Unit I
Computer Systems and Organization
Computer Systems and Organisation
Basics Computer
Types of Memory
Organisation
Introduction
RAM
Input Unit
Output Unit ROM
CPU
Secondary Memory
Memory
Introduction
In Today’s digital world,
Computer emerges into the
following applications areas
like:
Email applications
Internet accessing
Printing files
playing music & video
Capturing Photos
Basic Computer Organisation
Logical structure of a computer
Functioning and overall
performance
Input Process Output
Input Unit
Takes input and converts it into binary
form.
Keyboard: typewriter like device which is
used to type in the letters, digits and
commands.
Mouse: Mouse is pointing device which
controls movement of pointer on screen.
Microphone (Mic): A mic converts the
sound received into computer’s format
(digitized sound or digital audio).
Output Unit
Converts the output in binary form to
human readable format.
Monitors: Displays information in a
similar way to television screen. The
picture on a monitor is made up of
pixels.
Printers: Deliver information by means
of printed characters on paper.
Speakers: Receive the sound in form of
electric current from the sound card
and then convert it to sound format
audible to user.
CPU
Main control centre and processing
unit.
Brain of the computer.
Guides, directs, controls and governs
the performance of a computer.
Sub Components:
i) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
ii) Control Unit (CU)
iii) Registers.
CPU – Arithmetic Logic Unit
Takes two input and produces an
output.
Performs Arithmetic (+, -, *, /)
Operations.
Performs Logical (<, >, =, , >=, !=)
operations. (Returns Boolean Value
True / False).
CPU – Control Unit
Controls Interpretation and
Manipulation of Data.
Sends control signals until the
required operations are done
properly by ALU and memory.
Program execution.
Controls the flow of data .
CPU – Registers
Registers are a type of computer
memory used to quickly accept,
store, and transfer data and
instructions that are being used
immediately by the CPU. The
registers used by the CPU are often
termed as Processor registers.
A processor register may hold an
instruction, a storage address, or
any data (such as bit sequence or
individual characters).
Data Register
Memory Address Register
Instruction Register
CPU – Memory
Temporarily keeps information and data
Each memory location has a unique
memory address.
When the power is switched off,
everything stored in the memory gets
erased.
Memory of a computer can be thought of
as cells.
Each of these cells is further broken
down into smaller parts known as bits.
bits – biNARY DIGIts
1 Byte - 8 bits Nibble – 4 bits
Units of Memory
Random Access Memory (RAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM): Made up of
transistors and capacitors. The
amount of time taken to produce data
required from memory, from the start of
access until the availability of data is
called Memory Access Time.
(50 to 150 nanoseconds).
Static RAM: Made up of flip-flops and
offer faster access times (about 10
nanoseconds).
Static RAM vs Dynamic RAM
Read Only Memory (ROM)
A Read Only Memory is a memory
unit that performs the read
operation only. Information stored
in a ROM is made permanent and
cannot be altered
It is Non-Volatile.
Eg: Monitor Program controlling a
machine.
It is slower than RAM.
Types of ROM
i) PROM (Programmable ROM)
ii) EPROM (Erasable Programmable
ROM)
iii) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable
Programmable ROM)
iv) Flash EEPROM
v) Mask ROM
RAM vs ROM
Secondary Memory
Store data and information
permanently.
Also known as Storage devices.
Secondary memory is also called non-
volatile memory because data are
stored permanently even after the
shut down of the computer. Secondary
memory is also called as secondary
storage.
It is not expensive than primary
memory. Secondary memory is slower
than primary memory but secondary
memory stores huge amounts of data.
A user can store data and the user can
retrieve data when the user wants to.
Secondary Memory
Secondary memory is not
accessed directly by the Central
Processing Unit(CPU).
Instead, data of secondary
memory is first loaded into
Random Access Memory(RAM)
and then transferred to the
Central Processing Unit(CPU).
Software
In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions
or commands that tell a computer what to do.
In other words, the software is a computer program that provides a
set of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell the
computer what to do.
For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
•System Software
Types of
•Application Software
Software
•Libraries
Types of Software
Types of Software
System Software – controls
the internal operations.
Application Software – carry
out the operations for a
specific application.
System Software
Operating System – Interface between
a user and the hardware.
Language Processor – translate the
source into object code or machine
code.
Operating System
Operating System – Interface between a user and the hardware.
Single User OS
Multi User OS
Time Sharing OS
Real Time OS
Multiprocessing OS
Distributed OS
Operating System - Examples
MS-DOS
Windows
Unix
Linux
Mac OS
Language Processors / Translators
Compilers, interpreters, translate programs written in high-level
languages into machine code that a computer understands and
assemblers translate programs written in low-level or assembly
language into machine code.
Assembler
Translates Assembly language code into machine code.
Interpreter
Convert source code into Object code using line by line.
Compiler
Gives error list along with the line numbers
Application Software
Set of programs to carry out operations for a specified application
Packages
Utilities
Customised Software
Software Libraries
General Purpose Application Software
Designed to suits the user needs and requirements.
Utilities / Utility Software
Ensure the smooth functioning of the computer.
Text Editor
Backup Utility
Compression Utility
Disk Defragmenter
Antivirus Software
Customised Software
Developed to meet the general requirements of a business.
Inventory Management
System
Payroll System
Financial Accounting
Hotel Management
Reservations Systems
Software Libraries
Predefined / Prewritten and
available to use code.
Used in the development of
new software programs and
applications
NumPy – Numeric Python
SciPy – Scientific Python
Panda Library
Functions of Operating Systems
File Management
An operating system’s (OS) primary function is to manage
files and folders.
Operating systems are responsible for managing the files
on a computer. This includes creating, opening, closing,
and deleting files. The operating system is also responsible
for organizing the files on the disk.
Functions of Operating Systems
Device Management
Operating systems provide essential functions for
managing devices connected to a computer. These
functions include allocating memory, processing input and
output requests, and managing storage devices.
This device could be a keyboard, mouse, printer, or any
other devices you may have connected.
Functions of Operating Systems
Process Management
The operating system’s responsibility is to manage the
processes running on your computer.
This includes starting and stopping programs, allocating
resources, and managing memory usage.
The operating system ensures that the programs running
on your computer should be compatible.
It’s also responsible for enforcing program security, which
helps to keep your computer safe from potential attacks.
Functions of Operating Systems
Memory Management
Allocating/deallocating memory to store programs.
Deciding the amount of memory that should be allocated
to the program.
Memory distribution while multiprocessing.
Update the status in case memory is freed
Keeps record of how much memory is used and how much
is unused.
Functions of Operating Systems
Job Accounting
Keeps record of all the activities taking place on the
system.
Keeps record of information regarding resources, memory,
errors, resources, etc.
Responsible for Program swapping(in and out) in memory
Keeps track of memory usage and accordingly assigns
memory
Opening and closing and writing to peripheral devices.
Creating a file system for organizing files and directories.
Number Systems
The four most common number system types are:
1) Decimal number system (Base- 10)
2) Binary number system (Base- 2)
3) Octal number system (Base-8)
4) Hexadecimal number system (Base- 16)
Decimal Number System
Decimal number system can contain digits from 0 to 9.
So base of decimal number system is 10.
Decimal numbers are represented with 10 as subscript
to the value.
Examples of decimal numbers are:
1) (1234)10
2) (5534)10
Binary Number System
Binary number system can contain two digits 0 and 1.
So base of binary number system is 2.
Binary numbers are represented with 2 as subscript to
the value.
Examples of binary numbers are:
1) (1101)2
2) (1110011)2
Octal Number System
Octal number system can contain digits from 0 to 7.
So base of octal number system is 8.
Octal numbers are represented with 8 as subscript to
the value.
Examples of octal numbers are:
1) (561)8
2) (1754)8
Hexa Decimal Number System
Hexadecimal number system can contain digits from 0 to 9
and alphabets from A to F where
A=10 B=11 C=12 D=13 E=14 F=15
So base of hexadecimal number system is 16. Hexadecimal
numbers are represented with 16 as subscript to the value.
Examples of hexadecimal numbers are:
1) (A74)16
2) (91.B3)16
Decimal to Binary Conversion
(17)10 = (?)2 = (10001)2
Decimal to Octal Conversion
Decimal to Hexa-Decimal Conversion
Binary to Decimal Conversion
Octal to Decimal Conversion
Hexa-Decimal to Decimal Conversion
Octal to Binary Conversion
Represent 3-bits combinations
for each Octal digit
Hexa-Decimal to Binary Conversion
Represent 4-bits combinations
for each Hex digit
Binary to Octal Conversion
Group 3-bits combinations to
represent Octal digit
Binary to Hexa-Decimal Conversion
Group 4-bits combinations to
represent Hex digit
Encoding Schemes
The mechanism of converting data into an equivalent binary code using
specific code is called Encoding.
When the key ‘A’ is pressed in the following figure, it is internally mapped
to a decimal value 65 (code value), which is then converted to its
equivalent binary value for the computer to understand.
ASCII
ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange and pronounced as “ask-ee”.
This code is the most widely used alphanumeric code in computers.
It can represent 27 characters. i.e., 128 characters.
Characters ASCII Codes
A to Z 65 to 90
a to z 97 to 122
0 to 9 48 to 57
Space 32
ISCII
It stands for Indian Script / Standard Code for Information Interchange.
It was developed in 1991 to use the Indian language on computers and the
Bureau of Indian Standards adopted the ISCII.
It is an 8-bit code and can represent 28 characters.
So, it is capable of encoding 256 characters.
These codes are used for 10 Indian scripts Devanagari, Punjabi,
Gujarati, Odia, Bengali, Assami, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and
Tamil. ISCII code retains all ASCII characters also.
Unicode
Unicode represents Universal Code.
Unicode provides a unique number for every character irrespective of the
platform, program, and language.
It is a character coding system designed to support the worldwide
interchange, processing, and display of the written texts of diverse
languages.
Unicode is a 16-bit code capable of representing more than 65000
characters.
It was designed for the purpose of representing almost all the languages
in computers.
The Unicode has different versions like UTF – 8, UTF – 16, UTF – 32.
UTF – Unicode Transformation Format.
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