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Origin of Magnetism

Magnetic moment: The magnetic moment of a current carrying system is a vector quantity
that represents both the strength and orientation of magnetism. It can be considered to be a
vector quantity with direction perpendicular to the current loop in the right-hand rule
direction.

μ=I*A

where, I = current in the loop

A = Area vector of the loop

μ = magnetic moment.

Paramagnetism:

Origin: Permanent magnetic moments due to unpaired electrons in atoms/ions. Random

orientation without a field; partial alignment in an external field. All atoms have inherent
sources of magnetism because electron spin contributes a magnetic moment and electron
orbits act as current loops which produce a magnetic field.

Examples:

1. Aluminium (Al) → One unpaired 3p electron

2. Platinum (Pt) → Conduction electrons cause weak paramagnetism

3. Oxygen gas (O₂) → Two unpaired electrons in antibonding orbitals.

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Ferromagnetism:

Origin: Permanent moments from unpaired electrons align parallel due to quantum
mechanical exchange interaction, forming magnetic domains. These domains remain
aligned even without an external field (hysteresis).

At the atomic level, ferromagnetic materials exhibit a long-range ordering phenomenon

which causes the unpaired electron spins to line up parallel with each other in a region, and
it is called the domain. Within the domain, the magnetic field is intense.

The temperature at which a ferromagnetic material loses its long-range order abruptly is
called "Curie temperature".

Examples:
1. Iron (Fe) → 3d⁶ configuration

2. Cobalt (Co) → 3d⁷ configuration; High Curie temperature

3. Nickel (Ni) → 3d⁸ configuration; Widely used in alloys

Diamagnetism:

Origin: Arises from induced magnetic moments when an external field changes the orbital
motion of electrons. These induced moments always oppose the applied field (Lenz's law).
The magnetic field is produced due to the tiny atomic current loops created by the orbital
motion.

Examples:

1. Copper (Cu) → Filled electron shells, weakly repelled

2. Bismuth (Bi) → Strong diamagnet among non-superconductors

3. Silicon (Si) → Nonmetallic diamagnet.

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Key References:

1. Introduction to solid state physics ~ Kittel C.

2. PDF Provided in Google classroom

Magnetization Curve & Magnetic Circuit

Magnetization: Magnetization is the magnetic moment per unit volume of a material. It is

expressed in terms of the density of net magnetic dipole moments μ in the material.

M = Σμ / V [unit: Am⁻¹]

Susceptibility: Magnetic susceptibility is a dimensionless proportionality constant that

relates the induced magnetization M to the applied magnetic field strength H. It is a measure
of how much a material will become magnetized in an applied magnetic field.

χ=M/H

It indicates whether a material is attracted into or repelled out of a magnetic field.

Permeability: Magnetic permeability describes how a material modifies the magnetic field
within it. Permeability is the measure of magnetization that a material obtains in response
to an applied magnetic field.
μ = B / H [unit: Hm⁻¹]

μ = μ₀(1+χ)

Where μ₀ is the permeability of free space (4π x 10⁻⁷ H/m).

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Magnetic Induction (B): Magnetic induction (also called magnetic flux density) is the total
magnetic field inside a material.

B = B ₀ + Bₘ

⇒ B = μ₀ (H+M)

⇒ B = μ₀H + μ₀χₘH

⇒ B = μ₀ (1+χₘ) H

⇒ B = μ₀μᵣH

[unit: Tesla(T)]

(Image of a Hysteresis MH Curve is shown)

Fig: MH Curve (Hysteresis)

Features of M-H Curve:

The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is the property called hysteresis. It is
related to the existence of magnetic domains in the material.

1. Initial Magnetization Curve:

When an unmagnetized ferromagnet is first subjected to a magnetic field H, the

magnetization M rises non-linearly...

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...linearly and then approaches saturation.

This curve depends on the alignment of magnetic domains.

2. Saturation Magnetization:

At applied field, most domains are aligned with the field.

Beyond this point, further increase in H produces little or no increase in M.

3. Retentivity (Remanent Magnetization):

When the external field is reduced back to zero, the material retains a certain
magnetization.

This is called remanence or retentivity.

4. Coercivity (Hc):

To reduce the magnetization to zero, a reverse magnetic field must be applied.

The magnitude of this reverse field is called the coercive field or coercivity.

5. Hysteresis loop:

The closed loop formed when M (or B) is plotted against H for a complete cycle of
magnetization.

It shows that the magnetization depends not only on the present value of H but also on the
history of the material.

6. Energy loss:

The area enclosed by the hysteresis loop represents the energy loss per cycle per unit
volume due to realignment of domains (mostly as heat).

This is important in transformer cores and magnetic storage devices.

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The M-H curve is significant because it shows how a ferromagnetic material responds to an
external magnetic field and retains memory of past magnetization. It helps in determining
important material properties like retentivity, coercivity and energy loss per cycle. This
information is crucial for selecting magnetic materials in devices such as transformers,
permanent magnets, and memory storage.

Comparison between Magnetic Circuit and Electric Circuit:

Aspect | Magnetic Circuit | Electric Circuit

---|---|---

Driving Force | Magnetomotive force (mmf) = NI (ampere-turns) | Electromotive force (emf)

= V (volts)

Flow Quantity | Magnetic flux (Φ, in weber) | Electric current (I, in ampere)
Law | Hopkinson's law; Φ = mmf / R | Ohm's law: I = V / R

Driving Field | Magnetic field intensity (H) | Electric field (E)

Material response | Magnetization | Polarization

Total field inside | Magnetic induction, B = μ₀(H+M) | Electric displacement, D = ε₀E+P

Susceptibility relation | M = χₘH | P = χₑε₀E

Material constant | Magnetic permeability, μ = μ₀(1+χₘ) | Electric permittivity, ε = ε₀(1+χₑ)

Key References:

1. Introduction to solid state Physics - Kittel C.

2. PDF provided in Google Classroom.

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Applications

Characteristics of Hard and Soft Magnetic Materials:

1. Hard Magnetic Materials

- High coercivity → Resist demagnetization.

- Low permeability → More difficult for flux to pass through.

- Wide hysteresis loop → Large energy loss per cycle.

- High retentivity → Retain strong magnetization even after removal of external field.

- Used in permanent magnets, magnetic storage devices, motors.

2. Soft Magnetic Materials

- Low coercivity → Easily magnetized and demagnetized.

- High permeability → Allow magnetic flux to pass through easily.

- Narrow hysteresis loop → Very small energy loss per cycle.

- Low retentivity → Do not retain strong magnetization when field is removed.

- Used in transformer cores, inductors, electromagnets.

Criteria for Choosing Magnetic Materials:

1. Permanent Magnets:

- High coercivity → Resists demagnetization.

- High retentivity → strong residual magnetization after field removal.

- Wide hysteresis loop → Ensures stability of magnetization.

- Moderate permeability → Prevents easy reversal of domains.

- Examples: Alnico, ferrites, Nd-Fe-B.

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2. Electromagnets:

- Low coercivity → Easy to magnetize and demagnetize with small fields.

- High permeability → Produces strong magnetic field for small current.

- Narrow hysteresis loop → Minimizes hysteresis losses.

- Low retentivity → Avoids residual magnetism after current is switched off.

- Examples: Soft iron, silicon steel.

3. Transformer Cores:

- Very high permeability → Reduces magnetizing current.

- Very low coercivity → Facilitates rapid cyclic magnetization with AC.

- Extremely narrow hysteresis loop → Minimizes hysteresis loss.

- Low eddy current loss → Achieved by laminating the core or using ferrites.

- Examples: Silicon steel laminations, ferrites.

Key References:

1. Introduction to solid state physics - Kittel C.

2. Electricity and Magnetism - R. Murugeshan.