2014.

BY BAHODIR RUSTAMOV
 CONTENTS:

1. Tenses…………………………………………………………………
2. Passives/ It’s said that…/ Have something done…………………...
3. Modals………………………………………………………………...
4. Time clauses/ Conditionals………………………………………......
5. Reported speech………………………………………………………
6. Questions……………………………………………………………...
7. Word order & Conjunctions…………………………………………
8. Relative clauses……………………………………………………….
9. Adjectives and adverbs……………………………………………….
[Link]………………………………………………………………
11.–ing/ to verb…………………………………………………………...
[Link]…………………………………………………………………
[Link]……………………………………………………………
[Link] verbs…………………………………………………………..
CHAPTER 1. TENSES.
UNIT 1. TO BE

LESSON 1. PRESENT “TO BE”.

It’s impossible to make sentences without verbs in English. So, if there isn’t a verb in sentences we use “to be”.

My car is new.

There are three “to be” forms in the Present Tense:

 “am” is used with “I”. I am a student.

 “is” is used with 3 person singular.
rd
My friend is twenty years old.
 “are” is used with “you” and all the plurals. You are right. My parents are very old.

Structure:

P: S+to be… This book is mine.

N: S+to be+not… This book isn’t mine.

Sh.A.Q.: To be+S…? Is this book yours?

Yes, S(p)+tobe. Yes, it is.

No, S(p)+to be+not. No, it isn’t.

Q: Q.W.+to be+S…? Whose is this book?

LESSON 2. PAST “TO BE”.

There are two “to be” forms in the Past Tense:

 “was” is the past form of “am” and “is”, and it’s used with “I” and 3rd person singular:

I was at home an hour ago. That man was at the party yesterday.

 “were” is the past form of “are”, and it’s used with “you” and all the plurals:

You were a little girl when I was studying at university. They were in the garden at 5.

Structure:

P: S+was/were… She was at work last night.

N: S+wasn’t/weren’t… She wasn’t at work last night.

Sh.A.Q: Was/Were+S…? Was she at work last night?

Yes, S(p)+was/were. Yes, she was.

No, S(p)+wasn’t/weren’t No, she wasn’t.

Q: Q.W.+was/were+S…? Where was she last night?

LESSON 3. “TO BE” WITH THE FUTURE FORM “WILL”

 “will be” is used for all persons:

I will be a student next year. She will be married soon. They will be present at the meeting.

Structure:

P: S+will be… It will be a nice day tomorrow.

N: S+won’t be… It won’t be a nice day tomorrow.

Sh.A.Q: Will+S+be…? Will it be a nice day tomorrow?

Yes, S(p)+will. Yes, it will.

No, S(p)+won’t No, it won’t.

Q: Q.W.+will+S+be…? What day will it be tomorrow?

UNIT 2. SIMPLE TENSES.

LESSON 1. PRESENT SIMPLE.

Structure:

P: S+V(s)… I work in a school. Peter lives in Akhangaran.

N: S+don’t/doesn’t+V… I don’t work in a school. Peter doesn’t live in Akhangaran.

Sh.A.Q: Do/Does+S+V…? Do you work in a school? Does Peter live in Akhangaran?

Yes, S(p)+do/does. Yes, I do. Yes, he does.

No, S(p)+don’t/doesn’t. No, I don’t. No, he doesn’t.

Q: Q.W.+do/does+S+V…? Where do you work? Where does Peter live?

 The Present Simple is used to talk about usual and repeated actions and routines:
I watch TV in the evenings. My father goes to work at 9.
 The Present Simple is used to talk about habits:
Cathy goes to bed very late.
 The Present Simple is used to talk about general facts:
My brother works in a bank. Water boils at 100˚Celsius.
 The Present Simple is used for sports commentaries, reviews and narration:
Hill kicks the ball and passes it to Dawson.(sports commentary) Laura Hunt acts superbly in the
film.(review) So, the prince tells her…(narration)
 The Present Simple is used to give suggestions with “Why don’t you…?”:
- I’m very tired.
- Why don’t you go to bed?
 The Present Simple is used to talk about future according to timetables, TV programmes and
announcements:
The film starts at 9 o’clock. The train leaves Plymouth at 10:30. The Million start their concert at 5 on 21
april.
 The Present Simple is used to say how often we do some actions:
I often have dinner at my friend’s.

Adverbs of frequency

100% 75% 50% 25% 10% 0%

always usually often sometimes rarely/seldom never

 Adverbs of Frequency come before the main verb but after the verb “to be” and auxiliary or modal verbs:
I always do my homework at home. She is always late for school.
 “sometimes” and “usually” can also come at the beginning or at the end:
Sometimes I drink wine before bed.
 “rarely”, ”seldom” and “never” always come in positive structure, but in negative meaning:
She never has breakfast.
State verbs

State verbs are only used in simple tenses.

 Verbs of thinking and opinions
believe think understand suppose expect agree doubt know remember forget
mean imagine realize deserve prefer
I believe you.
Do you understand?
I know his face, but I forget his name.

 Verbs of emotions and feelings

like love hate care hope wish want admit
I like black coffee.
Do you want to go out?
I don’t care.
 Verbs of having and being
belong own have possess contain cost seem appear need depend on weigh come from
resemble
This book belongs to fane.
How much does it cost?
He has a lot of money.

 Verbs of the senses

Look hear taste smell feel
The food smells good.
 We often use can when the subject is a person.
Can you smell something burning?
I can hear someone crying.
 Some of these verbs can be used in the Present Continuous, but with a change of meaning. In the
continuous, the verb expresses an activity, not a state. Compare:
1. I think she’s Italian. (=believe)
I’m thinking about my holiday. (=am considering)
2. The soup tastes awful. (=has an awful flavor)
She’s tasting the soup. (=is tasting the flavor of)
3. I can see an aeroplane in the sky. (=perceive with my eyes)
I’m seeing Jill tonight. (=am meeting)
4. Susan looks tired. (=appears)
Susan is looking at some photos. (=is studying)
5. The room smells of perfume. (=has the smell)
The cat is smelling its food. (=is sniffing)
6. This towel feels soft. (=has a soft texture)
Jill is feeling her son’s forehead. (=is touching)
7. He is selfish. (=character – permanent state)
He is being selfish. (behavior – temporary situation)
8. He has a sports car. (=possesses)
He’s having lunch now. (=is eating – idiom)
Some idioms with have include:
| breakfast/ lunch/ dinner, etc.
| a bath/ shower/ swim/ party, etc.
have | a(n) accident/ experience/ dream, etc.
| a baby
| difficulty/ fun/ trouble, etc.
LESSON 2. PAST SIMPLE

Structure:

P: S+Ved/V2… We played football yesterday. My brother made a cake last night.

N: S+didn’t+V… We didn’t play football yesterday. My brother didn’t make a cake last night.

Sh.A.Q: Did+S+V…? Did you play football yesterday? Did your brother make a cake yesterday?

Yes, S(p)+did. Yes, we did. Yes, he did.

No, S(p)+ didn’t No, we didn’t. No, he didn’t.

Q: Q.W.+did+S+V…? When did you play football? What did your brother make?

 The Past Simple is used to talk about past actions which happened at a definite time in the past:

We went to a restaurant last night.

 The Past Simple is used to tell about past usual actions:

We had breakfast in the garden when I was a child.

 The Past Simple is used to talk about people who are no longer alive:

Alisher Navoiy lived in Khirat.

 The Past Simple is used to talk about actions which started at the said time in the past:

I did my homework at 8 yesterday evening. (I started at 8.)

 The Past Simple is used to tell past actions in chronological order:

Yesterday, I went to Tashkent, I bought some fruit and went to visit my granny.

 For past usual actions we can also use “used to” or “would”:

We used to have breakfast in the garden when I was a child. We would have milk and bread.

 We can also use “used to” for past usual states:

There used to be a big tree in the garden.

 IRREGULAR VERBS

Base form Past Simple Past participle Base form Past Simple Past participle

Be was/were Been leave left left

Beat beat Beaten lend lent lent
Become became Become let let let
Begin began Begun lie lay lain
Bend bent Bent light lighted/lit lighted/lit
Bite bit Bitten lose lost lost
Blow blew Blown make made made
Break broke Broken mean meant meant
Bring brought Brought meet met met
Build built Built must had to had to
Buy bought Bought pay paid paid
Can could been able put put put
Catch caught Caught read /ri:d/ read /red/ read /red/
Choose chose Chosen ride rode ridden
Come came Come ring rang rung
Cost cost Cost rise rose risen
Cut cut Cut run ran run
Dig dug Dug say said said
Do did Done see saw seen
Draw drew Drawn sell sold sold
Dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt send sent sent
Drink drank Drunk set set set
Drive drove Driven shake shook shaken
Eat ate Eaten shine shone shone
Fall fell Fallen shoot shot shot
Feed fed Fed show showed shown
Feel felt Felt shut shut shut
Fight fought fought sing sang sung
Find found found sink sank sunk
Fit fit Fit sit sat sat
Fly flew flown sleep slept slept
Forget forgot forgotten slide slid slid
Forgive forgave forgiven speak spoke spoken
Freeze froze frozen spend spent spent
Get got Got spoil spoiled/spoilt spoiled/spoilt
Give gave Given spread spread spread
Go went been/gone stand stood stood
Grow grew grown steal stole stolen
Hang hanged/hung hanged/hung stick stuck stuck
Have had Had swim swam swum
Hear heard Heard take took taken
Hide hid hidden teach taught taught
Hit hit Hit tear tore torn
Hold held Held tell told told
Hurt hurt Hurt think thought thought
Keep kept Kept throw threw thrown
Kneel knelt Knelt understand understood understood
Know knew known wake woke woken
Lay laid Laid wear wore worn
Lead led Led win won won
Learn learned/learnt learned/learnt write wrote written
LESSON 3. FUTURE SIMPLE

Structure:

P: S+will+V… They will call tomorrow.

N: S+won’t+V… They won’t call tomorrow.

Sh.A.Q: Will+S+V…? Will they call tomorrow?

Yes, S(p)+will. Yes, they will.

No, S(P)+won’t. No, they won’t

Q: Q.W.+will+S+V…? When will they call?

 The Future Simple is used to talk about actions which will start at the said time in the future:

I will do some tests at 9 tomorrow. (I’ll start at 9)

 The Future Simple is used to tell future actions in chronological order:

Tomorrow, I’ll do my homework, watch TV a little and then I’ll go to bed.

 “Will” is used to …
- offer our service: I’ll pay for you
- refuse or agree to do something: Ok, I’ll repair your computer. My car won’t start in the mornings.
- promise: I promise I won’t tell it to anyone.
- ask someone to do something for us: Will you pass the salt, please.

 “Will” is usually used with the following words:

- Probably I’ll probably be a bit late this evening.
- (I’m)sure You must meet Ann. I’m sure you’ll like her.
- (I)expect I expect Carol will get the job.
- (I)think Do you think we will win the match?
- (I)hope I hope I’ll pass the exam.

 “Shall” can be used instead of “will” only with “I” and “we”. “Shall” can’t be used with other persons:

I shall go to Tashkent tomorrow. We shall play football with them one day.

 To make suggestion or to ask for suggestion we use “Shall I” or “Shall we”:

Shall I close the window, it’s a bit cold here? Shall we watch the football match together?
Going to

Structure:

P: S+to be+going to+V… I’m going to travel the world one day.

N: S+to be+not+going to+V… I’m not going to study at university.

Sh. A.Q: To be+S+going to+V…? Are you going to travel to America?

Yes, S(p)+to be. Yes, I am.

No, S(p)+to be+not. No, I’m not.

Q: Q.W.+to be+S+going to+V…? Where are you going to travel?

 “Will” is used to talk about just future facts:  “Going to” is used to talk about future
My mother will be at home tomorrow. intentions and dreams:
I’m going to be a doctor when I grow up.
 “Will” is used to make the first decision:  Going to is used to talk about decisions
- Let’s have a little party. which were made before:
- Ok, I’ll bring some drinks. We decided to have a party with my
colleagues. And, I’m going to bring some
drinks.
 “Will” is used to just predict about future  “Going to” is used to predict about future
without any evidence now: according to the situation now:
Don’t worry you will pass the exam. Look at those black clouds, it’s going to rain.
UNIT 3. CONTINUOUS TENSES.

LESSON 1. PRESENT CONTINUOUS.

Structure:

P: S+to be+Ving… They are playing football.

N: S+to be+not+Ving... They aren’t playing football.

Sh.A.Q: To be+S+Ving…? Are they playing football?

Yes, S(p)+to be. Yes, they are.

No, S(p)+to be+not. No, they aren’t.

Q: Q.W.+to be+S+Ving…? Where are they playing football?

 The Present Continuous is used to talk about actions happening now. (at the timeof speaking):
I’m doing my homework now.
 The Present Continuous is used to talk about longer actions which were started but not finished, yet.
It isn’t necessary that the action is happening now:
I’m building a house.
 The Present Continuous is used to talk about temporary actions which are different from usual situations:
She’s working hard this week. (usually, she doesn’t work hard)
 The Present Continuous is used with “always” when we want to express our irritation at actions which
happen too often:
You shouldn’t keep your passport with you. You are always losing things.
 The Present Continuous is used for changing situations:
The weather is getting hotter, summer is coming.
 The Present Continuous is used for arrangements and plans:
I’m meeting with Ann at the bus stop at 5 o’clock.

LESSON 2. PAST CONTINUOUS.

Structure:

P: S+was/were+Ving… I was repairing my car at 5 yesterday.

N: S+wasn’t/weren’t+Ving… I wasn’t repairing my car at 5 yesterday.

Sh.A.Q: Was/Were+S+ Ving...? Were you repairing your car at 5 yesterday?

Yes, S(p)+was/were. Yes, I was.

No, S(p)+wasn’t/weren’t. No, I wasn’t.

Q: Q.W.+was/were+S+ Ving...? When were you repairing your car?

  The Past Continuous is used to talk about actions which were in progress at the said time in the past:
My mother was cooking a meal at 8 o’clock yesterday evening.
 The Past Continuous is used to describe situations and views in the past:
When I looked out of the window, the sun was shining, birds were singing, and some children were playing
a ball.
 The Past Continuous is used to say that one action happened in the middle of another action. (interrupted
action):
I was working at my computer when you called me.

LESSON 3. FUTURE CONTINUOUS.

Structure:

P: S+will be +Ving… She will be cleaning the house when you get there.

N: S+won’t be+Ving… She won’t be cleaning the house when you get there.

Sh.A.Q: Will+S+be+Ving…? Will she be cleaning the house when I get there?

Yes, S(p)+will. Yes, she will.

No, S(p)+won’t. No, she won’t.

Q: Q.W.+will+S+be+Ving…? What will she be doing when I get there?

 The Future Continuous is used to talk about actions which will be in progress at the said time in the future:
I will be having a shower at 9 o’clock.
 The Future Continuous is used to describe situations and views in the future:
When you come home tonight, we will be watching football with friends, everybody will be shouting.
 The Future Continuous is used to say that one action will happen in the middle of another action.
(interrupted action):
I will be working on y new project when you arrive.
 The Future Continuous is used to talk about future plans like “going to” and “Present Continuous”:
I’ll be meeting the new tourists at 5 o’clock, so I can’t go with you.
 The Future Continuous is used to ask about someone’s plans especially, when we want something from
that person:
- What will you be doing at 5 o’clock this afternoon?
- Nothing, why are you asking?
 The Future Continuous is used for actions which will definitely happen in the future as the result of a
routine or arrangement:
- Shall I inform the rest of the team?
- No, I’ll do it. I’ll be seeing them at the meeting anyway.
UNIT 4. PERFECT TENSES.

LESSON 1. PRESENT PERFECT.

Structure:

Present Perfect Simple: Present Perfect Continuous:

P: S+have/has+Ved/V3… P: S+have/has+been+Ving…

N: S+haven’t/hasn’t+Ved/V3… N: S+haven’t/hasn’t+been+Ving…

Sh.A.Q: Have/Has+S+Ved/V3…? Sh.A.Q: Have/Has+S+been+Ving…?

Yes, S(p)+have/has. Yes, S(p)+have/has.

No, S(p)+haven’t/hasn’t. No, S(p)+haven’t/hasn’t.

Q: Q.W.+have/has+S+Ved/V3…? Q: Q.W.+have/has+S+Ved/V3…?

 The Present Perfect is used to show the present result of past actions. Signal words:
just-comes before the main verb
already- comes before the main verb
yet-comes at the end
I’ve just had lunch. (=I’m full)
She’s already repaired the computer. (=you can use it now, it works)
I haven’t done my homework, yet. (=I still have to do my homework)
 Present Perfect is used to say if something happened or been done during the time which started in the past
and continued till now. Our lives also started in the past and continued till now. So, if we say whether
someone has done or hasn’t done something in their lives we use Present Perfect. Signal words:
ever- comes before the main verb
never- comes before the main verb
Have you repaired my car? (since the time I brought it to you until now)
I’ve never sailed in the sea. (in my life)
Have you ever lost your passport? (in your life)
 The Present Perfect is used to say how long an action continued till now. Signal words:
how long-is a question word
since-is the starting point
for- is the duration
How long have you worked here?
I’ve been learning English for afes.
I’ve known my best friend since I was a child.
 The Present Perfect is used with unfinished time expressions: today/this week/this month…
I’ve written ten pages today.
 The Present Perfect is used to give news about recent happenings, but if we continue the conversation we
use past tenses. Signal words:
recently- comes at the end
so far- comes at the end
- You know, she has recently bought a new car.
- Really? What kind of car did she buy?
 The differences between the Perfect Simple and the Perfect Continuous

 The Perfect Simple is used to show the result of a finished action:

I have hurt my leg. (=it’s hurting now)
 The Perfect Continuous is used to explain the consequence of an action which continued longer and maybe
not finished, yet:
She has been sunbathing. (=explaining why she is so brown)

 The Perfect Simple is used to say how much work has been done. (amount of actions):
I’ve read three books by Alisher Navoiy.
 The Perfect Continuous is used to say how long has someone been doing something. (duration of actions):
She has been learning English for three years.

LESSON 2. PAST PERFECT.

Structure:

Past Perfect Simple: Past Perfect Continuous:

P: S+had+Ved/V3… P: S+had+been+Ving…

N: S+hadn’t+Ved/V3… N: S+hadn’t+been+Ving…

Sh.A.Q: Had+S+Ved/V3…? Sh.A.Q: Had+S+been+Ving…?

Yes, S(p)+had. Yes, S(p)+had.

No, S(p)+hadn’t. No, S(p)+hadn’t.

Q: Q.W.+had+S+VedV3…? Q: Q.W.+had+S+been+Ving…?

 The Past Perfect is used to talk about actions which happened before the said time in the past:
I had done my homework by 9 o’clock yesterday.
 The Past Perfect is used to talk about actions which happened before another action in the past:
When my father came, my mother had prepared the dinner.
LESSON 3. FUTURE PERFECT.

Structure:

Future Perfect Simple: Future Perfect Continuous:

P: S+will+have+Ved/V3… P: S+will+have+been+Ving…

N: S+won’t+have+Ved/V3… N: S+won’t+have+been+Ving…

Sh.A.Q: Will+S+have+Ved/V3…? Sh.A.Q: Will+S+have+been+Ving…?

Yes, S(p)+will. Yes, S(p)+will.

No, S(p)+won’t. No, S(p)+won’t.

Q: Q.W.+will+S+have+Ved/V3…? Q: Q.W.+will+S+have+been+Ving…?

 The Future Perfect is used to talk about actions which will have been finished before the said time in the
future:
They will have closed the shop by 9 p.m.
 The Future Perfect is used to talk about actions which will have been finished before another action in the
future:
He’ll have sold his car by the time you call him.
She’ll have finished her work when you get there.
CHAPTER 2. PASSIVE VOICE/ IT’S SAID THAT…/ HAVE SOMETHING DONE…

UNIT 5 PASSIVE VOICE.

 Passive voice is especially used when the result of an action is more important than the doer of the action
and when the attention is focused on the done action more than who did it:
Coca Cola was invented in 1886 in Atlanta. This room is cleaned every four hours.

 Sentences can be changed from active into passive only if there is a verb and an object:
I use this computer 4 hours every day. This computer is used 4 hours every day.

 In passive voice the doer of the action is unknown or not so important. If it’s necessary to give the doer it
can be added at the end with “by”:
This computer is used 4 hours every day by me.

 When the active is changed into passive, the object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. In
passive voice we add “to be” according to the tense and we use the verb in past participle(V3) form:
I clean the room. The room is cleaned.
He broke the car. The car was broken.

 Sometimes it’s possible to use “get” instead of “to be” in passive constructions:
I got hurt in the accident. = I was hurt in the accident.
Did Ann get offered the job? = Was Ann offered the job?

“get” is used to say that something happens to someone or something. Often the action is not planned; it
happens by chance. In other types of situations “get” is not usually possible:
The dog got run over by a car. = The dog was run over by a car.

Passive constructions.

1. to do – to be done
2. doing – being done
3. do – be done
4. going to do – going to be done
5. S+M.V.+do – S+M.V.+be+ done
 Structure:
EGA+FE’L+Vsiz TO’L+Vli TO’L+ JOY+VAQT

Tenses ACTIVE

ASPECT→ TO BE SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

TIME↓
PAST S+WAS/WERE.. S+Ved/V2.. S+WAS/WERE+Ving.. S+HAD+Ved/V3.. S+HAD+BEEN+Ving..

PRESENT S+AM/IS/ARE.. S+Vs.. S+AM/IS/ARE+Ving.. S+HAVE/HAS+Ved/V3.. S+HAVE/HAS+BEEN+Ving..

FUTURE S+WILL+BE.. S+WILL+V.. S+WILL+BE+Ving.. S+WILL+HAVE+Ved/V3.. S+WILL+HAVE+BEEN+Ving..

PASSIVE
ASPECT→ SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
TIME↓
PAST S+WAS/WERE+Ved/V3.. S+WAS/WERE+BEING+Ved/V3.. S+HAD+BEEN+Ved/V3.. S+HAD+BEEN+BEING+Ve/V3..

PRESENT S+AM/IS/ARE+Ved/V3.. S+AM/IS/ARE+BEING+Ved/V3.. S+HAVE/HAS+BEEN+Ved/V3.. S+HAVE/HAS+ BEEN+BEING+Ve/V3..

FUTURE S+WILL+BE+Ved/V3.. S+WILL+BE+BEING+Ved/V3.. S+WILL+HAVE+BEEN+Ved/V3. S+WILL+HAVE+ BEEN+BEING+Ve/V3..

UNIT 6. IT’S SAID THAT…

 The structure It’s said that… is used when we don’t exactly know the situation and say what we heard
about the situation. (it’s according to what people say about it):
It’s said that George was a rich man before.= George is said to have been a rich man before.

You can also use these structures with:

Thought believed reported understood known expected alleged considered

Structures:

It’s said that Henry eats ten eggs a day. = Henry is said to eat ten eggs a day.
It’s believed that the wanted man is living in New York. = The wanted man is believed to be living in New York.
It’s expected that the strike will begin tomorrow. = The strike is expected to begin tomorrow.
It’s alleged that he stole £ 60. = He’s alleged to have stolen £ 60.
It was alleged that he stole £ 60. = He was alleged to have stolen £ 60.
It’s reported that two people were killed in the explosion. = Two people are reported to have been killed in the
explosion.

 Sometimes “supposed to” means “said to”:

Let’s go and see that film. It’s supposed to be a very good film. = It’s said to be a very good film.

But sometimes “supposed to” has a different meaning. It’s used to say what is planned or arranged
(and this is often different from what really happens):

I’d better hurry. It’s nearly 8 o’clock. I’m supposed to be meeting Tom at 8.15.
You were supposed to clean the windows. Why didn’t you do it?
The train was supposed to arrive at 11.30 but it was 40 minutes late.

“not supposed to” is used to say what is not allowed or not advisable:

You are not supposed to park here. (= You aren’t allowed to park here.)
Mr Collins is much better after his illness but he’s still not supposed to do any heavy work.
UNIT 7. HAVE SOMETHING DONE

 The structure “have something done” is used to say that someone makes another person to do
something for him/her:
Jill repaired the roof. (= she did it herself)
Jill had the roof repaired. (= she arranged for someone else to do it)

Structures:

have + object + past participle

Jill had the roof repaired yesterday

Where did you have your hair done?
We are having the house painted at the moment
Tom has just had a telephone installed in his flat
How often do you have your car serviced
Why don’t you have that coat cleaned?
I want to have my photograph taken.

 “get something done” is possible instead of “have something done”( mainly in informal spoken
English):
I think you should get your hair cut. (=have your hair cut)
 “have something done” sometimes has a different meaning. It means that something (often something
not nice ) happened to someone. It doesn’t mean that the person arranged it him/herself:
George had his nose broken in a fight.
He had all his money stolen in the market.
CHAPTER 3. MODAL VERBS

Features:

 Modal verbs have more than one meaning:

I can swim.(ability) Can I have some sugar.(request)
 Modal verbs aren’t used with helping verbs:
I don’t must do my homework. – wrong. I mustn’t do my homework. – right.
 Modal verbs usually have only present simple form and in other forms other verbs are used instead of
them:
I can’t speak English well, now. I will be able to speak it well after I’ve finished the course.
 If there is another verb after modal verbs they are used in infinitive form without “to” or “ing”:
May I coming in – wrong. May I to come in – wrong. May I come in – right.
 Modal verbs don’t come after other verbs instead of them other verbs are used:
I want to can play the piano – wrong. I want to be able to play the piano – right.
 Modal verbs don’t take personal suffix “s”, they are the same with all persons:
She can swim. I can swim. We can swim.

Structure:

P: S+M.V.+V… I may come later.

N: S+M.V.+not+V… I may not come tonight.

SH.A.Q: M.V.+S+V…? May I sit?

Yes, S(p) M.V. Yes, you may.

No, S(p) M.V.+not. No, you may not.

Q: Q.W.+M.V.+S+V…? Where should I meet you?

UNIT 8. ABILITY AND POSSIBILITY

 “can (do)” is used to say that something is possible or someone has the ability to do something:
You can see the sea from our bedroom window. Can you speak any foreign languages?
 “be able to” is possible instead of “can”, but “can” is more usual. But “can” has only two forms:
can(present) and could(past). So in other forms “be able to” is used instead of “can”:
I haven’t been able to sleep recently. Tom might not be able to come tomorrow.
 Sometimes could is the past of can. It is especially used with these verbs:
see hear smell taste feel remember understand:
When we went into the house, we could smell burning.
 could is also used to say that someone had the general ability to do something in the past:
I could swim when I was seven.
 But to say that someone managed to do something in one particular situation could is not possible. In this
kind of situation was/were able to is used:
The fire spread through the building very quickly but everyone was able to escape.
 The negative couldn’t is possible in all situations:
My grandfather couldn’t swim. We tried hard but we couldn’t persuade them to come with us.
UNIT 9. COULD (DO) AND COULD HAVE (DONE)

 Could (do) is used in a number of ways. Sometimes it is the past of can (do), but sometimes it has a
present or future meaning. It is used to talk about possible future actions, especially when we make
suggestions:
A: What shall we do this evening?
B: We could go to the cinema. (can is also possible here)

Could is also used to talk about possible future happenings:

There could be another rise in the price of petrol soon. (It is possible that there will be)

Sometimes could means would be able to:

Why doesn’t Tom apply for the job? He could get it.(If he applied he would be able to get it)
 The past of could (do) is could have (done). And it is used to say that someone had the ability or the
opportunity to do something but did not do it:
We didn’t go out last night. We could have gone to the cinema but we decided to stay at home.(We had
the opportunity to go to the cinema but we didn’t go)

Could have (done) is also used to say that something was possible to happen but didn’t happen:
He was lucky when he fell of the ladder. He could have hurt himself.
 Couldn’t have (done) is used to say that someone didn’t do something and anyway it wasn’t possible to
do it if that person had tried to do it:
When I went to New York last year, I decided not to stay with Linda. Later I found out that she was away
while I was there, so I couldn’t have stayed with her anyway.

UNIT 10. PROBABILITY

 When we are sure about some probability must is used in positive and can’t is used in negative:
Peter must be in the library, he can’t be at home.(because at this time he is usually in the library)
 When we the probability is lower than sureness, when it’s just possible may or might are used:
A: Where is Ann?
B: She may be in her office or she might be at home.
 If the probability is very low could is also possible to use:
She could also be in a café.( because sometimes she goes to a café to have a coffee)
 May and might are also used to express possible future happenings:
 Don’t phone at 10 o’clock I may be meeting the tourists.
 The past form of these modals of probability is:
must
can’t
may + have done
might
could

His project is ready today and it’s perfect. He must have worked with his friends. He can’t have done it
alone. He may have asked help from the teacher.
  The continuous form is:
must
can’t
may + be doing
might
could

A: What is Tom doing?

B: He must be preparing for exams, he can’t be playing with his friends, because his exams will be
tomorrow.
 Couldn’t have (done) is possible instead of can’t have (done):
She couldn’t have seen me, because she didn’t say “hello”.
 We use may/might as well to say that we should do something but only because there is no reason not to
do it and because there is nothing better to do. It means “Why not to do it? There is nothing better to do.”
You’ll have to wait an hour for the next bus, so you might as well walk.

UNIT 11. REQUESTS ,PERMISSION, OFFERS AND INVITATIONS

 We often use can or could when we ask someone to do something:

Can you wait a moment, please? Excuse me. Could you tell me how to get to the station?
 To ask for something you can say Can I have…?/ Could I have…?/ May I have…?
(in a shop) Can I have these postcards, please?
(at table) Could I have the salt, please?
 We often use can, could or may to ask permission to do something:
(on the phone) Hello, can I speak to Tom, please?
Could I use your telephone?
May I come in?

To give permission we use can or may (but not could):

You can smoke if you like.

Can is used to talk about what is already allowed or not allowed. You can use be allowed to instead of
can in this meaning:
We can have mobile phones in my office, but we can’t use them during the meeting.
We are allowed to have mobile phones in my office, but we aren’t allowed to use them during the
meeting.

May is especially used when we ask permission from someone to do something:

Mummy, may I go out with Ted, please?
 We sometimes use can when we offer to do things:
Can I get you a cup of coffee?
 For offering and inviting we use Would you like…? (not do you like):
Would you like a cup of coffee?

I’d like (= I would like) is a polite way of saying what you want, or what you want to do:
I’d like some information about hotels, please.
I’d like to try on this jacket, please.
UNIT 12. OBLIGATION

 In positive must expresses strong obligation and it’s the speaker’s opinion:
I must help her, it’s very difficult for her.
 In positive have to expresses strong obligation, but it isn’t the speaker’s opinion. It’s based on rules,
laws, authority and situations:
At school we have to wear uniforms.

Instead of have to we can use have got to:

We’ve got to turn off our mobiles at the lesson.

Have to expresses general repeated obligation but have got to expresses an obligation on one particular
occasion:
I always have to tell my parents where I’m going.
I’ve got to get up early tomorrow to catch a train.
 In negative mustn’t means it’s important not to do something:
You mustn’t tell her this, otherwise she’ll cry.
 In negative don’t have to means it is not important to do something. You may do or not do, it’s up to
you:
You don’t have to read this book. (you can read if you like but it doesn’t matter if you don’t read)
 In question forms it’s better to use only have to:
Do I have to tell you who I’m meeting with.
 Must has only the present form. In other forms have to is used instead must:
You will have to pay if you break his computer down

UNIT 13. NEED

 Need to means it’s necessary to do something:

You need to hurry if you don’t want to be late.
 Needn’t (do) or don’t/doesn’t need to (do) means it’s not necessary to do something:
You’ve got plenty of time you needn’t hurry or don’t need to hurry.
 Needn’t have (done) is used to say that someone did something but it wasn’t necessary:
Ann bought some eggs but when she got home she found that she already had plenty of eggs. So she
needn’t have bought any eggs.
 Didn’t need to is used to say that an action was unnecessary. This was known at the time of the action:
I didn’t need to go, so I didn’t go.
I didn’t need to go but I decided to go anyway.
UNIT 14. SHOULD

 Should expresses mild obligation and it’s used to give or to ask suggestion or advice. Should (do)
means it’s a right or good thing to do. Shouldn’t (do) means it isn’t a good thing to do:
You should study hard.
You shouldn’t waste your time.
Should I wash my hands before a meal?
 Should can be used with I think… structure to ask for or to give an opinion about something:
I think the government should do something about the economy.
I don’t think you should work so hard.
Do you think I should apply for this job?
 Should is also used to say something is not ‘right’ or not what we expect:
The price on this packet is wrong. It says 65 pence but it should be 50.
 For the past, we use should have (done) to say that someone did the wrong thing:
Hello, Ann. The party last night was great. You should have come. Why didn’t you?
 Ought to is possible instead of should:
It’s really a good film. You ought to go and see it.
 Should is also used to say that something will probably happen:
A: Do you think you’ll be late home tonight?
B: I don’t think so. I should be home at the usual time. (=I’ll probably be home)
 If something should happen means If something happens. You can use both structure. But with should
the speaker is less certain:
If you should see Tom this evening, can you tell him to phone me?

You can also begin with should (before the subject) :

Should you see Tom this evening, can you tell him to phone me?
 You can use should after these verbs:
suggest propose recommend insist demand
They insisted that we should have dinner with them.= They insisted that we had dinner with them.
 You can use should after these adjectives:
important strange funny natural surprised essential odd typical interesting surprising
It’s strange that he should be late. He’s usually on time.
I was surprised that he should say such a thing.
CHAPTER 4. TIME CLAUSES & CONDITIONALS

UNIT 15 TIME CLAUSES

 Clauses are similar to sentences – they both have the subject and the verb. But they have one difference.
Sentences have complete idea but clauses don’t have complete idea:
Do you know Ann? (sentence)
Do you know the girl? (clause – because we have no idea which girl)
 Usually two clauses make one sentence. There is always one main clause and one helping clause:
Do you know the girl who is sitting on the left?
Do you know the girl- is a main clause.
who is sitting on the left- is a relative clause.
 Time clauses show the time when the action happens in the main clause:
When I go to Tashkent, I will call you.
 Time clauses always start with time conjunctions:
when while after before as soon as until/till
While I was in Italy I lived with my aunt.
 A sentence can be started either with the time clause or with the main clause. If we start with the time
clause we have to put a comma as there is nothing between the two clauses. But if we start with the main
clause we don’t need a comma as there is a time conjunction between the two clauses to link them:
As soon as you have done your homework, you can go out.
You can go out as soon as you have done your homework.
 When we talk about future we use present tense, usually present simple in the time clause, in the main
clause we use future forms. If we want to show that the action will be finished we can also use present
perfect in the time clause:
I’ll do my homework when I go home.
I’ll do my homework when I have repaired my computer.

UNIT 16 CONDITIONALS

 Zero conditional is used when we talk about usual and general situations and facts:
IF+S+DO…S+DO…
If water boils it turns into steam.
 First conditional is used when we talk about real future:
IF+S+DO…S+WILL/SHALL+DO…
If you come before her you will get the prize.
 Second conditional is used when we talk about unreal present or future. When we imagine or when we talk
about dreams:
IF+S+DID…S+WOULD/SHOULD+DO…
Could/might are also possible instead of would. In unreal condition were is usually used instead of was.
If I were millionaire I would have my private plane.
If I gave you the watch you could lose it.

Would is not normally used after if but it is possible to say if … would, especially when we ask someone to
do something in a formal way:
I would be grateful if you would send me your brochure and price list as soon as possible.
 We also use the past for a present situation after wish to say that we regret something, that something is not
as we would like it to be:
I wish I knew Sue’s telephone number. (I don’t know it)
 Sometimes could is possible to use instead of would be able to and sometimes was able to:
She could(=would be able to) get a job more easily if she could(=was able to)type.
 Sometimes we can use would after wish when we want something to happen or someone to do something.
the speaker is complaining about the present situation. Remember, we use I wish … would when we want
something to change or somebody else to do something. So, we cannot say I wish I would…:
The music next door is very loud. I wish they would turn it down.
 Sometimes would is the past of will:
Tom: I will lend you some money, Ann. (present)
Tom said that he would lend Ann some money. (past)
 We can also use would when we look back on the past and remember things that often happened like, used
to:
When we were children, we lived by the sea. In summer, if the weather was fine, we would all get up early
and go for a swim.
 Third conditional is used to talk about unreal past:
IF+S+HAD DONE… S+WOULD/SHOULD/MIGHT/COULD+HAVE DONE
If I had seen you when you passed me in the street, I would have said hello. (but I didn’t see you)
 We also use I wish I had done when we say that we regret something that happened or didn’t happen in the
past:
I feel sick. I wish I hadn’t eaten so much. (I ate too much)
 Mixed conditional is used to talk about unreal past in the if part and unreal present or future in the main
part or vice versa:
IF+S+HAD DONE… S+WOULD DO
IF+S+DID… S+WOULD HAVE DONE
If I hadn’t failed my exam yesterday my father would take me to Paris today.
If I were more intelligent I wouldn’t have failed my test.
 All the conditionals can start either with the if part or with the main part. If it starts with the if part we put a
comma between the two clauses, but if it starts with the main part we don’t need a comma:
If I were you, I would buy a new car.
I will go to Tashkent alone if you don’t come on time.
CHAPTER 5 REPORTED SPEECH

UNIT 17 REPORTED SPEECH

 When we deliver someone’s words to others we can just repeat that person’s words without any change
(direct speech) or we can report them (reported speech):
Peter said, “I live in Paris.” – direct
Peter said (that) he lived in Paris. – reported

 When we report sentences we usually change the subject into the third person (if necessary) and move the
verb one tense back:
PRESENT SIMPLE – PAST SIMPLE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS – PAST CONTINUOUS
PRESENT PERFECT – PAST PERFECT
PAST SIMPLE – PAST PERFECT
PAST CONTINUOUS – PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS
WILL/SHALL – WOULD/SHOULD
CAN – COULD
MAY – MIGHT
SHOULD – SHOULD
MIGHT – MIGHT
MUST – MUST/HAD TO

Jenny said, “I can play the piano” – direct

Jenny said (that) she could play the piano. – reported
 There is no tense change if the reporting verb is in present tense:
Tom says that his father works in a bank. – reported
 If you think that the reported speech(situation) is still true(not changed) you may change the tense but
you don’t have to:
David said that New York is(or was) bigger than Tashkent. – reported
 We rarely use say with an indirect(the person spoken to) object. With an indirect object we usually use
tell:
David told me that his father had three cars. – reported
 Other verbs are also possible to use as reporting verbs. For example: explain, interrupt, demand, insist,
admit, complain, warn and etc.
The teacher explained that we must study harder. – reported
 Sometimes we report the idea rather than the actual words:
Tom said, ”I’ll lend you some money”. – direct
Tom offered me to lend some money. – reported
 When we report questions, they are changed from question structure into positive structure, and their
question words are used as linking words:
Peter asked, “Where do you live?” - direct
Peter asked where I lived. – reported

If the question doesn’t have a question word, we have to use if or whether as a linking word:
Peter asked, “Do you have a car?” – direct
Peter asked me if/whether I had a car. – reported
 For reported commands, requests, offers, and advice we use: VERB+PERSON+(NOT) TO+INFINITIVE
Doctor told me, “Drink a lot of fluids”. – direct
Doctor told me, “Don’t do heavy work”. – direct
Doctor told me to drink a lot of fluids. – reported
Doctor told me not to do heavy work. – reported
CHAPTER 6 QUESTIONS

UNIT 18 SIMPLE QUESTIONS

 Usually questions are made in this structure:

Q.W.+AUXILIARY VERB+ S+V…
Where do you live?
What is your name?
Where did you go yesterday?
What are you doing?
Where have you been to?
 Short answer questions are usually made in this way:
A.V.+S+V…? YES, S(p)+A.V. NO,S(p)+A.V.+NOT
Were you at home yesterday? Yes, I was No, I was not
Can you swim? Yes, I can No, I can’t
 Sometimes we use a noun after which/what and an adjective after how to help the question word:
Which car is yours?
What films do you like watching?
How old are you?
How big is your school?
 We can also make negative questions:
Didn’t Dave go to Canada? Yes. (=Yes, he went)
Haven’t I met you before? No.
 If the question words – who/what/which are the subjects of the sentences we just change the subject into
the question word and the structure stays as it was. We don’t change the structure into a question
structure:
Who wants something to eat?
Who invented the steam engine?
What happened to you last night?
Which switch operates this machine?

UNIT 19 INDIRECT & REPORTED QUESTIONS

 If a question is a part of a bigger sentence it loses its question structure and takes positive structure
and its question word is used as a linking word. This type of questions are called indirect questions:
Where does Tom live? – Do you know where Tom lives?
How old is she? – I don’t know how old she is.
If the question doesn’t have a question word we use if or whether as a linking word:
Do you have a car? – Can you tell me if you have a car?
Can Tom swim? – I want to know whether Tom can swim.
 Reported questions are also made in the same way, but in reported questions we move the verb one
tense back:
Where does Tom live? – He asked me where Tom lived
How old is she? – He wanted to know how old she was.
Do you have a car? – He asked me if I had a car.
Can Tom swim? - He asked me whether Tom could swim.

UNIT 20 SHORT QUESTIONS

 Short questions are made in this way: A.V.+(NOT)+S(p)?

Short questions are used to show our interest or surprise against someone’s words:
A: It rained everyday during our holiday. B: Did it?
A: Ann isn’t very well today. B: Oh, isn’t she?
UNIT 21 OUR ATTITUDE TO OTHERS’ WORDS

 When we agree with someone we usually use SO+A.V.+S or S+A.V.+TOO after a positive sentence:
‘I am tired.’ ‘So am I’/’I am too.’
‘I went to Tashkent yesterday.’ ‘So did I’
‘I live in Nurabad’ ‘So do I’
 When we agree with someone we usually use NEITHER/NOR+ A.V.+S or S+A.V.+NOT+EITHER
‘I am not tired’ ‘Neither/Nor am I’/’I am not either’
‘I didn’t go to Tashkent yesterday’ ‘Neither/Nor did I’/’I didn’t either’
‘I don’t live in Nurabad’ ‘Neither/Nor do I’/’I don’t either’
 When we want to show our attitude to someone’s words we usually use the word so after a number of
verbs, especially think, hope, expect, suppose and I’m afraid:
‘Is she English?’ ‘I think so’
‘Will Tom come?’ ‘I expect so’
‘Has Ann been invited to the party?’ ‘I suppose so’
The negative depends on the verb:
I think so/I expect so – I don’t think so/I don’t expect so
I hope so/I’m afraid so – I hope not/I’m afraid not
I suppose so – I don’t suppose so or I suppose not

UNIT 22 QUESTION TAGS

 Normally we use a positive question tag with a negative sentence: A.V+S(p)

Tom won’t be late, will he?
They don’t like us, do they?
 And normally we use a negative question tag with a positive sentence: A.V.+NOT+S(p)
Ann will be here soon, won’t she?
Tom should pass his exam, shouldn’t he?
Notice the meaning of yes and no in answers to question tags:
- You’re not going to work today, are you? Yes. (=I am going)
No. (=I’m not going)
 After Let’s…the question tag is shall we?:
Let’s go out for a walk, shall we?
After the imperative (do/don’t do something) the tag is will you?:
Open the door, will you?
Don’t be late, will you?
Notice that we say aren’t I? (=am I not):
I’m late, aren’t I?
CHAPTER 7 WORD ORDER & CONJUNCTIONS

Verb + object
The verb and the object normally go together. We do not usually put other words between them:

verb + Object
I like my job very much. (not 1 like very much my job)
Did you see your friends yesterday?
Liz often plays tennis.

Place and time

Usually the verb and the place (where?) go together: go home live in a city
walk to work etc.
If the verb has an object, the place comes after the verb + object: take
somebody home meet a friend in the street
Time (when? / how often? / how long?) usually goes after place:
place + Time
Ben walks to work every morning. (not every morning to work)
Sam has been in Canada since April.
We arrived at the airport early.

It is often possible to put time at the beginning of the sentence:

On Monday I’m going to Paris.
Every morning Ben walks to work.
Some adverbs (for example, always, also, probably) go before the main verb but after auxiliary verbs:
Helen always drives to work.
We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry.
The concert will probably be cancelled.
You have always been very kind to me.
Jack can’t cook. He can’t even boil an egg.
Do you still work for the same company?
The house was only built a year ago and it’s already falling down.
But adverbs go after am/is/are/was/were:
□ We were feeling very tired and we were also hungry.
□ Why are you always late? You’re never on time.
□ The traffic isn’t usually as bad as it was this morning.
Probably goes before a negative (isn’t/won’t etc.). So we say:
I probably won’t see you. or 1 will probably not see you. (not I won’t probably)
We also use all and both in these positions:
We all felt ill after the meal. (not we felt all ill)
My parents are both teachers, (not my parents both are teachers)
Sarah and Jane have both applied for the job.
We are all going out this evening.
Sometimes we use auxiliary verbs instead of repeating part of a sentence. In this kind of situation we use
(always/never etc.) before those auxiliaries:
□ He always says he won’t be late, but he always is. (= he is always late)
□ I’ve never done it and I never will. (= I will never do it)
STILL, YET AND ALREADY. ANYMORE/ANY LONGER/NO LONGER

Still
We use still to say that a situation or action is continuing. It hasn’t changed or stopped. It usually goes before the main
verb:
□ It’s ten o’clock and Joe is still in bed.
□ When I went to bed, Chris was still working.
□ Do you still want to go away or have you changed your mind?
Any more / any longer / no longer
We use not ... any more or not ... any longer to say that a situation has changed. Any more and any longer go at
the end of a sentence:
□ Lucy doesn’t work here any more (or any longer). She left last month.
(not Lucy doesn’t still work here.)
□ We used to be good friends, but we aren’t any more (or any longer).
But no longer goes before the main verb:
□ Lucy no longer works here.
Yet = until now. We use yet mainly in negative sentences (He isn’t here yet) and questions (Is he here yet?). Yet
shows that the speaker is expecting something to happen. Yet usually goes at the end of a sentence:
□ It’s 10 o’clock and Joe isn’t here yet.
□ Have you met your new neighbours yet?
□ ‘Where are you going for your holidays?’ ‘We don’t know yet.’
Still is also possible in negative sentences (before the negative):
□ She said she would be here an hour ago and she still hasn’t come.
This is similar to ‘she hasn’t come yet'. But still ... not shows a stronger feeling of surprise or impatience.
Compare:
□ I wrote to him last week. He hasn’t replied yet. (but I expect he will reply soon)
I wrote to him months ago and he still hasn’t replied. (he should have replied before now)
Already
We use already to say that something happened sooner than expected. Already usually goes before the main verb:
□ ‘What time is Sue leaving?’ ‘She has already left.’ (= sooner than you expected)
□ Shall I tell Joe what happened or does he already know?
EVEN
We use even to say that something is unusual or surprising. Usually we use even before the main verb:
Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house - even the bathroom. (It is not usual to
have a TV set in the bathroom.)
□ Sue has travelled all over the world. She has even been to the Antarctic.
(It’s especially unusual to go to the Antarctic, so she must have travelled a lot.)
□ I can’t cook. I can’t even boil an egg. (and boiling an egg is very easy)
You can use even + comparative (cheaper / more expensive etc.):
□ I got up very early, but Jack got up even earlier.
□ I knew 1 didn’t have much money, but I’ve got even less than I thought.
□ We were surprised to get a letter from her. We were even more surprised when she came to see us a few
days later.
Even though / even when / even if
You can use even though / even when / even if + subject + verb:
□ Even though she can’t drive, she has bought a car.
subject + verb
□ He never shouts, even when he’s angry.
□ I’ll probably see you tomorrow. But even if I don’t see you tomorrow, we’re sure to see each other before
the weekend.
You cannot use even in this way (+ subject + verb). We say:
□ Even though she can’t drive, she has bought a car. (not Even she can’t drive)
□ I can’t reach the shelf even if I stand on a chair, (not even I stand)
ALTHOUGH/THOUGH/EVENTHOUGH IN SPITE OF/DESPITE
After although we use a subject + verb:'
□ Although it rained a lot, we enjoyed our holiday.
□ I didn’t get the job although I had the necessary qualifications.
After in spite of or despite, we use a noun, a pronoun (this/that/what etc.) or -ing:
□ In spite of the rain, we enjoyed our holiday.
□ I didn’t get the job in spite of having the necessary qualifications.
□ She wasn’t well, but in spite of this she went to work.
□ In spite of what I said yesterday, I still love you.
Despite is the same as in spite of. We say in spite of, but despite (without of):
□ She wasn’t well, but despite this she went to work, (not despite of this)
You can say in spite of the fact (that) ... and despite the fact (that) ... :
I didn’t get the job in spite of the fact (that) I had the necessary qualifications.
I didn’t get the job despite the fact (that) I had the necessary qualifications.
Sometimes we use though instead of although:
□ I didn’t get the job though I had the necessary qualifications.
In spoken English we often use though at the end of a sentence:
□ The house isn’t very nice. I like the garden though. (= but I like the garden)
I see them every day. I've never spoken to them though. (= but I’ve never spoken to them)
Even though (but not ‘even’ alone) is a stronger form of although:
□ Even though I was really tired, I couldn’t sleep, (not Even I was really tired ...)

UNIT 23 IN CASE
 In case is used when a speaker is not sure what will happen so the speaker gets ready for the
possible situation:
John might phone tonight. I don’t want to go out in case he phones. (=because it is possible that
he will phone)
Yesterday, we bought some more food in case Tom came. (=because it was possible that Tom
would come)
 When we talk about future we don’t use future forms in the in case part of sentences. We use
present tense:
We will buy more food in case Tom comes. (=it is possible that Tom will come)
 In case of … is different from in case. In case of something means if something happens:
In case of fire, please leave the building as quickly as possible. (=if there is fire…)

UNIT 24 UNLESS, AS LONG AS & PROVIDED/ PROVIDING THAT

 Unless means except if:
Don’t tell Ann what I said unless she asks you. (=except if she asks you)
 Instead of unless it is possible to say if … not:
We will be late unless we hurry. = We will be late if we don’t hurry.
 As long as, provided (that), providing (that) mean but only if:
You can use my car as long as (or so long as) you drive carefully. (=but only if you drive
carefully)
Travelling by car is convenient provided (that) you have somewhere to park. (but only if you
have somewhere to park)
Providing (that) she studies hard, she should pass the examination. (but only if she studies hard)
 When we are talking about future we don’t use future forms in the unless, as long as,
provided or providing parts of sentences:
We’ll be late unless we hurry. (not unless we will hurry)
Providing she studies hard… (not providing she will study hard)
AS
 As = at the same time as. You can use as when two things happen at the same time:
We all waved goodbye to Liz as she drove away.
(We waved and she drove away at the same time)
I watched her as she opened the letter.
 Or you can say that something happened as you were doing something else (in the middle of doing
something else):
Kate slipped as she was getting off the bus.
We met Paul as we were leaving the hotel.
 You can also use just as (= exactly at that moment):
Just as I sat down, the phone rang.
I had to leave just as the conversation was getting interesting.
 We also use as when two things happen together in a longer period of time:
As the day went on, the weather got worse.
I began to enjoy the job more as 1 got used to it.
 As = because. As also means ‘because’:
As I was hungry, I decided to find somewhere to eat. (= because I was hungry)
As it was a public holiday last Thursday, most of the shops were shut. (= because it was a public holiday)
 You can also use since in this way:
Since we have plenty of time, let’s go and have a coffee.
LIKE & AS
 Like = ‘similar to’, ‘the same as’. You cannot use as in this way:
What a beautiful house! It’s like a palace, (not as a palace)
What does Sandra do?’ ‘She’s a teacher, like me.’ (not as me)
Be careful! The floor has been polished. It’s like walking on ice. (not as walking)
It’s raining again. I hate weather like this. (not as this)
In these sentences, like is a preposition. So it is followed by a noun (like a palace), a pronoun (like me /
like this) or -ing (like walking).
 You can also say ‘... like (somebody/something) doing something’:
‘What’s that noise?’ ‘It sounds like a baby crying.’
 Sometimes like = for example:
Some sports, like motor-racing, can be dangerous.
 You can also use such as (= for example):
Some sports, such as motor-racing, can be dangerous.
 As = in the same way as, or in the same condition as. We use as before subject + verb:
I didn’t move anything. I left everything as it was.
You should have done it as I showed you.
 Like is also possible in informal spoken English:
I left everything like it was.
 We can say as usual / as always:
You’re late as usual.
As always, Nick was the first to complain.
 As can be used as a preposition, but it this case it has a different meaning. It means in the position of, in
the form of etc. :
A few years ago I worked as a taxi driver. (not like a taxi driver)
We haven’t got a car, so we use the garage as a workshop.
Many words, for example ‘work’ and ‘rain’, can be used as verbs or nouns.
London is fine as a place to visit, but I wouldn’t like to live there.
 AS IF/AS THOUGH/LIKE
 You can use as if or as though to say how somebody or something looks/sounds/feels:
That house looks as if it’s going to fall down.
Helen sounded as though she had a cold, didn’t she?
I’ve just come from holiday, but I feel very tired. I don’t feel as if I‘ve just had a holiday.
 In informal spoken English you can also use like:
That house looks like it’s going to fall down.
 You can say It looks as if ... / It sounds as if ... :
We took an umbrella because it looked as if it was going to rain.
Do you hear that music next door? It sounds as if they are having a party.
 You can also use as though or like:
It looks as though she isn’t coming, or It looks like she isn’t coming.
 After as if (or as though), we sometimes use the past when we are talking about the present:
I don’t like Tim. He talks as if he knew everything.
The meaning is not past in this sentence. We use the past (as if he knew) because the idea is not real: Tim
does not know everything.
She’s always asking me to do things for her - as if I didn’t have enough to do already.
 When you use the past in this way, you can use were instead of was:
Why do you talk about him as if he were (or was) an old man?
FOR, DURING & WHILE

 We use for + a period of time to say how long something goes on:
for two hours for a week for ages
We watched television for two hours last night.
Diane is going away for a week in September.
Where have you been? I’ve been waiting for ages.
Are you going away for the weekend?
 We use during + noun to say when something happens (not how long):
during the film during our holiday during the night
I fell asleep during the film.
We met some really nice people during our holiday.
The ground is wet. It must have rained during the night.
 With ‘time words’ (for example: the morning / the afternoon / the summer), you can usually say in or
during:
It must have rained in the night, (or during the night)
I’ll phone you sometime during the afternoon, (or in the afternoon)
 We use during + noun, but while + subject + verb:
I fell asleep during the film. but I fell asleep while I was watching TV.
We met a lot of interesting people during our holiday. but We met a lot of interesting people while we
were having a holiday.

BY & UNTIL BY THE TIME

 By (+ a time) means not later than:
I sent the letter to them today, so they should receive it by Monday. (= on or before Monday, not later than
Monday)
We’d better hurry. We have to be home by 5 o’clock. (= at or before 5 o’clock, not later
than 5 o’clock)
 We use until (or till) to say how long a situation continues:
‘Shall we go now?’ ‘No, let’s wait until (or till) it stops raining.

 We can say by the time something happens:

It’s too late to go to the bank now. By the time we get there, it will be closed. = the bank will close between
 now and the time we get there)
(from a postcard) Our holiday ends tomorrow. So by the time you receive this postcard, I’ll be back
home. (= I will arrive home between tomorrow and the time you receive this postcard)
 We can also say by then or by that time:
Karen finally arrived at the party at midnight, but by then (or by that time), most of the guests had left.
CHAPTER 8 RELATIVE CLAUSES

UNIT 25 RELATIVE CLAUSES

 A relative clause tells us which person or thing the speaker means. Relative clauses usually start with
relative pronouns. For people who/that and for things which/that are used. Who/that/which are used
instead of he/she/it/they:

An architect is someone who designs buildings.

What was the name of the man that lent you the money.
Where are the eggs that were in the fridge?
The window which was broken has now been repaired.

 If a relative pronoun is the object of the relative clause we can leave it out. If a relative pronoun is the
subject of the relative clause we cannot leave it out:

The man who lives next door is very friendly. (Here who is the subject of the relative clause because it is
coming before the verb lives, so we cannot leave it out.)
The man (who) I wanted to see was away on holiday. (Here who is not the subject of the relative clause
because it is not coming before a verb. It is coming before I – which is the subject of the relative clause
because it is coming before the verb wanted. So we can leave who out.)
Where are the eggs that were in the fridge? (Here that is the subject because it is coming before the verb
were, so we cannot leave it out.)
Have you found the keys (which) you lost? (Here which is not the subject because it isn’t coming before a
verb. Here the subject is you. So we can leave which out.)

 There are often prepositions (in/at/with etc.) in relative clauses. They usually come after the verb in the
relative clause:

Do you know the girl? – Tom is talking to her

Do you know the girl (who/that) Tom is talking to?
The bed – I slept in last night – wasn’t very comfortable
The bed (that/which) I slept in last night wasn’t very comfortable.
  You cannot use what instead of that:

Everything (that) he said was true. (not everything what he said)

I gave her all the money (that) I had. (not all…what I had)

What=the thing(s) that:

Did you hear what I said. (=the words that I said)

I won’t tell anyone what happened. (=the thing that happened)

 Whose is used in relative clauses instead of his/her/their:

We saw some people – their car had broken down

We saw some people whose car had broken down.

 Whom is possible instead of who when it’s the object of the relative clause. And prepositions can be used
either before the whom or after the verb:

The girl whom he fell in love with left him after a few weeks.
The girl with whom he fell in love left him after a few weeks.

 Where (=the place in which) is used in relative clauses for places:

The hotel – we stayed there(=in it) – wasn’t very clean

The hotel where (=in which) we stayed wasn’t very clean.

 You can say the reason why something happens or the reason that something happens. You can also
leave out why and that:

The reason (why/that) I’m phoning you is to invite you to a party.

UNIT 26 EXTRA INFORMATION CLAUSES

 Some relative clauses don’t tell us which person or which thing the speaker is talking about in the main
clause, they just give extra information about them. The listener knows which person or thing the speaker
means, so these relative clauses just give extra information. That’s why they are called extra information
relative clauses:

Tom’s father, who is 78, goes swimming every day.

The house at the end of the street, which has been empty for two years, has just been sold.

 In extra information relative clauses we can use only who for people and which for things, that isn’t
possible to use. We have to put commas at the beginning and at the end of extra information relative
clauses:

Yesterday I met John, who told me he was getting married.

Mr. Yates, who has worked for the same company all his life, is retiring next month.
 We can also use whose, whom, and where in extra information clauses:

Martin, whose mother is Spanish, speaks both Spanish and English fluently.
Mr. Hogg is going to Canada, where his son has been living for five years.
My sister, whom (or who) you once met, is visiting us next week.

 In extra information relative clauses you can use a preposition before whom and which:

Mr. Carter, to whom I spoke on the phone last night, is very interested in our plan.
Fortunately we had a map, without which we would got lost.

 We can also say:

All of/most of/none of/many of/much of/(a) few of/some of/any of/ + whom
/half of/each of/both of/neither of/either of/one of/two of etc. + which

Jack has three brothers, all of whom are married.

Ann has a lot of books, most of which she hasn’t read.
He tried on three jackets, none of which fitted him.
They’ve got three cars, two of which they never use.
Tom has a lot of friends, many of whom he was at school with.
Two men, neither of whom I had seen before, came into my office.

 Sometimes which means the fact that something happens:

Jim passed his driving test. This surprised everybody.

Jim passed his driving test, which surprised everybody.
Here which means the fact that he passed his driving test.
UNIT 27 -ing & -ed CLAUSES

 Some clauses begin with -ing or -ed:

Do you know the girl talking to Tom?

The man injured in the accident was taken to hospital.

 -ing clauses are used to say what someone (or something) is doing or was doing at a particular time:

The policemen investigating the robbery are looking for three men. (the policemen are investigating the
robbery)
I was woken up by a bell ringing. (the bell was ringing)

 When we are talking about things (and sometimes people), we can use -ing clauses for permanent
characteristics (what something does all the time, not just at a particular time):

The road joining the two villages is very narrow. (the road joins the two villages)
I live in a pleasant room overlooking the garden. (the room overlooks the garden)

 -ed clauses have a passive meaning:

None of the people invited to the party can come. (the people have been invited to the party)

 We often use -ing and -ed clauses after there is/there was etc.:

Is there anybody waiting to see me?

There were some children swimming in the river.
When I arrived, there was a big red car parked outside the house.
CHAPTER 9 ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

 Adjectives usually describe nouns and usually come before nouns:

I have a beautiful cat.
 Adverbs usually describe verbs and usually come after verbs:
She’s speaking very loudly.

UNIT 28 ADJECTIVES ENDING IN -ing & -ed

 -ing adjectives describe things, people and situations; -ed adjectives tell us how people feel:

Jane is bored because her job is boring.

Tom is interested in politics.
Tom finds politics interesting.
Are you interested in buying a car?
Did you meet anyone interesting at the party?
Everyone was surprised that he passed the examination.
It was quite surprising that he passed the examination.
I was disappointed with the film. I expected it to be much better.
The film was disappointing. I expected it to be much better.

 Other pairs of adjectives ending in -ing and -ed are:

fascinating – fascinated disgusting – disgusted depressing – depressed

exciting – excited embarrassing – embarrassed worrying – worried
amusing – amused confusing – confused annoying – annoyed
amazing – amazed horrifying – horrified exhausting – exhausted
astonishing – astonished terrifying - terrified satisfying – satisfied
shocking – shocked frightening – frightened

UNIT 29 ADJECTIVES: WORD ORDER

 Opinion adjectives(people’s opinion of things or people) usually come before fact adjectives(factual
information of things or people):

A nice sunny day

Delicious hot soup

 Sometimes there are two or more fact adjectives. Very often we put fact adjectives in this order:

1 2 3 4 5
What is it NOUN
How big? How old? What colour? Where from? made of?

a tall young man (1-2); big blue eyes (1-3); a small black plastic bag (1-3-5);
a large wooden table (1-5); an old Russian song (2-4); an old white cotton shirt (2-3-5)

Adjectives of size and length (big/small/tall/short/long etc.) usually come adjectives of shape and
width (round/fat/thin/slim/wide etc.):

a large round table a tall thin girl a long narrow street

  We also use adjectives after some verbs, especially be/get/become:

Are you tired? Be careful! I’m getting hungry.

We also use adjectives after feel/smell/taste/sound/seem/look:

Do you feel tired?

The dinner smells good.
Tom sounded angry when I spoke to him on the phone.
This tea tastes a bit strange.
Your friend seems very nice.

We use an adjective after look when it means seem. But after look at we use an adverb:

Tom looked sad when I saw him.

Tom looked at me sadly.

UNIT 30 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

 Many adverbs are made from an adjective + ly:

quick-quickly serious-seriously careful-carefully

But not all words ending in -ly are adverbs. Some adjectives end in -ly too:

friendly lively elderly lonely silly lovely

 An adjective tells us more about a noun. We use adjectives before nouns and after a few verbs
(especially be):

Tom is a careful driver.

Be quiet, please!
We didn’t go out because of the heavy rain.
I was disappointed that my exam results were so bad.

 An adverb tells us more about a verb. An adverb tells us in what way someone does something or
in what way something happens:

Tom drove carefully along the narrow road.

Speak quietly, please!
We didn’t go out because it was raining heavily.
I was disappointed that I did so badly in the exam.

 We also use adverbs before adjectives and other adverbs:

It’s a reasonably cheap restaurant and the food is extremely good.

Oh, I’m terribly sorry. I didn’t mean to push you.
Maria learns languages incredibly quickly.
 We can use an adverb before a past participle:

The meeting was very badly organized.

The driver of the car was seriously injured in the accident.

 Well is the adverb form of good:

Your English is very good.

You speak English well.

Well is also an adjective with the meaning in good health:

How are you today? I’m very well thanks.

 Fast/hard/late are both adjectives and adverbs:

Jack is a very fast runner. Jack can run very fast.

Ann is a hard worker. Ann works hard.
The train was late. I got up late this morning.

Lately means recently:

Have you seen Tom lately?

Hardly means almost not:

Why was Tom so unfriendly at the party last night? He hardly spoke to me. (=he spoke to me very
little)
My leg was hurting me. I could hardly work. (=I could walk with a lot of difficulty)
I’ll have to go shopping. We’ve got hardly any food. (=almost no food, very little food)

Hardly ever means almost never:

I’m nearly always at home in the evenings. I hardly ever go out.

UNIT 31 SO & SUCH/ENOUGH & TOO

 So and such make the meaning of the adjective stronger. So is used before an adjective or many
and much. Such is used before (an adjective)+noun:

It’s so warm today.

There is so much water in the river.
There are so many people in the street.
She is such a beautiful girl.
He’s such an idiot.

We can also use so with an adverb:

He’s difficult to understand because he speaks so quickly.

  We say: so long but such a long time; so far but such a long way; so many, so much but such a lot
(of):

I haven’t seen him for so long/such a long time that I’ve forgotten what he looks like.
I didn’t know that you lived so far/such a long way from the city centre.
Why did you buy so much/such a lot of food?

 Enough comes after adjectives and adverbs but before nouns. Enough can also come alone
(without a noun):

He didn’t get the job because he wasn’t experienced enough.

You won’t pass the examination if you don’t work hard enough.
I’d like to go on holiday but I haven’t got enough money.
I’ll lend you some money if you haven’t got enough.

 After enough and too you can say for someone/something. But we can’t say enough/too … for
doing something. We use to + infinitive after enough and too:

I haven’t got enough money for a holiday.

This shirt is too big for me. I need a smaller size.
I haven’t got enough money to go on holiday.
Let’s get a taxi. It’s too far to walk.
Quite, pretty, rather and fairly

 You can use quite/pretty/rather/fairly + adjectives or [Link]/pretty/rather/fairly = less than ‘very’ but
more than ‘a little’:
It’s quite cold. It’s pretty cold. It's rather cold. It’s fairly cold.
 Quite and pretty are very similar in meaning:
You’ll need a coat when you go out. It’s quite cold / pretty cold. (= less than ‘very cold", but more than ‘a
little cold’)
I’m surprised you haven’t heard of her. She’s quite famous / pretty famous.
 Quite goes before a/an but pretty goes after a/an:
Sally has quite a good job.
Sally has a pretty good job.
 You can also use quite (but not pretty) in the following ways: quite a/an + noun (without an adjective):
I didn’t expect to see them. It was quite a surprise. (= quite a big surprise)
 quite a lot (of ...):
There were quite a lot of people at the meeting.
 quite + verb, especially like and enjoy:
I quite like tennis, but it’s not my favourite sport.
 Rather is similar to quite and pretty. We often use rather for negative ideas:
The weather isn’t so good. It’s rather cloudy.
Paul is rather shy. He doesn’t talk very much.
 When we use rather for positive ideas (good/nice etc.), it means ‘unusually’ or ‘surprisingly’:
These oranges are rather good. Where did you get them?
 Fairly is weaker than quite/rather/pretty. For example, if something is fairly good, it is not very good and it
could be better:
My room is fairly big, but I’d prefer a bigger one.
We see each other fairly often, but not as often as we used to.
 Quite also means ‘completely’. For example:
 ‘Are you sure?’ ‘Yes, quite sure.’ (= completely sure)
She was quite different from what I expected. (= completely different)
Everything they said was quite true. (= completely true)
 We also use quite (= completely) with some verbs. Not quite = not completely:
1 quite agree with you. (= I completely agree)
They haven’t quite finished their dinner yet.
I don’t quite understand what you mean.

UNIT 32 TO + INFINITIVE AFTER ADJECTIVES

 If there is a verb after an adjective or an adjective + noun we use to + infinitive:

It’s difficult to understand him.

Do you think this water is safe to drink?
This is a very difficult question to answer.

 We also use to + infinitive after the first/ the second/the third etc. and also after the next and the
last:

Who was the first man to reach the South Pole?

Who was the last person to leave the building last night?

 We can use to + infinitive after adjectives to say how someone feels about something:

I was sorry to hear that your father is ill.

Was Tom surprised to see you when you visited him?

 We can use (it is) adjective of someone to do something structure:

It was nice of you to take me to the station. Thank you very much.
It was careless of Jack to leave the door unlocked when he went out.

UNIT 33 DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

 There are three degrees: simple/comparative/superlative. Simple just describes. Comparative

compares one with another. Superlative separates one from others:

Mary is old. Anna is older than Mary. Lucy is the oldest in our street.

 If an adjective or adverb has only one syllable we add –er to make it comparative and we add -est
to make it superlative:

Hard-harder-hardest cheap-cheaper-cheapest

If it ends in one vowel + one consonant we double the consonant:

Big-bigger-biggest hot-hotter-hottest
 We also prefer –er and –est after adjectives ending in –y, but –y changes into –i:
Lucky-luckier-luckiest funny-funnier-funniest

We also prefer –er and –est after quiet/clever/narrow/simple:

Quiet-quieter-quietest clever-cleverer-cleverest

 If an adjective has more than one syllable we use more before the adjective to make it
comparative and we use most before the adjective to make it superlative:

Modern-more modern-most modern expensive-more expensive-most expensive

We also use more and most for adverbs ending in –ly:

Slowly-more slowly-most slowly seriously-more seriously-most seriously

We also say more often:

I don’t play tennis much now. I used to play more often.

But we say earlier/earliest:

You are always tired in the mornings. You should go to bed earlier.

 Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular:

Good/well-better-best bad/badly-worse-worst far-farther/further-farthest/furthest

Little-less-least many/much-more-most

Further can also mean more or additional:

Let me know immediately if you hear any further news.

 Elder-eldest are used only before nouns to talk about family members:

My elder brother is a pilot.

My eldest son is 13 years old.

 We usually use than after comparatives and the before superlatives:

My son is younger than your son.

It is the biggest apple I have ever seen.

 We can use a bit/a little/much/a lot/far before comparatives to make their meaning stronger or
weaker:

Let’s go by car. It’s much cheaper.

Don’t go by train. It’s much more expensive.
Could you speak a bit more slowly?
 To say that something is changing continuously we can use two comparatives together:

It’s becoming harder and harder to find a job.

It’s becoming more and more difficult to enter universities.

 The + comparative+ the better means it will be better in this way:

‘What time shall we leave?’ ‘The sooner the better.’

‘What size box do you want?’ ‘The bigger the better.’

We also use the … the …(with two comparatives) to say that one thing depends on another thing:

The earlier we leave, the sooner we arrive.

The more expensive the hotel, the better the service.

 When we compare things or people we can use as + simple adjective +as in positive and
not as/so + simple adjective + as in negative:

I’m sorry I’m late. I got here as fast as I could.

Let’s walk. It’s just as quick as taking the bus.
Jack isn’t as old as he looks.
The city centre isn’t so crowded this morning as it usually is.

We also say twice as … as, three times as … as etc.:

Petrol is twice as expensive as it was a few years ago.

Their house is about three times as big as ours.

 We can also the same as:

Ann’s salary is the same as mine.

 After than and as it is more usual to use object pronouns when there is no verb:

You are taller than I am. But: You are taller than me.
They have more money than we have. But: They have more money than us.
I can’t run as fast as he can. But: I can’t run as fast as him.

 After superlatives, we use in with places (towns, buildings etc):

What`s the longest river in the world? (not ‘of the world’)
We were lucky to have one of the nicest rooms in the hotel.

Also: (the best…) in the class / in the team/ in the company etc.
But: the happiest day of my life, the hottest day of the year.
Note that we often use the present perfect (I have done) after a superlative:

What`s the best film you have ever seen?

 That was the most delicious meal I`ve had for a long time.

 We sometimes use most + adjective (without ‘the’) to mean very:

The book you lent me was most interesting. (=very interesting)

Thank you for the money. It was most generous of you. (=very generous)
CHAPTER 10 PRONOUNS.

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

 The reflexive pronouns are:

Singular : myself yourself himself/herself/itself
Plural : ourselves yourselves themselves
 We use reflexive pronouns when the subject and the object are the same person:
Steve introduced himself.
I’ll pay for myself.
 We do not use reflexive pronouns after feel/relax/concentrate/meet/wash/shave/dress:
I feel nervous. I can’t relax.
He got up, washed, shaved and dressed.
 We can use one another instead of each other:
How long have you and Bill known each other. Or How long have you and Bill known one another.
CHAPTER 11 -ING OR TO+VERB

-ING OR TO+VERB

 After verbs below we use -ing (not to ...):

enjoy, mind, suggest, stop, postpone, admit, avoid, imagine, finish, consider, deny, risk, fancy
I enjoy reading. (not I enjoy to read)
Would you mind closing the door?(not mind to close)
Chris suggested going to the cinema.(not suggested to go)
Suddenly everybody stopped talking. There was silence.
I’ll do the shopping when I’ve finished cleaning the flat.
He tried to avoid answering my question.
I don’t fancy going out this evening. (= I’m not enthusiastic about it)
Have you ever considered going to live in another country?
 The negative form is not -ing:
When I’m on holiday, I enjoy not having to get up early.
 We also use -ing after:
give up (= stop), put off (= postpone), go on / carry on (= continue)
keep or keep on (= do something continuously or repeatedly)
I’ve given up reading newspapers. I think it’s a waste of time.
Jenny doesn’t want to retire. She wants to go on working, (or ... to carry on working.)
You keep interrupting when I’m talking! or You keep on interrupting ...
 With some verbs you can use the structure verb + somebody + -ing:
I can’t imagine George riding a motorbike.
You can’t stop me doing what I want.
‘Sorry to keep you waiting so long.’ ‘That’s all right.’
 Note the passive form (being done/seen/kept etc.):
I don’t mind being kept waiting. (= I don’t mind people keeping me ...)
 When you are talking about finished actions, you can say having done/stolen/said etc. :
They admitted having stolen the money.
But it is not necessary to use having (done). You can also say:
They admitted stealing the money.
I now regret saying (or having said) what I said.
After some of the verbs on this page (especially admit/deny/suggest) you can also use that ... :
They denied that they had stolen the money, (or They denied stealing ...)
Sam suggested that we went to the cinema, (or Sam suggested going ...)
 After these verbs below you can use to + infinitive:
offer, decide, hope, deserve, promise, agree, plan, manage, afford, threaten, refuse, arrange, fail, forget,
learn, seem appear, tend, pretend, claim
It was late, so we decided to take a taxi home.
Simon was in a difficult situation, so I agreed to help him.
How old were you when you learnt to drive? (or learnt how to drive)
I waved to Karen, but failed to attract her attention.
They seem to have plenty of money.
I like Dan, but I think he tends to talk too much.
 The negative is not to ... :
We decided not to go out because of. the weather.
I promised not to be late.
Ann pretended not to see me when she passed me in the street.
  There is also a continuous infinitive (to be doing) and a perfect infinitive I to have done):
I pretended to be reading the newspaper. (= I pretended that I was reading)
You seem to have lost weight. (= it seems that you have lost weight)
Martin seems to be enjoying his new job. (= it seems that he is enjoying it)
 After dare you can use the infinitive with or without to:
I wouldn’t dare to tell him. or I wouldn’t dare tell him.
 But after dare not (or daren’t), you must use the infinitive without to:
I daren’t tell him what happened, (not I daren't to tell him)
 After some verbs you can use a question word (what/whether/how etc.) + to + infinitive. We use this
structure especially after:
ask, decide, know, remember, forget, explain, learn, understand, wonder
We asked how to get to the station.
Have you decided where to go for your holidays?
I don’t know whether to apply for the ob or not.
Do you understand what to do?
 Also show/tell/ask/advise/teach somebody what/how/where to do something:
Can somebody show me how to change the film in this camera?
Ask Jack. He’ll tell you what to do.
 These verbs below are followed by to + infinitive or verb + object + to + infinitive:
want, ask , help, would like, expect, beg, mean (= intend), would prefer
We expected to be late. We expected Dan to be late.
Would you like to go now? Would you like me to go now?
He doesn’t want to know. He doesn’t want anybody to know.
 After help you can use the infinitive with or without to:
Can you help me to move this table? or Can you help me move this table?
 The verbs below have the structure of verb + object + infinitive:
tell, remind, force, encourage, teach, enable, order, warn, invite, persuade, get(=persuade)
Who taught you to drive?
I didn’t move the piano by myself. I got somebody to help me.
Jim said the switch was dangerous and warned me not to touch it.
I was warned not to touch the switch.
 You cannot use suggest with the structure verb + object + to infinitive:
Jane suggested that I should ask your advice, (not Jane suggested me to ask)
 After advise,recommend and allow, two structures are possible: verb+verb+ing(without an obect) or
verb +object+to+infinitive:
I wouldn’t advise/recommend staying in that hotel.
I wouldn’t advise/recommend anybody to stay in that hotel
They don’t allow parking in front of the building. They don’t allow people to park in front of the building.
 Make and let have the structure verb + object + infinitive (without to):
I made him promise that he wouldn’t tell anybody what happened, (not to promise)
Hot weather makes me feel tired. (= causes me to feel tired)
Her parents wouldn’t let her go out alone. (= wouldn't allow her to go out)
Let me carry your bag for you.
 We say ‘make somebody do’ (not to do), but the passive is ‘(be) made to do’ (with to):
We were made to wait for two hours. (= They made us wait ...)
 The passive form of let is ‘be allowed to’:
They didn’t let us enter. We were not allowed to enter.
  Some verbs can be followed by -ing or to ... with a difference of meaning:
You remember doing something after you have done it:
I know I locked the door. I clearly remember locking it.(= I locked it, and now I remember this)
He could remember driving along the road just before the accident, but he couldn’t remember the accident
itself.
 You remember to do something before you do it:
I remembered to lock the door, but I forgot to shut the windows.(=I remembered that I had to lock it, and so I
locked it)
Please remember to post the letter.(=don’t forget to post it)
 regret doing something = I did it and now I’m sorry about it:
1 now regret saying what I said. I shouldn’t have said it.
It began to get cold and he regretted not wearing his coat.
 regret to say / to tell you / to inform you(= I'm sorry that I have to say (etc.):
(from a formal letter) We regret to inform you that we cannot offer you the job.
 Go on doing something = continue with the same thing:
The president paused for a moment and then went on talking.
We need to change. We can’t go on living like this.
 Go on to do something = do or say something new:
After discussing the economy, the president then went on to talk about foreign policy.
 The following verbs can be followed by -ing or to ... :
Begin, start, continue, intend, bother
It has started raining, or It has started to rain.
John intends buying a house, or John intends to buy ..
Don’t bother locking the door, or Don't bother to lock
 But normally we do not use -ing after -ing:
It’s starting to rain, (not It’s starting raining)
 Try to do = attempt to do, make an effort to do:
I was very tired. I tried to keep my eyes open, but I couldn’t.
Please try to be quiet when you come home. Everyone will be asleep.
 Try also means 'do something as an experiment or test'. For example:
These cakes are delicious. You should try one. 1= you should have one to see if you like it)
We couldn’t find anywhere to stay. We tried every hotel in the town, but they were all full. (= we went to every
hotel to see if they had a room)
 If try (with this meaning) is followed by a verb, we say try -ing:
A: The photocopier doesn’t seem to be working.
B: Try pressing the green button.(= press the green button - perhaps this will help to solve the problem)
 I need to do something = it is necessary for me to do it:
I need to take more exercise.
He needs to work harder if he wants to make progress.
I don’t need to come to the meeting, do 1?
 Something needs doing = it needs to be done:
The batteries in the radio need changing.(= they need to be changed)
Do you think my jacket needs cleaning?(= ... needs to be cleaned)
It’s a difficult problem. It needs thinking about very carefully. (= it needs to be thought about)
 I can’t help doing something = I can’t stop myself doing it:
I don’t like him, but he has a lot of problems. I can’t help feeling sorry for him.
She tried to be serious, but she couldn’t help laughing.(= she couldn’t stop herself laughing)
I’m sorry I’m so nervous. I can’t help it.(= I can’t help being nervous)
  We use afraid to do for things we do intentionally; we can choose to do them or not:
This part of town is dangerous. People are afraid to walk here at night.
(= they don’t want to walk here because it is dangerous - so they don’t)
James was afraid to tell his parents what had happened.
(= he didn’t want to tell them because he knew they would be angry, worried etc.)
 I am afraid of something happening = it is possible that something bad will happen (for example, an
accident). We do not use afraid of -ing for things we do intentionally:
The path was icy, so we walked very carefully. We were afraid of falling.
(= it was possible that we would fall - not we were afraid to fall)
I don’t like dogs. I’m always afraid of being bitten. (not afraid to be bitten)
I was afraid to go near the dog because I was afraid of being bitten.
 I’m interested in doing something = I’m thinking of doing it, I would like to do it:
Let me know if you’re interested in joining the club. (not to join)
I tried to sell my car, but nobody was interested in buying it. (not to buy)
 We use interested to ... to say how somebody reacts to what they hear/see/read/learn/know/find: For
example, I was interested to hear it’ = I heard it and it was interesting for me This structure is the
same as surprised to ... / glad to ... etc.:
I was interested to hear that Tanya has left her job.
Ask Mike for his opinion. I would be interested to know what he thinks.
(= it would be interesting for me to know it)
I was surprised to hear that Tanya has left her job.
 We use sorry to ... to say we regret something that happens:
I was sorry to hear that Nicky lost her job. (= I was sorry when I heard that ...)
I’ve enjoyed my stay here. I’ll be sorry to leave.
 We also say sorry to ... to apologise at the time we do something:
I’m sorry to phone you so late, but I need to ask you something.
 You can use sorry for or sorry about (doing something) to apologise for something you did before:
I’m sorry for (or about) shouting at you yesterday, (not sorry' to shout)
 When you talk about repeated actions, you can use -ing or to ... after like / love / hate.
Do you like getting up early? or Do you like to get up early?
Stephanie hates flying, or Stephanie hates to fly.
I love meeting people, or I love to meet people.
1 don’t like being kept waiting, or ... like to be kept waiting.
I don’t like friends calling me at work, or ... friends to call me at work.
 We use -ing (not to ...) when we talk about a situation that already exists (or existed).
Paul lives in Berlin now. He likes living there. (He likes living in Berlin = He lives there and he likes it)
Do you like being a student? (You are a student - do you like it?)
The office 1 worked in was horrible. I hated working there. (I worked there and I hated it)
 There is sometimes a difference between I like to do and I like doing:
like doing something = I do it and I enjoy it:
1 like cleaning the kitchen. (= 1 enjoy it.)
like to do something = I think it is a good thing to do, but I don’t necessarily enjoy it:
It’s not my favourite job, but 1 like to clean the kitchen as often as possible.
 Would like / would love etc. are usually followed by to ... :
I’d like (= would like) to go away for a few days.
Would you like to come to dinner on Friday?
I wouldn’t like to go on holiday alone.
I’d love to meet your family.
Would you prefer to have dinner now or later?
  Would mind is always followed by -ing (not to ...):
Would you mind closing the door, please?
 would like to have done something = I regret now' that I didn’t or couldn’t do it:
It’s a pity we didn’t see Val when we were in London. I would like to have seen her again.
We’d like to have gone away, but we were too busy at home.
 You can use the same structure after would love / would hate / would prefer:
Poor old David! I would hate to have been in his position.
I’d love to have gone to the parry, but it was impossible.
 You can use ‘prefer to (do)’ or ‘prefer -ing’ to say what you prefer in general:
1 don’t like cities. 1 prefer to live in the country, or I prefer living in the country.
I prefer something to something else
I prefer doing something to doing something else
I prefer to do something rather than (do) something else
I prefer this coat to the coat you were wearing yesterday.
I prefer driving to travelling by train.
I prefer to drive rather than travel by train.
Sarah prefers to live in the country rather than (live) in a city.
 Would rather (do) = would prefer (to do). We use would rather + infinitive (without to). Compare:
‘Shall we go by train?’ ‘I’d prefer to drive.' ‘I’d rather drive.’ (not to drive)
‘Would you rather have tea or coffee?’ ‘Coffee, please.'
 The negative is ‘I’d rather not (do something)’:
I’m tired. I’d rather not go out this evening, if you don’t mind.
‘Do you want to go out this evening?' ‘I’d rather not.’
 We say ‘would rather do something than do something else’:
I’d rather stay at home tonight than go to the cinema.
 We say ‘I’d rather you did something’ (not I’d rather you do).
‘Shall I stay here?’ I’d rather you came with us.’ (= I would prefer this)
‘I’ll repair your bike tomorrow, OK?’ I’d rather you did it today.’
‘Are you going to tell them what happened?’ ‘No. I’d rather they didn’t know.’
Shall I tell them, or would you rather they didn’t know?
 In this structure we use the past (came, did etc.), but the meaning is present not past. Compare:
I’d rather make dinner now.
I’d rather you made dinner now. (not I'd rather you make)
I’d rather you didn’t (do something) = I’d prefer you not to do it:
I’d rather you didn’t tell anyone what I said.
‘Shall I tell Linda what happened?’ I’d rather you didn’t.’
PREPOSITION +- ing

 If a preposition (in/for/about etc.) is followed by a verb, the verb ends in -ing:

Are you interested in working for us?
I’m not very good at learning languages.
Sue must be fed up with studying.
What are the advantages of having a car?
Thanks very much for inviting me to your party.
How about meeting for lunch tomorrow?
Why don’t you go out instead of sitting at home all the time?
Carol went to work in spite of feeling ill?
Are you looking forward to going on holiday?
Have you succeeded in finding a job yet?
They insisted on paying for the meal.
I’m thinking of buying a house.
I wouldn’t dream of asking them for money.
He doesn’t approve of swearing.
We have decided against moving to London.
Do you feel like going out tonight?
We talked about going to America.
You must apologise for not telling the truth.
I congratulated Liz on getting a new job.
They accused us of telling lies.
Nobody suspected the general of being a spy.
What prevented you from coming to see us.
The rain didn’t stop us from enjoying our holiday.
I forgot to thank them for helping me.
Excuse me for being so late.
Please forgive me for not writing to you.
 Before -ing and after -ing:
Before going out, I phoned Sarah. (not Before to go out)
What did you do after leaving school?
 by -ing (to say how something happens):
The burglars got into the house by breaking a window and climbing in.
You can improve your English by reading more.
She made herself ill by not eating properly.
Many accidents are caused by people driving too fast.
 without -ing:
We ran ten kilometres without stopping.
It was a stupid thing to say. I said it without thinking.
She needs to work without people disturbing her. (or ... without being disturbed.I
I have enough problems of my own without having to worry about yours.
 I’m used to something = it is not new or strange for me. Get used to = adapt to new things:
Frank lives alone. Fie doesn’t mind this because he has lived alone for 15 years. It is not strange for him. He is
used to it. He is used to living alone.
I bought some new shoes. They felt a bit strange at first because I wasn’t used to them.
Our new flat is on a very busy street. I expect we’ll get used to the noise, but at the moment it’s very disturbing.
Diane has a new job. She has to get up much earlier now than before - at 6.30. She finds this difficult because
she isn’t used to getting up so early.
EXPRESSIONS + -ing

 When these expressions are followed by a verb, the verb ends in -ing:
 It’s no use / It’s no good
There’s nothing you can do about the situation, so it’s no use worrying about it.
It’s no good trying to persuade me. You won't succeed.
 There’s no point in
There’s no point in having a car if you never use it.
There was no point in waiting any longer, so we went.
 Have difficulty -ing, have trouble -ing
I had no difficulty finding a place to live. (not difficulty to find)
Did you have any difficulty getting a visa?
People often have difficulty reading my writing.
I had no trouble finding a place to live.
 We use -ing after:
a waste of money / a waste of time; spend/waste (rime); (be) busy
It was a waste of time reading that book. It was rubbish.
It’s a waste of money buying things you don't need.
He spent hours trying to repair the clock.
I waste a lot of time day-dreaming.
She said she couldn't see me. She was too busy doing other things.
 We use go -ing for a number of activities:
go swimming, go sailing, go fishing, go climbing, go skiing, go jogging, go shopping, go sightseeing
How often do you go swimming?
I'd like to go skiing.
When did you last go shopping?
I’ve never been sailing.

PURPOSE

 We use to + infinitive to express purpose:

‘Why are you going out?’ ‘To post a letter.’
A friend of mine phoned to invite me to a party.
We shouted to warn everybody of the danger.
This wall is to keep people out of the garden.
The president has a team of bodyguards to protect him.
It’s difficult to find a place to park in the centre. (= a place where you can park)
Would you like something to eat?
Have you got much work to do? (=’work that you must do)
I get lonely if there’s nobody to talk to.
I need something to open this bottle with.
They gave us some money to buy some food.
Do you have much opportunity to practise your English?
I need a few days to think about your proposal.
 If the purpose is a noun, we use for:
I’m going to Spain for a holiday.
What would you like for dinner?
Let’s go to the pool for a swim.
  You can say ‘for (somebody) to (do something)’:
There weren’t any chairs for us to sit on, so we had to sit on the floor.
 You can use for -ing or to ... to talk about the general purpose of something, or what it is generally
used for:
Do you use this brush for washing the dishes? (or ... to wash the dishes?)
 You can use What ... for? to ask about purpose:
What is this switch for?
What did you do that for?
 When the purpose is negative or consists can/could we use so that:
I hurried so that I wouldn’t be late. (= because I didn't want to be late)
Leave early so that you won’t (or don’t) miss the bus.
She’s learning English so that she can study in Canada.
We moved to London so that we could see our friends more often

ADJECTIVE + TO+INFINITIVE

 After adjective (+noun), we use to + infinitive:

Do you think it is safe (for us) to drink this water?
Do you think this water is safe (for us) to drink? (not to drink it)
The questions in the exam were very difficult. It was impossible to answer them. The questions in the exam were
very difficult. They were impossible to answer.(not to answer them)
Jill has lots of interesting ideas. It’s interesting to talk to her.
Jill is interesting to talk to. (not to talk to her.)
This is a difficult question (for me) to answer, (not to answer it)
 You can say ‘It’s nice of somebody to do something' You can use many other adjectives in this way:
kind, clever, sensible, mean, silly, stupid, careless, unfair, considerate:
It was nice of you to take me to the airport. Thank you very much.
It’s silly of Mary to give up her job when she needs the money.
I think it was very unfair of him to criticise me.
 You can use adjective + to ... to say how somebody reacts to something:
I was sorry to hear that your father is ill.
Was Julia surprised to see you?
It was a long and tiring journey. We were glad to get home.
 You can use to ... after the first/the last, the next, the only, the second (etc.):
If I have any more news, you will be the first (person) to know.
The next train to arrive at platform 4 will be the 10.50 to Cardiff.
Everybody was late except me. I was the only one to arrive on time.

SEE SOMEONE DO and SEE SOMEONE DOING

 Tom got into his car and drove away. You saw this. You can say:
I saw Tom get into his car and drive away.
 In this structure we use get/drive/do etc. (not to get / to drive / to do). But after a passive (‘he was seen’
etc.), we use to:
He was seen to get in the car.
 Yesterday you saw Kate. She was waiting for a bus. You can say:
I saw Kate waiting for a bus.
  I saw him do something = he did something (past simple) and I saw this. I saw the complete action
from beginning to end:
He fell off the wall. I saw this. I saw him fall off the wall.
The accident happened. Did you see it? Did you see the accident happen?
 I saw him doing something = he was doing something (past continuous) and I saw this. I saw him
when he was in the middle of doing it. This does not mean that I saw the complete action:
He was walking along the street.
I saw him walking along the street.
 We use these structures with see and hear, and a number of other verbs:
I didn’t hear you come in. (you came in - I didn’t hear this)
Liz suddenly felt somebody touch her on the shoulder.
Did you notice anyone go out?
I could hear it raining, (it was raining - I could hear it)
The missing children were last seen playing near the river.
Listen to the birds singing!
Can you smell something burning?
I found Sue in my room reading my letters.

-ing CLAUSES

 When two things happen at the same time, you can use an -ing clause.
Kate is in the kitchen making coffee.(= she is in the kitchen and she is making coffee)
A man ran out of the house shouting.(= he ran out of the house and he was shouting)
Do something! Don’t just stand there doing nothing!
Joe hurt his knee playing football. (= while he was playing)
Did you cut yourself shaving? (= while you were shaving)
 You can also use -ing after while or when:
Jim hurt his knee while playing football.
Be careful when crossing the road. (= when you are crossing)
 When one action happens before another action, we use having (done) for the first action:
Having found a hotel, we looked for somewhere to have dinner.
Having finished her work, she went home.
 You can use an -ing clause to explain something, or to say why somebody does something. The -ing
clause usually comes at the beginning of the sentence:
Feeling tired, I went to bed early. (= because I felt tired)
Being unemployed, he hasn’t got much money. (= because he is unemployed)
Not having a car, she finds it difficult to get around.(= because she doesn’t have a car)
Having already seen the film twice, I didn’t want to go to the cinema.(= because I had already seen it twice)
CHAPTER 12 ARTICLES
COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE
 A countable noun can be singular or plural. We can use a/an or numbers with countable nouns.
There’s a nice beach near here.
I have two brothers.
 An uncountable noun has only one form. We can’t use a/an, numbers or plural ‘s’ with uncountable nouns.
Kate was listening to music.
There’s sand in my shoes.
 You cannot use singular countable nouns alone(without a/the/my etc.) but you can use plural countable nouns alone.
I want a banana. (not I want banana)
There’s been an accident. (not there’s been accident)
I like bananas.
 You can use uncountable nouns alone (without the/my/some etc.)
I eat rice everyday.
There’s blood on your shirt.
 Many nouns can be countable or uncountable, usually with a difference in meaning.
Did you hear a noise just now? (= a specific noise) I can’t work here. There’s too much noise. (not too many noises
I bought a paper to read. (= a newspaper) I need some paper to write on. (= material for writing on)
There’s a hair in my soup! (= one single hair) You’ve got very long hair. (= all the hair on your head)
You can stay with us. There is a spare room. (= a room in a house) You can’t sit here. There isn’t room. (= space)
I had some interesting experiences while I was travelling. (= things that happened to me)
They offered me the job because I had a lot of experience. (not experiences)
Enjoy your trip. Have a good time! I can’t wait. I haven’t got time.
 Coffee/tea/juice/beer etc. (drinks) are normally uncountable. But you can say a coffee (= a cup of coffee), two coffees
(= two cups) etc. :
Two coffees and an orange juice, please.
 The following nouns are usually uncountable:
accommodation, advice, baggage, behavior, bread, chaos, damage, furniture, information, luck, luggage, news, permission,
progress, scenery, traffic, weather, work
 Travel (noun) means ‘travelling in general’ (uncountable). We do not say ‘a travel’ to mean a trip or a journey:
They spend a lot of money on travel.
We had a very good trip/journey, (not a good travel)
 We use a/an ... to say what kind of thing or person something/somebody is:
That’s a nice table.
 In the plural we use the noun alone (not some ...):
Those are nice chairs, (not some nice chairs)
A dog is an animal. Dogs are animals.
 Remember to use a/an when you say what somebody’s job is:
Sandra is a nurse, (not Sandra is nurse)
Would you like to be an English teacher?

A/AN and THE

 When we talk about something or someone for the first time we use a/an. But when the listener knows which thing or
person we mean, we use the.
A man and a woman were sitting opposite me. The man was American, but 1 think the woman was British.
When we were on holiday, we stayed at a hotel. Sometimes we ate at the hotel and sometimes we went to a restaurant.
 We use the when we are thinking of a specific thing.
Tim sat down on a chair, (perhaps one of many chairs in the room)
Tim sat down on the chair nearest the door, (a specific chair)
Paula is looking for a job. (not a specific job)
Did Paula get the job she applied for? (a specific job)
Have you got a car? (nor a specific car)
I cleaned the car yesterday. (= my car)
  We use the when it is clear in the situation which thing or person we mean.
Can you turn off the light, please?- (= the light in this room)
I took a taxi to the station. (= the station in that town)
(in a shop) I’d like to speak to the manager, please. (= the manager of this shop)
 In the same way, we say (go to) the bank, the post office, the doctor / the dentist:
I have to go to the bank and then I'm going to the post office.
(The speaker is usually thinking of a specific bank or post office.)
Caroline isn’t very well. She’s gone to the doctor. (= her usual doctor)
I don’t like going to the dentist.
I have to go to the bank today. but Is there a bank near here?
I don’t like going to the dentist. but My sister is a dentist.
 We say ‘once a week / three times a day / £1.50 a kilo’ etc. :
‘How often do you go to the cinema?’ ‘About once a month.’
‘How much are those potatoes?’ ‘£1.50 a kilo.’
Helen works eight hours a day, six days a week.
 We use the when there is only one of something:
What is the longest river in the world? (there is only one longest river)
The earth goes round the sun and the moon goes round the earth.
Have you ever crossed the equator?
I’m going away at the end of this month.
 We say: the sky, the sea, the ground, the country, the environment.
We looked up at all the stars in the sky. (not in sky)
Would you like to live in the country? (= not in a town)
We must do more to protect the environment. (= the natural world around us)
 But we say space (without the) when we mean ‘space in the universe’. Compare:
There are millions of stars in space, (not in the space)
I tried to park my car, but the space was too small.
 We use the before same, sole, only (the same, the only, the sole):
Your pullover is the same colour as mine, (not is same colour)
 We say: (go to) the cinema, the theatre.
I go to the cinema a lot, but I haven’t been to the theatre for ages.
 We usually say the radio, but television (without the).
I listen to the radio a lot. but I watch television a lot.
We heard the news on the radio, but We watched the news on television.
 The television = the television set:
Can you turn off the television, please?
 We do not normally use the with the names of meals (breakfast, lunch etc.):
What did you have for breakfast?
We had lunch in a very nice restaurant.
What time is dinner?
 But we use a if there is an adjective before breakfast, lunch etc. :
We had a very nice lunch. (not We had very nice lunch)
 We do not use the before noun + number. For example, we say:
Our train leaves from Platform 5. (not the Platform 5)
(in a shop) Have you got these shoes in size 43? (not the size 43)
 We use prison, hospital, school, university, college and church without articles. We do not use articles when we are
thinking of the general idea of these places and what they are used for.
Ken’s brother is in prison for robbery. (He is a prisoner. We are not thinking of a specific prison.)
Ken went to the prison to visit his brother. (He went as a visitor, not as a prisoner.)
Joe had an accident last week. He was taken to hospital. He’s still in hospital now. (as a patient)
Jane has gone to the hospital to visit Joe. She’s at the hospital now. (as a visitor)
When I leave school, I want to go to university/college.
Excuse me, where is the university, please? (= the university buildings)
Sally’s father goes to church every Sunday, (to a religious service)
Some workmen went to the church to repair the roof, (not for a religious service)
  We say go to bed / be in bed etc. (not the bed) go to work / be at work / start work / finish work etc. (not the work) go
home / come home / arrive home / get home / be at home etc. :
It’s time to go to bed now.
Do you ever have breakfast in bed?
but I sat down on the bed. (a specific piece of furniture)
Chris didn’t go to work yesterday.
What time do you usually finish work?
It’s late. Let’s go home.
Will you be at home tomorrow' afternoon?
 We say go to sea / be at sea (without the) when the meaning is ‘go/be on a voyage’:
Keith works on ships. He is at sea most of the time. but I’d like to live near the sea.
 When we are talking about things or people in general, we do not use articles:
I’m afraid of dogs. (not the dogs) (dogs = dogs in general, not a specific group of dogs)
Doctors are paid more than teachers.
Do you collect stamps?
Crime is a problem in most big cities. (not The crime)
Life has changed a lot in the last thirty years, (not The life)
Do you like classical music / Chinese food / fast cars?
My favourite sport is football/skiing/athletics.
My favourite subject at school was history/physics/English.
 We use the (+ singular countable noun) to talk about a type of animal, machine etc. in general:
The giraffe is the tallest of all animals.
The bicycle is an excellent means of transport.
When was the telephone invented?
The dollar is the currency (= the money) of the United States.
Can you play the guitar?
The piano is my favourite instrument
Compare a and the:
I’d like to have a piano. but I can’t play the piano.
We saw a giraffe at the zoo. but The giraffe is my favourite animal.
 Note that we use man (= human beings in general / the human race) without the:
What do you know about the origins of man? (not the man)
 We use the + adjective (without a noun) to talk about groups of people, especially:
the young the rich the sick the blind the injured
the old the poor the disabled the deaf the dead
the elderly the homeless the unemployed

Do you think the rich should pay higher taxes?

The government has promised to provide more money to help the homeless.
 You can use the + nationality adjectives that end in -ch or -sh (the French / the English / the Spanish etc.) The
meaning is ‘the people of that country’:
The French are famous for their food. (= the people of France)
 The French / the English etc. are plural in meaning. We do not say ‘a French / an English'. You have to say a
Frenchman / an Englishwoman etc.
 You can also use the + nationality words ending in -ese (the Chinese / the Sudanese / the Japanese etc.):
The Chinese invented printing.
 But these words can also be singular (a Japanese, a Sudanese etc.). Also a Swiss (singular) and the Swiss (= the people
of Switzerland)
 With other nationalities, the plural noun ends in -s. For example:
an Italian - Italians a Mexican - Mexicans a Turk — Turks
 With these words (Italians etc.), we do not normally use the to talk about the people in general
NAMES WITH AND WITHOUT THE

 We do not use the with names of people (‘Helen’, ‘Helen Taylor’ etc.). In the same way, we do not normally use the
with names of places. For example:
continents Africa (not the Africa), Europe, South America
countries, states etc. France (not the France), Japan, Switzerland,
islands Sicily,
Texas Bermuda, Tasmania I
cities, towns ctc. Cairo, New York, Bangkok *
mountains Everest, Etna, Kilimanjaro

 But we use the in names with Republic, Kingdom, States etc. :

the Czech Republic the United Kingdom (the UK) the Dominican Republic the United States of America (the USA)
 When we use Mr/Mrs/Captain/Doctor etc. + a name, we do not use the. So we say:
Mr Johnson / Doctor Johnson / Captain Johnson / President Johnson etc. (not the ...) Uncle Robert / Saint Catherine / Princess
Maria etc. (not the ...)
We called the doctor. but We called Doctor Johnson, (not the Doctor Johnson)
 We use mount (= mountain) and lake in the same way (without the):
Mount Everest (not the ...) Mount Etna Lake Superior Lake Constance
They live near the lake.
They live near Lake Constance, (not the Lake Constance)
 We use the with the names of oceans, seas, rivers and canals:
the Atlantic (Ocean) the Indian Ocean the Mediterranean (Sea) the Red Sea
the Channel (between France and Britain) the Amazon the Nile the Suez Canal
 We use the with the names of deserts:
the Sahara (Desert) the Gobi Desert
 We use the with plural names of people and places:
people the Taylors (=the Taylor family), the Johnsons
countries the Netherlands, the Philippines, the United States
groups of islands the Canaries/the Canary Islands, the Bahamas
mountain ranges the Rocky Mountains / the Rockies, the Andes, the Alps

 We say:
the north (of Brazil) but northern Brazil (without the)
the south-east (of Spain) but south-eastern Spain
Sweden is in northern Europe; Spain is in the south.
Also: the Middle East, the Far East
 We also use north/south etc. (without the) in the names of some regions and countries:
North America South Africa
 Note that on maps, the is not usually included in the name.
 We do not use the with names of most city streets/roads/squares/parks etc. :
Wall Street (not the ...) Fifth Avenue Hyde Park Queens Road Broadway Times Square
 Names of important public buildings and institutions (for example, airports, stations, universities) are often two
words. The first word is the name of a place (‘Manchester’) or a person (‘Flarvard’). These names are usually without
the:
Victoria Station (not the ...) Canterbury Cathedral Edinburgh Castle Buckingham Palace
Cambridge University Sydney Harbour
Compare:
Buckingham Palace (not the ...) but the Royal Palace (‘Royal’ is an adjective - it is not a name like ‘Buckingham’.)
 Most other buildings have names with the. For example:
hotels/restaurants the Sheraton Hotel, the Bombay Restaurant, the Holiday Inn
theatres/cinemas the Palace Theatre, the Odeon (cinema)
museums/galleries the Guggenheim Museum, the Hayward Gallery
other buildings the Empire State (Building), the White House, the Eiffel Tower
 Some names are only the + noun, for example:
the Acropolis the Kremlin the Pentagon
  Names with of usually have the. For example:
the Bank of England the Museum of Modern Art
the Great Wall of China the Tower of London
Note that we say:
the University of Cambridge but Cambridge University (without the)
 Many shops, restaurants, hotels, banks etc. are named after the people who started them. These names end in -’s or -s.
We do not use the with these names:
Lloyds Bank (not the ...) Brown’s Restaurant Macv’s (department store)
 Churches are often named after saints:
St John’s Church (not the St Johns Church) St Patrick’s Cathedral
 Most newspapers and many organisations have names with the:
newspapers the Washington Post, the Financial Times, the Sun
organisations the European Union, the BBC (= British Broadcasting Corporation), the Red Cross
 Names of companies, airlines etc. are usually without the:
Fiat (not the Fiat) Sony British Airways Kodak IBM Yale University Press

SINGULAR and PLURAL

 Sometimes we use a plural noun for one thing that has two parts. These words are plural, so they take a plural verb.
You can also use a pair of + these words:
trousers, jeans, tights, shorts, pants, pyjamas, glasses, binoculars, scissors
My trousers are too long, (not my trousers is)
Those are nice jeans. or That’s a nice pair of jeans, (not a nice jeans)
I need some new glasses. or I need a new pair of glasses.
 Some nouns end in -ics, but are not usually plural. For example:
Athletics economics electronics gymnastics maths (= mathematics) physics politics
Gymnastics is my favourite sport, (not Gymnastics are)
 Some words ending in -s can be singular or plural. For example:
means a means of transport many means of transport
series a television series two television series
species a species of bird 200 species of bird
 Some singular nouns are often used with a plural verb. These nouns are all groups of people. We often think of them as
a number of people (= they), not as one thing (= it):
audience committee company family firm government staff team
The government (= they) want to increase taxes.
The staff at the school (= they) are not happy with their new working conditions.
 In the same way, we often use a plural verb after the name of a sports team or a company:
Italy are playing Brazil next week (in a football match).
Shell have increased the price of petrol.
A singular verb (The government wants ... / Shell has ... etc.) is also possible.
 We use a plural verb with police:
The police are investigating the murder, but haven’t arrested anyone yet. (not The police is ... hasn't)
Note that we say a police officer / a policeman / a policewoman (not a police).
 We think of a sum of money, a period of time, a distance etc. as one thing. So we use a singular verb:
Twenty thousand pounds (= it) was stolen in the robbery, (not were stolen)
Three years (= it) is a long time to be without a job. (not Three years are)
Six miles is a long way to walk every day
NOUN+NOUN

 You can use two nouns together (noun + noun) to mean one thing/person/idea etc. The first noun is like an adjective.
It tells us what kind of thing/person/idea etc. For example:
a tennis ball = a ball used to play tennis a road accident = an accident that happens on the road
income tax = tax that you pay on your income the water temperature = the temperature of the water
a London doctor = a doctor from London my life story = the story of my life
 Sometimes the first word ends in -ing. Usually these are things used for doing something:
a frying pan (= a pan for frying) a washing machine a swimming pool a dining room
 Sometimes there are more than two nouns together:
I waited at the hotel reception desk.
We watched the World Swimming Championships on television.
If you want to play table tennis (= a game), you need a table tennis table (= a table).
 When two nouns are together like this, sometimes we write them as one word and sometimes as two separate words.
There are no clear rules for this. If you are not sure, write two words.
a headache toothpaste a weekend a car park a road sign
 When we use noun + noun, the first noun is like an adjective. It is normally singular, but the meaning is often plural.
For example: a bookshop is a shop where you can buy books, an apple tree is a tree that has apples.
a three-hour journey (= a journey that takes three hours) a ten-pound note (not pounds)
a four-week course (not weeks) a six-page letter (not pages)
-‘S (your sister's name) and OF... (the name of the book)

 We use -’s (apostrophe + s) mostly for people or animals:

Toni’s computer isn’t working, (not the computer of Tom)
How old are Chris’s children? (not the children of Chris)
What’s (= What is) your sister’s name?
 Note that you can use -’s without a following noun:
This isn’t my book. It’s my sister’s. (= my sister’s book)
 With a singular noun we use -’s. With a plural noun (sisters, friends etc.) we put an apostrophe at the end of the word
(-s’):
my sister’s room (= her room - one sister) Mr Carter’s house (= his house)
my sisters’ room (= their room - two or more sisters) the Carters’ house (= their house - Mr and Mrs Carter)
 If a plural noun does not end in -s (for example men/women/children/people) we use -’s:
the men’s changing room a children’s book (= a book for children)
 Note that you can use -’s after more than one noun:
Jack and Karen’s wedding Mr and Mrs Carter’s house
 For things, ideas etc., we normally use of (... of the book / ... of the restaurant etc.):
the door of the garage (not the garage's door) the name of the book the owner of the restaurant
 You can also use -’s or of ... for people, animals, organizations etc.:
the government’s decision or the decision of the government
the company’s success or the success of the company
the city’s streets the world’s population Italy’s prime minister
What was the name of the man who phoned you? (’the man who phoned you’ is too long to be followed by -’s)
 You can also use -’s with time expressions (yesterday / next week etc.):
Do you still have yesterday’s newspaper?
Next week’s meeting has been cancelled.
 We also use -’s (or -s’ with plural words) with periods of time:
I’ve got a week’s holiday starting on Monday.
Julia has got three weeks’ holiday.
I live near the station - it’s only about ten minutes’ walk