REMOTE SENSING
LECTURE: 03
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Atmosphere
EMR interacts with particles and gases in the atmosphere.
Three processes serve to attenuate the signal we are trying to
detect
1. Scattering: Redirection of EMR from its original path
2. Absorption: Retention of EMR by molecules in the
atmosphere
3. Refraction: Passing of EMR through the atmosphere
Scattering occurs when particles or large
gas molecules present in the
atmosphere interact with and cause the
electromagnetic radiation to be
redirected from its original path.
Scattering depends on several factors
including the
- Wavelength of the radiation,
- Abundance of particles or gases, and
- Distance the radiation travels through the
atmosphere.
For visible wavelengths, 100 % to 5 % of energy received by the
sensor is directly contributed by the atmosphere.
There are three types of scattering which take place:
Rayleigh scattering
Mie scattering and
Non-selective scattering
Rayleigh scattering
Diameter of particles << wavelength of EMR (small specks of dust
or N2 and O2)
Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be
scattered much more than longer wavelengths.
Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the
upper atmosphere.
The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of
this phenomenon.
Mie scattering
Diameter of particles = wavelength of EMR (Dust, smoke and
water vapor)
Dust, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie
scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those
affected by Rayleigh scattering.
Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the
atmosphere.
Nonselective scattering
Diameter of particles >> wavelength of EMR (Water droplets and
large dust particles)
This occurs when the particles are much larger than the
wavelength of the radiation.
Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of
scattering.
Absorption is the other main mechanism when electromagnetic
radiation interacts with the atmosphere.
In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in
the atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths.
Three main atmospheric constituents
which absorb radiation are
1. Ozone (O3)
2. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
3. Water vapor (H2O)
Absorption
Ozone absorbs the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet
radiation from the sun.
Carbon dioxide absorbs radiation strongly in the far infrared
portion of the spectrum - that area associated with thermal
heating - which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere.
Water vapor in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming
long wave infrared and shortwave microwave radiation.
Absorption
Parts of the EM spectrum are heavily affected by scattering and
absorption and useless for remote sensing, other parts are less
affected and useful
Transmission
The remaining amount of energy after being absorbed and
scattered by the atmosphere is transmitted.
Atmospheric transmission expressed as percentage
Atmospheric Windows
It refers to the relatively transparent wavelength regions of the
atmosphere.
The wavelengths at which EMR are partially or wholly
transmitted through the atmosphere are known as
atmospheric windows.
Atmospheric windows Wavelength (µm)
Upper UV – photographic IR 0.3 – 1(approx.)
Reflected IR 1.3, 1.6, 2.2
Thermal IR 3-5, 8-14
Microwave >5000
‘Atmospheric windows’
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can
reach and interact with the Earth's surface.
What will happen when the EM energy reaches the Earth surface?
The answer is that the total energy will be broken into three parts:
reflected, absorbed, and/or transmitted.
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
When electromagnetic energy is incident on any given earth
surface feature, three fundamental energy interactions are
possible. These are:
1. Absorption (A)
2. Reflection (R)
3. Transmission (T)
The proportions of each will depend on the
- wavelength of the energy,
- angle at which the radiation intersects with the surface and
- roughness of the material and condition of the feature.
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
Reflection
Two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends of
the way in which energy is reflected from a target are:
1. Specular reflection
2. Diffuse reflection.
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
Specular or mirror like reflection, typically
occurs when surface is smooth and all (or
almost all) of the energy is directed away
from the surface in a single direction.
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
Diffuse or Lambertian reflection
occurs when the surface is rough
and the energy is reflected almost
uniformly in all directions.
Interactions of EM Radiation with the Earth’s Surface
Whether a particular target reflects specularly or diffusely, or
somewhere in between, depends on the surface roughness of the
feature in comparison to the wavelength of the incoming radiation.
If the wavelengths are much smaller than the surface variations or
the particle sizes that make up the surface, diffuse reflection will
dominate.
For example, fine-grained sand would appear fairly smooth to long
wavelength microwaves but would appear quite rough to the
visible wavelengths
Spectral Reflectance Curve
The reflectance characteristics of earth surface
feature may be quantified by measuring the
portion of incident energy (Irradiance) that is
reflected (Radiance).
This energy is measured as a function of
wavelength and is called spectral reflectance. It
is defined as:
Rs
Reflectance =
I
Reflectance ranges from 0 to 1 or 0 to 100%. Equipment to
measure reflectance is called spectrometer
A graph of spectral reflectance as a function of wavelength is
termed as spectral reflectance curve
Spectral Reflectance of Healthy Vegetation
Vegetation: A chemical compound
in leaves called chlorophyll strongly
absorbs radiation in the red and
blue wavelengths but reflects green
wavelengths.
The internal structure of healthy
leaves act as excellent diffuse
reflectors of near-infrared
wavelengths.
Spectral Reflectance of Healthy Vegetation
Spectral Reflectance of Bare Soil
The surface reflectance from bare soil depends on many
factors such as color, moisture content, presence of carbonate
and iron oxide content.
Spectral Reflectance of Water
Water: Longer visible wavelength
and near infrared radiation is
absorbed more by water than
shorter visible wavelengths.
Water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger
reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if
viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths.
Spectral Reflectance of Water
Compared to vegetation and soils water has lower reflectance.
Vegetation may reflect up to 50%, soils up to 30-40% while water
reflect at most 10% of the incoming radiation.
Spectral Reflectance of Water, Vegetation, Soil and Rock
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