Period (e.g., Cretaceous)
Series (e.g., Upper Cretaceous) ↔ Epoch (e.g., Late Cretaceous)
Stage (e.g., Cenomanian) ↔ Age (e.g., Cenomanian)
Many of these units were originally defined using relative time depending on fossil assemblages,
especially within the Phanerozoic Eon, where fossils play a key role in defining and correlating
rock layers. And the absolute/numerical ages were later added when additional methods such as
magnetic, chemical, and radiometric techniques are possible to use to improve age
determination.
Most Precambrian units lack useful fossils, so they are mainly defined by numerical ages called
GSSAs (e.g., Archean–Proterozoic boundary = 2500 Ma). However, some recent units, like the
Ediacaran System/Period, have been defined by GSSPs (official global reference points).
Ongoing efforts aim to subdivide Archean and Proterozoic using rock records (GSSPs) rather
than arbitrary ages. This may result in a new Precambrian time scale very different from the
current one.
A distinction exists between geological time units and the rocks that record them, specifically
between geochronologic units (time), such as the Cenomanian Age, and chronostratigraphic units
(time-rock), such as the Cenomanian Stage. The beginnings or bases of these units are fixed at
GSSPs in type sections, while their ends or tops are fixed by the GSSPs of the overlying units,
often located far away, sometimes on a different continent. Consequently, at any single location,
the sedimentary record of the Cenomanian Age is almost always incomplete due to hiatuses,
non-sequences, or unconformities, and many GSSPs occupy only short sections representing a
small fraction of the global stratigraphic succession. Recognizing the Cenomanian Stage in
locations distant from GSSPs relies primarily on paleontologic correlation, which is inherently
uncertain and may involve errors of a fraction of a million years. Thus, while the deposited rocks
are incomplete and events within them are imprecise, the span of geological time defined by the
Cenomanian Age remains identical globally. This distinction holds whether one refers to the
strata as a chronostratigraphic unit (Cenomanian Stage) or a geochronologic unit (Cenomanian
Age), and identification of temporal gaps in the stratigraphic record is generally possible only
through careful chrono-correlation across multiple locations.
Since we will be discussing the period between the cretaceous and the eocene, we must learn a
Figure 2. Diagram illustrating the relation of time and rock. Locality A
little about the greatest sedimentary force that affectedshows
Egyptian lands, namely
a near-continuous succession the Sea/Ocean
that includes of the base.
a GSSP near
Tethys. Locality B shows a succession with sporadic gaps that includes the GSSP
of the succeeding time unit near the top. Each of the GSSPs is precisely
located at its type section, but there is uncertainty (shown as the gray
The Tethys Ocean was a vast ancient ocean that existedshading)
between theeach
in locating supercontinents of type section. Locality
away from its respective
Gondwana (southern continental mass) and Laurasia (northern continental mass). Its history
C shows a highly condensed deposit that is
is poorly stratigraphically
constrained, although best placed within the stage (and thus probably
characterized by a complex cycle of creation, expansion, and within
deposited eventual disappearance
the age) defined by GSSPs 1due
and [Link]
the dates
movement of tectonic plates. provide numerical age estimates for the two GSSPs and hence of the
time interval that they define. If taken from immediately adjacent to
their respective GSSPs, then the uncertainty relates essentially to the
Origin and Evolution levels of analytical precision obtained; if taken from elsewhere, then
uncertainty in correlation/interpolation to the GSSPs is added to the
The lifecycle of the Tethys Ocean spanned from the Late Paleozoic
analytical to the Cenozoic era. Tethys
uncertainty.
was created during the Late Paleozoic or Triassic period. It formed as the supercontinents of
Gondwana (comprising today South America, Africa, Arabia, India, Madagascar, Australia, and
Antarctica) and Laurasia (comprising North America, Greenland, and Eurasia) began to diverge.
The ocean grew during the Triassic and Jurassic periods due to the continued divergence of
these two massive plates. And then began to contract in the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous at
approximately 200 m.y.B.P. The transition from expansion to reduction was driven by the
convergence of Africa-Arabia-India toward Eurasia.
Tethys ocean completely closed by approximately 65 million years ago (m.y.B.P.), leading to the
formation of the Mediterranean Sea as an inland sea. This disappearance resulted from a
collisional phase in the Late Cenozoic.
 Figure 3. A schematic representation of the gradual formation of the Earth’s surface over the last
two hundred million years and a forecast for the next fifty million years starting today (after Dietz
and Holden 1970, modified). An asterisk marks the position of Greece in successive eras

Paleogeographic Organization
Unlike the relatively simple, symmetrical model of the modern Atlantic Ocean, Tethys was characterized
by a highly complex and heterogeneous structure.
The Atlantic Ocean follows a very predictable pattern of growth, whereas the Tethys Ocean was a chaotic mess of
shifting fragments.

The Atlantic Ocean is defined by a satisfying symmetry. Since it has a single mid-ocean ridge at its center where
new crust is created.

As we move away from that center toward the continents, we encounter rock formations and sediments that get
progressively and predictably older. If we closed the Atlantic today, we would get a mountain range with a neat,
two-sided symmetry.

While The Tethys Ocean did not follow this Atlantic-type organization. Instead of one central ridge, Tethys was split
into smaller oceanic basins by independent continental fragments or "microplates". It featured a variety of
paleogeographic units, meaning we would see a shallow-water carbonate platform (like a beach or reef)
immediately followed by a deep abyssal basin (deep ocean), repeated over and over.

It contained remnants of pre-existing continental crust and older mountain-building events (pre-Alpine massifs)
sandwiched between these oceanic areas.

So essentially, the Atlantic is like a single, growing crack in the Earth, while the Tethys was more like a "Caribbean
or Indonesian model" which a complex "soup" of moving islands, multiple small seas, and various subduction
zones.
Evidence suggests Tethys had a triangular shape, narrowing and closing toward the west near the
Iberian Peninsula and widening toward the east. And as we mentioned, rather than a single oceanic
basin, Tethys featured multiple alternations of shallow-water carbonate platforms (neritic platforms)
and deep basins with pelagic or abyssal sedimentation.

The oceanic space was often divided into smaller basins by independent continental microplates or
"tectono-stratigraphic terranes". These lithospheric fragments drifted northward from Gondwana
toward Eurasia.

Margins:

The northern margin developed on the Eurasian plate, which had already been affected by the Variscan
orogeny.

The southern margin (Gondwana) remained largely stable throughout the Phanerozoic, evidenced by
continuous sedimentary sequences from the Cambrian to the Eocene.

Evidence for Its Existence

The existence of the Tethys Ocean is supported by several geological indicators found across the
"Tethyan orogenic system".

(1) Outcrops: Marine sediment outcrops spanning from coastal to abyssal facies are found in the Alps,
Hellenides, Iranides, and the Himalayas.

(2) Stratigraphic Sequences: These sequences typically begin in the Upper Paleozoic or Triassic,
providing a timeframe for the ocean's formation.

(3) Ophiolitic Sutures: Tethyan sediments and oceanic crust remnants (ophiolites) are found "crushed"
between the continental plates of Eurasia and Africa-Arabia-India. There is ongoing scientific debate
about whether there was a single ophiolitic suture or multiple sutures representing several smaller
oceanic basins.

1.3 Geomorphology
Egypt occupies the northeast corner of Africa, situated between latitudes 22 ° and 32 ° N. It
covers a total area of approximately one million square kilometers and is bounded by the
Mediterranean Sea to the north, Sudan to the south, Libya to the west, and the Red Sea and Gulf
of Aqaba to the east.
The country lies within the great arid desert belt of North Africa. Consequently, it is
characterized by a warm, rainless climate, with average annual rainfall not exceeding 1 cm for
the country as a whole. This aridity has restricted the habitable land to less than 3% of the total
area, specifically along the Nile banks and the Delta, where population density is high (>1,500
persons/km2), in sharp contrast to the sparsely populated desert areas.
1.3.2 Geomorphological Provinces
The River Nile acts as the primary geomorphological feature of Egypt, flowing midway through
the country and generally dividing it into two distinct morphological regions: a dissected plateau
to the east and a series of unconnected depressions to the west.
According to Said (1990), Egypt can be geographically divided into four major
geomorphological provinces:
1. The Nile Valley and the Delta: The alluvial tract formed by the river.
2. The Western Desert: An arid plateau characterized by internal drainage and depressions.
3. The Eastern Desert: A dissected plateau extending to the Red Sea.
4. The Sinai Peninsula: Separated from the Eastern Desert by the Gulf of Suez.

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