Study Guide

The Molecules of Cells

Focus on the Concepts

Life is based on the structure and function of carbon-based molecules. This chapter
introduces the chemistry of carbon and the four groups of large organic molecules —
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. As you study this chapter, focus on
these major concepts:

• A carbon atom can form four covalent bonds, so carbons atoms can form a
variety of organic molecules containing chains, branches, rings, and double
bonds. Certain functional groups of atoms help to determine the emergent
properties of a molecule, such as the way it bonds or reacts. Many large
organic molecules are polymers — chains of smaller molecular subunits.
• Carbohydrates have formulas that are multiples of CH2O. The simplest carbohy-
drates are sugars such as glucose, called monosaccharides, used for energy and to
build larger carbohydrates or other organic molecules. Two monosaccharides can
pair to form a disaccharide such as sucrose. Polysaccharides are polymers of
many sugars. Starch is an energy storage polysaccharide, and cellulose is a
structural polysaccharide that forms plant cell walls.
• Lipids are molecules such as fats, waxes, oils, and steroids that possess
hydrocarbon regions that do not mix well with water. A fat is an energy-storage
molecule consisting of three long fatty acid units attached to glycerol. Fats can
be saturated or unsaturated. Phospholipids are modified fats important in
membrane structure.
• Proteins are complex polymers of amino acids linked via peptide bonds
between their acid groups and nitrogen-containing amino groups. There are
20 kinds of amino acids, each with different projecting side chains, so there is
an immense variety of possible amino acid sequences. Beyond this primary
structure, different amino acids and their side-chains can bond and interact
in various ways, twisting, folding, and combining polymers in secondary,
tertiary, and quaternary levels of structure. The specific 3-D shapes of
proteins enable them to carry out complex life functions, such as transport,
communication, and movement.
• Protein structure is determined by the information stored in genes, consisting
of DNA, a nucleic acid. To shape proteins and body characteristics, DNA
works through an intermediary nucleic acid called RNA. Each nucleic acid is a
polymer of nucleotides, subunits consisting of a sugar, a phosphate group, and
a nitrogen-containing base. The information stored in the long, twisted double
helix of DNA resides in the sequence of its nucleotides.

From Chapter 3 of Study Guide for Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, Seventh Edition. Richard M. Liebaert,
Jane B. Reece, Martha R. Taylor, Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey. Copyright © 2012 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Published by Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Review the Concepts

Work through the following exercises to review the concepts in this chapter. For additional
review, check out the activities at [Link]. The website offers a pre-test
that will help you plan your studies.

Exercise 1 (Section 1)

The great variety of organic compounds results from the ability of carbon atoms to form
four bonds, creating branching chains of different lengths. Several simple hydrocarbon
molecules, consisting only of carbon and hydrogen, are shown in Section 1 of this chapter.
Practice seeing the versatility of carbon by sketching some hydrocarbon molecules of your
own, as suggested in the following.
1. Sketch a hydrocarbon molecule that is a straight chain, containing 5 carbon atoms and
12 hydrogen atoms, molecular formula C5H12:

Question: Why does each carbon bond to 4 other atoms?

2. Now sketch a shorter hydrocarbon chain, with only four carbon atoms:

Question: What is the molecular formula (C?H?) of the above molecule?

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

3. Sketch another five-carbon hydrocarbon, but this time include one double bond:

Question: What is the molecular formula of this molecule?

4. Sketch a five-carbon hydrocarbon molecule that is branched (and contains no double bonds):

Question: What is the molecular formula of this molecule? What is the term for its relationship to molecule
1 (in this exercise)?

5. Sketch two five-carbon hydrocarbon molecules in the form of rings, one without double bonds and one
with one double bond.

Question: How many hydrogen atoms are in each of these molecules?

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Exercise 2 (Section 2)

Functional groups participate in chemical changes and give each molecule unique proper-
ties. Circle the functional groups that are discussed in this section in the molecules that
follow. Label an example of each of the following: hydroxyl group, carbonyl group, car-
boxyl group, amino group, phosphate group, and methyl group. There are a total of ____
hydroxyl group(s), ____ carbonyl group(s), ____ carboxyl group(s), ____ amino group(s),
____ phosphate group(s), and ____ methyl group(s). (The properties of the molecules are
described at the right.)

H
C O Formaldehyde is the starting point for making many chemicals.
H

O
H C Formic acid gives ant venom its sting.
OH

O
H C CH3
N C
Thymine is one of the “bases” that make up the DNA genetic code.
C C
O N H
H
OH OH
H C C H Ethylene glycol is in automobile antifreeze.
H H

H
H O
C C C Acrolein is produced when meat is heated; it is the barbecue smell.
H H

OH
H C H
H O Serine is part of many protein molecules.
N C C
H OH
H

H C H Urea is a waste product in urine.

N N
H H

H H H H
H H
N C C C C N Putrescene’s name is descriptive; it is produced in rotting flesh.
H H
H H H H

OH H O-
O
C C C O P O- G3P is an intermediate step in plants’ production of sugar.
H
H H O

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Exercise 3 (Section 3)

There are four main classes of macromolecules. Most are polymers, assembled from
smaller monomers in a process called a dehydration reaction. Hydrolysis breaks polymers
back down to monomers. State whether each of the following relates to dehydration (D)
or hydrolysis (H).

1. Connects monomers to form a polymer.

2. Produces water as a by-product.
3. Breaks up polymers, forming monomers.
4. Water is used to break bonds between monomers.
5. Joins amino acids to form a protein.
6. Glycerol and fatty acids combine this way to form a fat.
7. Occurs when polysaccharides are digested to form monosaccharides.
8. —H and —OH groups form water.
9. Nucleic acid breaks up to form nucleotides.
10. Water breaks up, forming —H and —OH groups on separate monomers.

Exercise 4 (Sections 3–7 )

Review carbohydrates by filling in the blanks in the following story.

Carbohydrates are a class of molecules ranging from the simplest sugars, called
1__________________, to giant molecules called 2__________________ , built of many sugars.

Carbohydrates are the main fuel molecules used for cellular work.

Plants make their own carbohydrates, but humans, like all animals, must obtain
them from plants or other animals. Imagine eating a piece of whole-wheat bread spread
with strawberry jam. It contains a mixture of carbohydrates, along with other macromol-
ecules such as 3__________________ and 4__________________. Much of the carbohydrate
in the bread itself is in the form of a polysaccharide called 5__________________, which is
simply a chain of 6__________________ monomers. The monomers were linked together
in the wheat plant in a process called a 7__________________ reaction. As the glucose
units joined, 8__________________ was produced as a by-product. When you swallow a
bite of bread, digestive juices in the intestine separate the monomers in the opposite
reaction, called 9__________________. In the intestine, this is actually a two-step process.
Secretions from the pancreas first break the starch down to maltose, a type of carbohy-
drate called a 10__________________, which consists of two glucose monomers. Secretions
from the walls of the intestine complete the process, breaking each maltose molecule
down to two individual glucose molecules. Each glucose is a 11__________________
-shaped molecule, containing 12__________________ carbon atoms.
There are other carbohydrates in the bread and jam. Whole-wheat flour contains
the tough coats of the wheat seeds. These contain a lot of 13__________________, the
fibrous polysaccharide that makes up plant cell walls. Like starch, it is made of glucose
monomers, but these monomers are 14__________________ in a different orientation.
The human digestive tract is not capable of 15__________________ cellulose, so it passes
through the digestive tract unchanged, in the form of 16__________________. Sucrose, a

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

17__________________ refined from sugar cane or sugar beets, may be used to sweeten
the strawberry jam. Each sucrose molecule is hydrolyzed in the small intestine to form
one molecule of 18__________________ and one molecule of 19__________________.
This homemade jam also contains a small amount of fructose, a 20__________________
that is naturally produced by strawberries and is considerably sweeter than sucrose.
(High-fructose corn syrup, or HFCS, used to sweeten many processed foods, is produced
by hydrolyzing 21__________________ and using enzymes to convert the resulting
22__________________ to fructose. The increase in use of HFCS may be linked to the

recent increase in 23__________________ , 24__________________ , and other chronic

diseases.)

Once all the carbohydrates have been hydrolyzed to small monosaccharides,

they can be absorbed by the body. Glucose and fructose pass through the wall of the
intestine and into the bloodstream, which carries them to the liver. Like all carbohydrate
molecules, these sugars are 25 __________________, so they easily dissolve in the water
of blood plasma. In the liver, the fructose is converted to glucose. This process is
relatively easy because glucose and fructose are 26__________________, having the
same molecular formula, written 27__________________, but slightly different structures.
Glucose circulates around the body as “blood sugar” and is taken up by the cells for
fuel as needed. Extra glucose molecules are taken up by liver and muscle cells and
linked together by 28__________________ synthesis to form a polysaccharide called
29__________________. This molecule is similar to plant 30_________________, except it is

more branched. Later the glycogen can be hydrolyzed to release 31__________________

into the blood as needed.

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Exercise 5 (Sections 8 –10)

Review the structures and functions of lipids by completing the following crossword puzzle.

1 2

3 4

9 10

11

12

13 14 15

16 17

18

19

Across Down
3. ____ means that hydrogen has been added to 1. ____ is a condition where lipid-containing
unsaturated fats. deposits build up in blood vessels.
4. Hydrogenation can create ____ fats, which are 2. Female and male sex hormones are examples
associated with health risks. of ____.
5. ____ is a steroid common in cell membranes. 7. Animal fats are said to be ____.
6. A ____ is similar to a fat; found in cell membranes. 8. Lipids are water-avoiding, or ____ substances.
9. A fat molecule is composed of ____ and three 13. Unsaturated fats contain more ____ bonds than
fatty acids. saturated fats.
10. Glycerol and three____ acids make a triglyceride. 14. A ____ is a large lipid molecule whose main
11. ____ is another name for “fat.” function is energy storage.
12. A ____ forms a waterproof coat that keeps 15. ____ steroids are dangerous synthetic variants
a fruit or insect from drying out. of testosterone.
16. Olive and corn ____ are examples of unsaturated
fats.
17. Fats with double bonds are said to be ____.
18. ____ is a lipid-containing deposit in a blood vessel.
19. ____ are grouped together because they do not
mix well with water.

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Exercise 6 (Section 11)

Everything an organism does involves proteins. A protein is a polymer composed of amino

acids. Three amino acids not shown in the section are diagrammed in the following.

1. Draw a box around the unique R group of each, and label it R group.
2. Draw a red circle around the amino group of each, and label it amino group.
3. Draw a blue triangle around the carboxyl group of each, and label it carboxyl group.

H H H
H O H O H O
N C C N C C N C C
H OH H OH H OH
CH3 CH CH2
HO CH3
C
Alanine
H2N O

Threonine Asparagine

4. In the space that follows, sketch the three amino acids to show how they would join to form a tripeptide.
What is this chemical reaction called? How many molecules of water would be formed? Show where the
water would come from.

Exercise 7 (Section 12)

Eight functions of proteins are discussed in Section 12 (enzymes, transport proteins,

etc.). Match each of the functional types with one of the following descriptions.

__________________ 1. The sodium-potassium pump carries ions through membranes.

__________________ 2. A protein in muscle cells enables them to move.
__________________ 3. Antibodies fight disease-causing bacteria.
__________________ 4. Collagen gives bone strength and flexibility.
__________________ 5. Insulin signals cells to take in and use sugar.
__________________ 6. A protein in a cell receives the insulin signal.
__________________ 7. Proteins in seeds provide food for plant embryos.
__________________ 8. A protein called sucrase promotes the chemical conversion of sucrose into
monosaccharides.

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Exercise 8 (Section 13)

Identify each of the levels of protein structure in the diagrams. Then choose the descriptions
from the list that go with each of the levels.

Structure
1.

Descriptions:

Structure
2.

Descriptions:

C
H
C
N C H
O C
N O H O
O H O O
C H H
C C N C
H H C C N C C N C
C N C N C
C C C N C C N
N C N C N C
O H O H
C O H
O H
HO
O
Structure C
N C
3. O C
H O H O
N C H O
C H O H
O C N C N C
C N C N C
Descriptions: H H
C C C
C
C N C N C N C N
C H O C
H O C
C H O
N C N H O
O
O

Structure
4.
Le u Asp Ala Val Arg
Descriptions: Gl y Ser

Choose from these descriptions:

A. Overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide
B. Amino acid sequence
C. Even a slight change in this can alter tertiary structure.
D. This level occurs only in proteins with two or more polypeptide subunits.
E. Coiling and folding produced by hydrogen bonds between —NH and C=O groups
F. Not present in all proteins
G. Level of structure that is held together by peptide bonds
H. Alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
I. Stabilized by clustering of hydrophobic R groups, hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and sometimes even
covalent bonds called disulfide bridges
J. Globular or fibrous shape of a single folded polypeptide chain
K. Folding that results from interactions among R groups of amino acids in the polypeptide chain
L. This level is directly determined by genetic information.

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Exercise 9 (Sections 14– 16)

Nucleic acids are the fourth group of biological molecules discussed in this chapter.
Review their structures and functions by matching each of the phrases on the left with a
word or phrase from the list on the right. Answers may be used more than once.

____ 1. Sugar in RNA A. Phosphate group

____ 2. Overall structure of DNA B. Deoxyribose
____ 3. Short for “ribonucleic acid” C. A, T, C, G
____ 4. Molecule passed on from parent to offspring D. DNA
____ 5. Nitrogenous bases of RNA E. Nucleotide
____ 6. The stuff that genes are made of F. A, U, C, G
____ 7. Nitrogenous bases of DNA G. Double helix
____ 8. Programs the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide H. Ribose
____ 9. DNA works through this intermediary I. Nitrogenous base
____ 10. A nucleotide consists of sugar, phosphate, and this J. RNA
____ 11. Sugar of one nucleotide bonds to this in next nucleotide K. Gene
____ 12. Monomer of nucleic acids
____ 13. Sugar in DNA
____ 14. A mutation in this results in lactose tolerance

Exercise 10 (Summary)

You may find that making a concept map is a useful way to organize your knowledge.
Such a map for the topic of carbohydrates is shown in the following. A concept map
shows how key ideas are connected. Making a concept map can help you learn because it
causes you to focus on main concepts and how they are connected. It helps you to sort out
what is important from unimportant details, and helps you tie your knowledge together
into a more meaningful and useful whole.
To make a concept map, you must first decide which ideas are most important.
Place the biggest, or most inclusive, concept at the top of the page. Just a word or phrase
is enough. Cluster subconcepts around it, and cluster sub-subconcepts around them.
Draw lines between the concepts to show how they are connected, and describe these
connections next to the lines. Again, use only a word or two.
If the topics or connections are not clear, perhaps they are unimportant, or
perhaps you are not clear on how they connect, or perhaps they do not really connect.
Remember, clarifying relationships is the purpose of making the map. Generally, maps
that are more “branched” are more useful than ones with many long straight “chains”
of boxes, but there is no one “correct” map for a particular topic.
Focus on the process of making the map, rather than on the map itself. More
learning will take place while you are making the map than when you look at the
finished product. You might want to “tune up” your maps by comparing them with
maps made by other students. After reviewing the following concept maps, on separate
paper try making your own concept maps for proteins and nucleic acids. Keep them
simple at first. Remember, practice makes perfect! Also, keep the concept map idea in
mind for upcoming chapters.

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

CARBOHYDRATES

include include include

DISACCHARIDES MONOSACCHARIDES made LONG are POLYSACCHARIDES

of CHAINS
are used
for function in
are ENERGY are have
"FUEL"

GENERAL STORAGE STRUCTURE

DOUBLE SIMPLE FORMULA
SUGARS SUGARS CH2O
such as such as
such as such as

CELLULOSE
GLYCOGEN STARCH
FRUCTOSE GLUCOSE

MALTOSE
combine to form both in
in

SUCROSE ANIMALS PLANTS

Practice working with a concept map by filling in the blanks on this map for lipids.

all LIPIDS
are
HYDRO-
PHOBIC include include include include

which means 1.
2.
WATER- WAXES
are
PROOF have 4-RING
consist of
occur in store STRUCTURE
such as
3. 3 4.
PLANTS, FATTY
INSECTS ACIDS
CHOLESTEROL used
to SEX
can be make HORMONES

5. PHOSPHO- modified to make

in SATURATED LIPIDS
DIET the
ANABOLIC
in in STEROIDS
found in
can lead to
6.
ANIMAL 10.
7. FATS

such as such as
8. 9.

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

Test Your Knowledge c. cellulose.

d. protein.
e. glucose.
Multiple Choice
7. In some places the backbone of a protein
1. Cellulose is a _____ made of many _____. molecule may twist or fold back on itself.
a. polypeptide . . . monomers This is called _____, and the coils or folds are
b. carbohydrate . . . fatty acids held in place by _____.
c. polymer . . . glucose molecules a. tertiary structure . . . hydrogen bonds
d. protein . . . amino acids b. primary structure . . . covalent bonds
e. lipid . . . triglycerides c. secondary structure . . . peptide bonds
2. In a hydrolysis reaction _____, and in this d. tertiary structure . . . covalent bonds
process water is _____. e. secondary structure . . . hydrogen bonds
a. a polymer breaks up to form monomers . . . 8. A hydrophobic amino acid R group would be
consumed found where in a protein?
b. a monomer breaks up to form polymers . . . a. forming a peptide bond with the next amino
produced acid in the chain
c. monomers are assembled to produce b. on the outside of the folded chain, in the water
a polymer . . . consumed c. on the inside of the folded chain, away
d. monomers are assembled to produce from water
a polymer . . . produced d. forming hydrogen bonds with other R groups
e. a polymer breaks up to form monomers . . . e. only at one end of a protein chain
produced
9. The overall three-dimensional shape of
3. The four main categories of macromolecules in a polypeptide is called the
a cell are a. double helix.
a. proteins, DNA, RNA, and steroids. b. primary structure.
b. monosaccharides, lipids, polysaccharides, c. secondary structure.
and proteins. d. tertiary structure.
c. proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and e. quaternary structure.
lipids.
10. How many different kinds of protein
d. nucleic acids, carbohydrates, monosaccha- molecules are there in a typical cell?
rides, and proteins. a. four
e. RNA, DNA, proteins, and carbohydrates. b. twenty
4. A major characteristic that all lipids have in c. about a hundred
common is d. thousands
a. they are all made of fatty acids and glycerol. e. billions
b. they all contain nitrogen.
11. Estrogen, cholesterol, and other steroids
c. none of them is very high in energy content. are examples of
d. they are all acidic when mixed with water. a. polysaccharides.
e. they don’t dissolve well in water. b. lipids.
5. A flower’s color is determined by the genetic c. polypeptides.
instructions in its d. triglycerides.
a. proteins. e. fats.
b. lipids.
12. Functional groups called _______ groups are
c. carbohydrates. often used to transfer energy between organic
d. nucleic acids. molecules.
e. all of the above. a. hydroxyl
6. The most concentrated source of stored energy b. amino
is a molecule of c. carboxyl
a. DNA. d. carbonyl
b. fat. e. phosphate

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

13. The “building blocks” of nucleic acid 2. Which of the following do nucleic acids and
molecules are called proteins have in common?
a. polysaccharides. a. They are both made of amino acids.
b. amino acids. b. Their structures contain sugars.
c. fatty acids. c. They are hydrophobic.
d. nucleotides. d. They are large polymers.
e. DNA and RNA. e. They each consist of four basic kinds of
subunits.
14. The names of carbohydrates generally end in
a. -ose. 3. A biochemist is analyzing a potato plant for the
b. -ide. disaccharide sucrose. Where would he be most
c. -ol. likely to find it?
d. -ase. a. in cell membranes
e. -ate. b. in grains in the cells of underground tubers
(potatoes)
Essay c. in the sap of the potato plant
d. in the nuclei of potato cells
1. Briefly describe the various functions e. in the walls of the potato plant cells
of proteins in the cell and body.
4. Which of the following ranks the molecules in
2. Animal fats tend to be solid at room tempera- the correct order by size?
ture, plant oils more liquid. Explain how a a. water . . . sucrose . . . glucose . . . protein
difference in the chemical structure of their b. protein . . . water . . . glucose . . . sucrose
molecules causes this physical difference. c. water . . . protein . . . sucrose . . . glucose
3. What forces and bonds maintain the three- d. protein . . . sucrose . . . glucose . . . water
dimensional folded shape of a protein e. glucose . . . water . . . sucrose . . . protein
molecule? How does this relate to the sensitivity 5. How does glucose differ from sucrose,
of proteins to changes in their environment? cellulose, and starch?
4. Using squares to represent monosaccharides, a. It is a carbohydrate.
show the difference between glucose, maltose, b. It is larger.
and starch. Maltose is an example of what kind c. The others are polysaccharides.
of carbohydrate? Starch is an example of what d. It is a monosaccharide.
kind of carbohydrate? e. It contains carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen.
5. Sketch a protein molecule, using circles
connected by lines to represent amino acids 6. Seth noticed that his friend Jon had gained
connected by peptide bonds. Does your a little weight during the holidays. He
commented, “Storing up some _____ for the
protein display primary, secondary, tertiary,
winter, I see.”
and quaternary structure? Where?
a. polysaccharides
b. triglycerides
Apply the Concepts c. nucleotides
d. polypeptides
Multiple Choice e. steroids

1. Citric acid makes lemons taste sour. A specific 7. How does DNA differ from RNA?
functional group causes a molecule such as a. DNA is larger.
citric acid to be acidic and taste sour. Which b. One of their nitrogenous bases
group is it? is different.
a. hydroxyl c. DNA and RNA contain different
b. methyl sugars.
c. amino d. DNA consists of two strands in a double
d. carbonyl helix.
e. carboxyl e. All of the above are differences.

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8. Certain fatty acids are said to be essential c. a broken-down carbohydrate and proteins
because the body cannot make them itself; they with added functional groups
must be obtained in the diet. If your diet were d. polysaccharides and proteins with added
deficient in these essential fatty acids, you functional groups
would not be able to make certain e. a lipid with added functional groups and
a. fats. broken-down polypeptides
b. glycerol molecules.
c. monosaccharides. Essay
d. proteins.
e. You would not be able to make any of the 1. Briefly explain why all starch molecules are
above. pretty much the same, but there are millions of
kinds of protein molecules.
9. Hydrolysis of a polypeptide would produce
a. amino acids. 2. Specific enzymes in your intestine enable
b. monosaccharides. you to break down starch and use the glucose
c. proteins. molecules produced by this process. But you
d. peptide bonds. cannot break down cellulose. Explain why, in
e. nucleotides. terms of both carbohydrate structure and
protein shape.
10. Glucose and hexanoic acid each contain six
carbon atoms, but they have completely different 3. Heating slightly is often enough to render a
properties. Glucose is an important nutrient; protein nonfunctional. But a polysaccharide
hexanoic acid is poisonous. Their differences such as starch must literally be boiled in acid
must be due to different before it is significantly affected. Explain why.
a. monomers.
b. macromolecules. 4. Sketch the structural formulas of two hydrocar-
c. hydrolysis. bon molecules that are isomers. Be sure the C
d. quaternary structures. and H atoms form the correct numbers of
e. functional groups. bonds. What are the molecular formulas of
the molecules? What is identical about the
11. Which of the following would probably not molecules? How do the molecules differ?
be affected when a protein is denatured?
a. primary structure 5. Fred suffers from a disease that makes it diffi-
b. secondary structure cult for his cells to produce glycogen. For him,
c. hydrogen bonds three meals a day are not enough; he needs to
d. tertiary structure snack constantly. Explain why.
e. All of the above must be affected for the 6. A tripeptide, a molecule consisting of three
protein to be denatured. amino acids, is a very small protein. Yet a huge
12. Palm oil and coconut oil are more like animal variety of tripeptides is possible. Assume that
fats than other plant oils. Because they ____ the first, second, and third amino acids can be
than other plant oils, they can contribute to any of 20 choices. How many different tripep-
cardiovascular disease. tides could there be? (Hint: Imagine you are
a. contain fewer double bonds stringing beads. If you have 20 colors to choose
b. are less saturated from, how many three-bead sequences are pos-
c. contain more sodium sible?) How could you calculate the number of
d. are less soluble in water possible polypeptides 100 amino acids long?
e. contain less hydrogen (You probably won’t want to actually work it
13. A shampoo contains “hydroxypropyl methyl- out — it’s a very large number.)
cellulose and hydrolyzed soy protein.” These
substances are
a. a polysaccharide with added functional
groups and broken-down polypeptides
b. broken-down carbohydrates and broken-
down proteins

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Put Words to Work

Correctly use as many of the following words as possible when reading, talking, and writing
about biology:

alpha helix, amine, amino acid, amino group, anabolic steroid, beta pleated sheet, carbohydrate,
carbon skeleton, carbonyl group, carboxyl group, carboxylic acid, cellulose, chitin, cholesterol,
dehydration reaction, denaturation, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), disaccharide, double helix,
enzyme, fat, fatty acid, fructose, functional group, gene, glucose, glycerol, glycogen, hydrocarbon,
hydrolysis, hydrophilic, hydrophobic, hydroxyl group, isomers, lactase, lactose tolerance, lipid,
macromolecule, methyl group, monomer, monosaccharide, nucleic acid, nucleotide, organic
compound, peptide bond, phosphate group, phospholipid, pleated sheet, polymer, polypeptide,
polysaccharide, primary structure, protein, quaternary structure, ribonucleic acid (RNA),
saturated, secondary structure, starch, steroid, sucrose, tertiary structure, trans fat, unsaturated

Use the Web

There are some excellent exercises and questions about the principles of carbon-based
chemistry and the four kinds of large biological molecules at [Link].

Answers

Review the Concepts 4. H

Exercise 1: H C H
1. H H H H H
H H H
H C C C C C H
H C C C C H
H H H H H
H H H H C5H12. They are isomers.
Carbon has 4 electrons in an outer shell that can or
hold 8. It completes its outer shell by sharing with H
four other atoms. H C H
H H
2. H H H H C4H10
H C C C H
H C C C C H H H
H C H
H H H H
H
3. H H H H H C5H10

H C C C C C H

H H H
or

H H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

5. H H Exercise 9: 1. H 2. G 3. J 4. D 5. F 6. D 7. C
8. K 9. J 10. I 11. A 12. E 13. B 14. K or D
C C
Exercise 10: 1. fats 2. steroids 3. energy
H H 4. glycerol 5. unsaturated 6. plant oils
H C H H C H H C H H C H
7. cardiovascular disease 8. butter 9. corn oil
H H 10. cell membranes
C C C C
Test Your Knowledge
H H H H
Multiple Choice: 1. c 2. a 3. c 4. e 5. d 6. b
7. e 8. c 9. d 10. d 11. b 12. e 13. d 14. a
Without double bond: 10 Hs. With double bond:
8 Hs. Essay: 1. Structural proteins form body parts such
as fibers in tendons and ligaments. Contractile
Exercise 2: 4 hydroxyls, 6 carbonyls, 2 carboxyls,
proteins in muscles are responsible for movement.
5 aminos, 1 phosphate, 1 methyl
Storage proteins such as albumin store amino
Exercise 3: 1. D 2. D 3. H 4. H 5. D 6. D acids. Defensive proteins called antibodies fight
7. H 8. D 9. H 10. H infection. Transport proteins such as hemoglobin
Exercise 4: 1. monosaccharides 2. polysaccha- carry substances. Some hormones are signal pro-
rides 3. proteins 4. fats 5. starch 6. glucose teins, which convey messages from cell to cell.
7. dehydration 8. water 9. hydrolysis Receptor proteins respond to signals. An enzyme
10. disaccharide 11. ring 12. six 13. cellulose is a protein that catalyzes chemical changes.
14. linked 15. digesting 16. fiber 17. disaccha- 2. Animal fats are saturated; their fatty acids con-
ride 18. glucose 19. fructose 20. monosaccharide tain no double bonds and can pack together tightly
21. starch 22. glucose 23. obesity 24. type and solidify at room temperature. Plant oils are un-
2 diabetes 25. hydrophilic 26. isomers saturated; their fatty acids contain double bonds,
27. C6H12O6 28. dehydration 29. glycogen which cause kinks that prevent them from packing
30. starch 31. glucose together and solidifying.
Exercise 5: 3. The secondary and tertiary levels of protein
structure are maintained mostly by relatively
A S
H Y D R O G E N AT E D T R A N S weak hydrogen bonds and ionic bonds. These
H E weak bonds are easily disrupted by changes in
C H O L E S T E R O L the protein’s environment.
R O 4. Glucose: one circle. Maltose: two joined circles.
P H O S P H O L I P I D Starch: a chain of linked circles. See Figures 4, 5,
S D S and 7 in the text. Maltose is a disaccharide. Starch
H C S A
is a polysaccharide.
G L Y C E R O L L F A T T Y
D E U 5. See Figures 13A–13D in the text.
T R I G L Y C E R I D E R
O O W A X Apply the Concepts
P D S F A T
H O I A N E Multiple Choice: 1. e 2. d 3. c 4. d 5. d 6. b
O I L S U N S A T U R A T E D 7. e 8. a 9. a 10. e 11. a 12. a 13. a
B B B Essay: 1. Every starch molecule is a polymer of
I P L A Q U E O glucose monomers, which are all the same, so starch
C E L molecules differ only in length. A protein molecule
L I P I D S
can be composed of 20 kinds of amino acid
C
monomers. These can be arranged in chains of an
almost infinite number of different sequences and
Exercise 6: See Figures 11 A, B, and C in the text. lengths, producing many different kinds of proteins.
Exercise 7: 1. transport 2. contractile 3. defen- 2. A protein is folded in a specific three-dimen-
sive 4. structural 5. signal 6. receptor sional shape, and the function of a protein such as
7. storage 8. enzyme an enzyme usually depends on its ability to bind to
Exercise 8: 1. quaternary DF 2. tertiary AIJK some other molecule because of its specific shape.
3. secondary EH 4. primary BCGL The shape of these enzyme molecules allows them

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 Study Guides: The Molecules of Cells

to fit a starch molecule. The glucose monomers of 4. See Figure 1 in the text. Make sure every C
cellulose are linked together in a different orienta- forms four bonds and every H forms one bond.
tion, forming a rod instead of a coil. Apparently the Isomers have the same molecular formulas, but
enzymes do not fit the cellulose structure. their structures differ.
3. The hydrogen and ionic bonds that maintain the 5. The body stores excess glucose in the form of
three-dimensional shape of a protein are fairly weak. glycogen, a polysaccharide. We can draw on this
A slight change in the environment can alter these store of sugar between meals. Since Fred cannot
bonds, change the shape of the protein, and impair produce glycogen, he cannot store as much sugar
its function, even if the covalent bonds that hold the and must eat more often to provide his cells with
amino acids together in the protein are unaffected. glucose “fuel.”
The main function of starch is to store glucose; the 6. The number of possible tripeptides is 20  20 
three-dimensional shape of the molecule is relatively 20 = 8,000. The number of possible polypeptides
unimportant. A much more drastic change is needed 100 amino acids long is 20100 — a very large
to break the covalent bonds in the starch molecule, number indeed!
separate the glucose subunits, and alter its function.

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