3013

Building Construction and Construction Materials

Ar. Ruby Nawaz

 SYLLABUS - MODULE 3

Contents:
Classification of Buildings as per National Building Code/KMBR/KPBR.

Types of Constructions - Load Bearing wallStructure, Framed Structure, Composite

Structure, Prefabricated structures, Special framed structure for earthquake
resistance (IS 13920) - Construction methods for Structural Steel buildings.

Building Components - Functions of Building Components - Substructure -

Foundation - Plinth. - DPC - Superstructure - Parts of building - Walls, Partition wall,
and Cavity wall, Sill, Lintel, Doors and Windows, Floor etc.

Construction of Substructure - Job Layout - Site Clearance, Layout for Load Bearing
Structure and Framed Structure by Center Line and Face Line Method.

Earthwork: Excavation for Foundation - Timbering and Strutting - Materialsused for

plinth Filling - Foundation - Functions of foundation - Types of foundation - Shallow
Foundation and Deep Foundation - Stepped Footing, Wall Footing, Column Footing,
Isolated and Combined Column Footing, Raft Foundation, Grillage Foundation, Strap
footing, Pile Foundation, Well foundation and Caissons.

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 MODULE 3
CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS AS PER NATIONAL BUILDING
CODE/KMBR/KPBR

TYPES OF BUILDINGS
Occupancy of buildings. —(1)All buildings existing or herein after proposed shall be
classified, in one of the following occupancies, according to the use or character of
occupancy, namely:—

1. Group A1 - Residential
2. Group A2 - Lodging Houses & special residential
3. Group B - Educational
4. Group C - Medical/Hospital
5. Group D - Assembly
6. Group E - Office
7. Group F - Mercantile/Commercial
8. Group G1 - Industrial - I
9. Group G2 - Industrial - II
10. Group H - Storage
11. Group I - Hazardous
12. Group J - Multiplex Complex

(a) Group A1 – Residential Building shall include any building in which sleeping
accommodation is provided for normal residential purposes, with or without
cooking and/or dining facilities.
● They shall include one or multifamily dwellings, apartment buildings or
residential flats.
● Small professional offices small house-hold business, or spaces for
advocates, doctors, engineers, architects, chartered accountants, beauticians,
tailors, photographers, videographers, telephone booth operators, computer

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 professionals, typists, electrical or electronic equipment service professionals,
not exceeding 50 sq. meters built up area and used as part of principal
residential occupancy are also included in this group.
● Crèches, daycare centers, children’s nurseries, reading rooms, libraries
and educational buildings not exceeding 200 sq. meters of built up area
are also included in this group.

NOTE:

(b) Group A2 — Lodging Houses and Special residential shall include all
lodging or rooming houses, seminaries/convents, orphanage, old age
homes, dormitories, tourist homes, tourist resorts (or by whatever name
called), hostels, hotels with or without conference halls, dining halls or
assembly rooms.

(c) Group B—Educational Buildings – These shall include any building or part
thereof, exceeding 200 sq. meters of built-up area, used for school, college,
day-care purposes, other institutions for education or research, libraries
incidental to educational buildings, religious educational buildings such
as madrassa, Sunday schools & the like and appurtenant assembly buildings
having capacity not exceeding 200 persons.

(d) Group C — Medical or Hospital Building shall include any building or part
thereof, exceeding 200 sq. meters of built up area which is used for
purposes such as medical or other treatment or care of persons
suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or infirmity, care of
infants, hospitals, sanatoria, clinics, homes for the infirm, convalescent
homes, mental hospitals etc, are included in this group.

(e) Group D—Assembly building shall include any building or part of a

building exceeding 200 sq. meters of built-up area where people gather for
amusement, recreation, social, religious, patriotic, political, civil, travel
and similar purposes such as theatres, motion picture houses or cinemas,

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assembly halls for educational, dramatic or theatrical presentations,
auditoriums, convention centers, wedding halls, community halls, exhibition
halls, art galleries, museums, libraries.

NOTE:

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
The structural system may be composed of three basic types of structures.

1. LOAD BEARING
STRUCTURES
● In a load-bearing structure, the weight
of the structure is transferred to the
walls in the form of roofs, floors
supported directly on the walls.

● The walls transfer the load to the

underlying soil through wall footing
suitable and economical for two to four
storey.

● The wall footings are built directly on

hardened levels, while this structure is adopted where hard strata are
available at shallow depths.

Advantages of Load bearing structure:

1. The load-bearing structure constructed is highly durable and solid.
2. These types of structures have high fire resistance.
3. Masonry units are available in various colors and textures which gives freedom of
creativity.
4. These structures do not require advanced preparation.
5. They are aesthetically appealing.
6. Tools and equipment used for masonry construction are simple and cheap.

Disadvantages of Load bearing structure:

1. These structures perform poorly during earthquake action.
2. Their construction employs more labor.

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3. This masonry construction is slow.
4. They consume a large number of masonry units.
5. The cost of the total masonry units used to construct these structures makes it
unreliable.
6. This structure has more weight.
7. The thermal insulation properties of these structures are very poor.

NOTE:

2. FRAMED STRUCTURES
● Framed structures consist of a series of
frames. These frames are formed of
columns which are connected by beams
at floor and roof levels.

● Columns will be supported by strong

foundations. Slabs may be constructed
monolithically with beams.

● In case of a framed structure, the frame

made of columns, beams and slabs and
foundation are constructed. Within these
frames walls are constructed .

● Walls will be subjected to its self weight only and no other loads. Hence they act
as non load bearing walls or partition walls.

● In a framed structure, the loads from roof and floor are transferred to
beams and then to columns and finally to foundation.

Advantages of framed structures

1. Speedy construction is possible, since several construction activities can be done
at a time.
2. The position of the partition wall can be changed at any time.
3. Partition walls can be constructed of low cost building materials and thereby
saves cost.
4. They are the only choice for high rise buildings.

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 5. They can resist vibrations and hence are suitable for earthquake resistant
buildings.
6. They are more suitable for filled up and marshy lands.

3. COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
● Composite structure is a combination of load-bearing structure and frame
structure.

● Exterior walls may be load-bearing structures, while column and beam structures
may be provided internally thus floors and ceilings are supported by walls and
frames.

● These types of structures are generally adopted for industrial sheds or

warehouses where spans are very large.

Advantages of Composite structure:

1. Composite structures are highly resistant to heat and electricity.
2. They are lighter weight than traditional materials, so the structures made of
composites are easy to carry and install.
3. These types of structures are flexible, engineers can design structures according to
their requirements.

Disadvantages of Composite structure:

1. The construction of this structure is highly economical.
2. It requires skilled labor for construction.

4. EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION.

● Earthquake resistant structures are buildings which resist the effects of
vibrations caused by earthquakes.
● They may get damaged during a severe earthquake but will not collapse.
● Earthquake resistant buildings should be designed to control the damages at a
reasonable cost.
● Buildings should be designed according to the seismic zones.
( Zone I – highly seismic, Zone IImoderate, Zone III- mild, Zone IV- light).
● The earthquake resistant buildings should have good structural configuration,
lateral strength, adequate stiffness and good ductility.

Features of earthquake resistant construction:

1. Height to base size ratio: For buildings with large height earthquake damages
will be more. For long buildings and buildings having large plan areas,

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 earthquake damages will be more. So the building should be suitably
proportioned to resist earthquakes.

2. Layout of buildings: Buildings with simple geometrical shapes like square,

rectangle, and circular will resist earthquakes more than buildings which are
irregularly shaped and those having sharp corners.

3. Adjacency of buildings: When buildings are very close to each other they may
have more vibrations and hence more damages.

4. Vertical layout of buildings: Buildings should preferably have the same layout
of columns and beams at all floor levels. Buildings that have fewer columns or
walls in a particular storey or unusually tall storey may tend to damage more than
the rest of the building.

5. Masonry walls: Masonry walls should have good interlocking. Horizontal bands
should be provided at plinth and lintel level. Sizes of door and window openings
should be kept small. Roofs, walls and floors should be properly bonded to act as
a single unit.

5. PREFABRICATED CONSTRUCTION

● A prefabricated structure or
building is a structure that has
several factory built
components that are
assembled at the site.

● The components include wall

panels, floor panels, roof panels,
prefabricated doors, windows
etc which can be transported
and assembled at the site to form a structure.

● Or it can be in modules such as modular homes. Modular homes are created in

sections and can be transported to the site for further assembling.

Advantages of Prefabricated Construction

1. Speedy construction is possible with the help of prefabricated structures.
2. Use of formwork, scaffolding can be avoided at the site.
3. Quality is ensured as it is casted in factories.
4. Greater flexibility in design and arrangement
5. Additions and alterations can be done easily.
6. Dismantling can be done easily.
7. Scrap value is more.

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Disadvantages of Prefabricated Construction
1. Greater care is required during erection.
2. Transportation charges are more.
3. Concrete structures may get damaged during transportation, so more
reinforcement is required.
4. Leaks may occur at joints.

NOTE:

Types of Prefabrication

Prefabrication is divided into:

1. Plant prefabrication and
2. Site prefabrication

Plant Prefabrication- Plant pre fabrication is carried out in permanent plants or

factories. Constant team of workers will be there in the workshop to take up the work.
Laboratories can also be established at or near the factory to test the specimen.

Advantages of Plant prefabrication

1. Since the work is carried out in factory, it can be done in any weather conditions
2. Work can be done by a constant team of workers.
3. Allows high degree of mechanization
4. Better quality control in construction
5. Mass production of precast members is possible

Disadvantages of Plant prefabrication

1. Transportation cost is more
2. Limitations on the size of members.

Site Prefabrication – RCC members are precast on the site in this type of
prefabrication

Advantages of Prefabrication
1. As the members are precast at the site, there is no transportation cost
2. There is no limitation on the size of the member
3. Large size members can be made and hence joints are less

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Disadvantages of Prefabrication
1. Availability of skilled labor is difficult
2. Higher degree of mechanization is not possible
3. Quality control is less.

NOTE:

CONSTRUCTION METHODS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL BUILDINGS

Steel structure buildings
can be made by the
following 3 methods or
types of connections.

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1. Riveting – it’s a method of joining together

pieces of metal by inserting ductile metal
pins called rivets into holes of pieces to be
connected and forming a head at the end of
the rivet to prevent each metal piece from
coming out.
● Rivet holes are made in the structural
members to be connected by punching or by
drilling.

● The size of the rivet hole is kept slightly more

than the size of the rivet.

● After the rivet holes in the members are

matched a red hot rivet is inserted which has
a shop made head on one side and the length
of which is slightly more than the combined
thickness of the members to be connected.

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 ● Hold a hot red rivet at the shop head end and hammer it.
● It results in expansion of the rivet to completely fill up the rivet hole and a driven head
is formed.
● Desired shapes can be given to the driven head.

Advantages and disadvantages

1. High level of noise pollution.
2. Labour cost is high.
3. Removing rivets is costly.

Types of riveted joints

1. Lap joint – In this, the plates to be connected overlap each other. According to
the number of rivets, it is single or double riveted. According to the arrangement
of rivets, its chain, zigzag and diamond riveting.
2. Butt joint – In this, the plates are connected butt against each other and the
connection is made by providing a cover plate. Cover plate may be provided on
one or both sides of the joint.

2. Bolting – A bolt is a metal pin with a head formed at one end and shrank threaded
at the other in order to receive a nut. Bolts are used for joining together pieces of
metals by inserting them through holes in the metal and tightening the nut at the
threaded ends.

Advantages
1. Noiseless process.
2. Do not need skilled labour. Need less labour
3. Connections can be done quickly.
4. Alternations if any can be done easily
5. Working area required is less.
Disadvantages
1. Due to vibration nuts are likely to loosen
2. Rigidity of the joint is reduced due to loose fit
resulting in excessive deflection.

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3. Welding – welding consists of joining two pieces of metal by establishing a
metallurgical bond between them.
● The elements to be connected are brought closer and the metal is melted by
means of electric arc or oxy acetylene flame along with a weld rod which adds
metal to the joint.
● After cooling , the bond is established between the 2 elements.

Advantages
● More stronger as there are no holes
● Better appearance
● Completely rigid
● Speed of fabrication
● More economical

Disadvantages
● Due to uneven heating and cooling
during the welding process internal
stress and warping are produced.
● Skilled labour is required
● Defects like internal air pockets and incomplete penetration are difficult to detect.

DAMPNESS

● Dampness in a building is the presence of moisture on the walls, roofs and

floors.
● Damp prevention is the method of preventing the entry of moisture into a
building.
● Damp proof courses are the courses provided at various levels in a building to
prevent the entry of moisture into the building.

Causes or Sources of Dampness in a Building

● Rising of moisture from the ground: The ground on which the building is
constructed may be made up of soils which easily allow water to enter into the
building through the foundation. It mainly occurs in low lying water logged areas.

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 ● Action of rain: When exterior faces of walls are not properly protected from
heavy rain, they become the sources of dampness in a building. Poor mortar
joints and cracked roofs also cause dampness.

● Rain penetration from top of walls: Parapet walls and compound walls if not
properly protected against rain will become the cause of dampness.

● Condensation: Condensation takes place when warm humid air is cooled. As a

result moisture gets deposited on walls, floors and ceilings.

NOTE:

Damp-proof course (DPC)

● A damp-proof course (DPC) is a barrier through the structure designed to

prevent moisture rising by capillary action such as through a phenomenon
known as rising damp.

● Rising damp is the effect of water rising from the ground into property.

● DPC is generally provided at basement level or above the plinth to restrict the
movement of moisture or water through wall or floor.

● There are Various Materials like bitumen felts, first-class bricks, stones, slate,
cement concrete etc.

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 COMPONENT
PARTS OF A BUILDING

A building has two basic parts:

1. Substructure
2. Superstructure

1. Substructure or Foundation is the lowest portion of a building. It is located below

ground level and transfers all the loads to soil.

2. Super structure is that part of building constructed above ground level and consist of
plinth, walls, roof etc

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A building has the following components
1. Foundations
2. Plinth,
3. DPC,
4. Walls, columns
5. Floors
6. Roof
7. Doors and windows
8. Lintels & sunshades
9. Stairs, lifts
10. Building finishes.

Building Components

Substructure Superstructure
- Foundation - Walls, Partition wall, and Cavity wall,
- Plinth - Sill,
- DPC - Lintel,
- Doors and
- Windows,
- Floor etc.

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1. Foundation: It is the lowest part of a building constructed below GL. It transfers
the load of the building to the subsoil. It provides stability to buildings and
protects it from settlement.

2. Plinth: It is the structure constructed above GL and just below the floor next to
ground level. It transmits the load to the foundation. It protects the building from
dampness.

3. Walls, Columns: Walls are masonry units made of stone or brick or concrete
blocks. Its function is to divide the space.
It provides privacy and gives protection from weather effects. It also transfers
load from floors, roofs to plinth below.
A column is a vertical load bearing member designed to carry heavy and concentrated
loads.

4. Sill: The horizontal

member located at the
bottom of a window or
door opening. It provides
support to the vertical
members of the window
frame and distributes the
load uniformly to the
walls.

● Functions:

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 ○ Supports the base of the window frame.
○ Prevents water penetration from the window into the building by sloping
outward.
○ Provides a base for the window or door to rest upon.
● Materials Used:
○ Stone (common in traditional construction).
○ Concrete (precast or cast in situ).
○ Timber (used in wooden structures).
○ Aluminum or PVC in modern structures.

5. Lintel: A horizontal structural element placed over a door, window,

or other opening to support the load from the structure above.
● Functions:
○ Transfers the load of the structure above the opening to the sides,
preventing the collapse of walls over windows and doors.
○ Adds stability to the openings.

● Materials Used:
○ Timber
○ Stone
○ Brick
○ Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC)
○ Steel Lintels

6. Floors: Floors are horizontal elements which divide the building into different
levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation in limited space. It
supports the occupants, furniture and equipment in the building.

7. Roof: It is the uppermost horizontal element of a building. Its function is to

cover the top of the building and give protection from rain, sun, wind etc. It
encloses the space and provides privacy.

8. Doors, Windows and other opening s: A door is an opening to provide access to

various spaces of a building. Window is an opening constructed for providing
ventilation and light into the building. They can be constructed of wood, steel,
aluminium, glass etc.

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 NOTE:

PARTITION WALLS

A partition wall is a divider wall, typically non load bearing, used to

separate spaces in residential, commercial, and industrial buildings.

Uses of a partition wall

● Divide the whole area into a number of rooms.

● Provides privacy.
● Light in weight and construction cost is less
● Being thin in the cross section, they occupy only a lesser floor area.
● They can be easily constructed. Requirements of a good partition wall.
● It should be thin in the cross section so that maximum floor area can be utilized.
● It should be strong enough to carry its own weight.
● It should be constructed from light, durable and sound insulating materials.
● It should be rigid enough to take vibrations due to loads.
● It should be strong enough to resist sanitary fixtures and other decorative
finishes.
● It should be fire resistant, damp proof and should have good heat insulation.

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Types of partition walls:
Partition walls are of the following
types.

1. Brick partitions
2. Clay block partitions
3. Concrete partitions
4. Glass partitions
5. Metal lath partitions
6. Wooden partitions
7. Asbestos cement partitions

CAVITY WALL

● Cavity wall is constructed with two

separate walls for a single wall
purpose with some space or cavity
between them.

● These two separate walls are called

leaves of the cavity wall.
● The inner wall is called the internal leaf
and the outer wall is called the external
leaf.

● Cavity wall is also called the

Hollow wall.
● For a non-load bearing cavity
wall, two leaves are of equal
thickness or sometimes an
internal leaf with more thickness
is provided.

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 ● The cavity size should be between 4 to 10cm. The internal and external leaves
should have at least 10 mm thickness. The two leaves are interconnected by
metal ties or links.

CONSTRUCTION OF SUBSTRUCTURE

Job layout

A site drawing of the proposed construction showing the location of entry, exit,
temporary services, materials, stores, plants, equipment and site office is known
as job layout.

- Site clearance – no trees, shrubs, large stones

- Wide approach road
- Site should be made level
- Preparing site layout – site office, labor quarters, godown for construction
materials
- Layout for Load Bearing Structure and Framed Structure

The purpose of job layout is to achieve :

1. More economical method of working
2. Reduction in completion time
3. Reduction in wastage and deterioration of material
4. Higher productivity from labour and machinery
5. Greater safety

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 Figure: Job layout drawing

Layout for Load Bearing Structure and Framed Structure

1. Center Line Method
2. Face Line Method

1. Center Line Method

Procedure :-
- From the plan of drawing the centerline of the wall is calculated and set out on
the ground.

STEP – 1 Suppose 1, 2, 3, ........, 11 the center line. These lines are extended
1.5 meters to 2 meters away from the outer edge of the excavation.
STEP – 2 Corners points are marked using peg. Center lines are marked
clearly by stretching rope, and then after it is marked by a line.
STEP – 3 Corners point of rooms are checked by diagonal AC, BD, EG, FH.

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 Figure: Centreline drawing

2. Face line method

Procedure :-
From the drawing, calculate the length of wall exterior to exterior which is
called the face of the wall.

STEP – 1 Measure the distance on ground with the help of measuring tape
and mark it with a line.
STEP – 2 The width of the wall is then marked on the ground by the help of
rope, lime, etc.
STEP – 3 The face line of the wall is extended 2 meters from the face of the
wall, it is so because during excavation the face line may disappear.
STEP - 4 For the proper rectangulation of room diagonals where checked,
such as AC, BD, EG, FH, IK,& JL.
STEP – 5 If the plan of building is more complicated then use of pegs is
according to ground condition.

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1. Load Bearing Wall Structure
Definition:

A construction system where walls directly carry and transfer the loads from
floors and roofs to the foundation.

Characteristics:

● The walls themselves act as structural elements, transferring loads to the

foundation.
● Used commonly in low-rise residential buildings.
● Walls are thicker compared to framed structures because they bear the load.

Components:

● Walls: Carry vertical loads from floors and roofs.

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 ● Foundation: Supports the weight of the walls and distributes it to the ground.
● Floors & Roofs: The weight is directly transferred to the walls.

Materials Used:

● Bricks, concrete blocks, or stone are most commonly used for constructing
load-bearing walls.

Advantages:

● Simple construction techniques.

● Economical for small buildings.
● Suitable for low-rise buildings (usually 1-3 floors).

Disadvantages:

● Limited in terms of height (not suitable for high-rise buildings).

● Larger wall thickness reduces usable space.
● Less flexibility in creating large open spaces.

NOTE:

2. Framed Structure
Definition:

A structure where the load is carried by a skeletal framework of columns and

beams, and the walls are non-load bearing.

Characteristics:

● Beams and Columns: The primary structural elements that support the floors
and roofs.
● Walls: Act as partitions and do not carry any structural loads.
● Commonly used in high-rise and commercial buildings due to their flexibility in
design and load-bearing capacity.

Components:

● Columns: Vertical members that support the weight of the structure and
transfer it to the foundation.

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 ● Beams: Horizontal members that distribute the loads from floors and roofs to
the columns.
● Slabs: Horizontal surfaces (floors/roofs) supported by beams and columns.
● Foundation: A deep foundation (pile or raft) is often used to support the load
from columns.

Materials Used:

● Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC), steel, or timber is commonly used for

framed structures.

Advantages:

● Greater flexibility in design, allowing for large open spaces.

● Ideal for multi-story buildings.
● Walls can be lightweight since they don’t carry structural loads.

Disadvantages:

● More expensive than load-bearing wall structures.

● Requires skilled labor and specialized construction techniques.

Earthwork
Definition:

Earthwork involves the excavation, movement, and compaction of soil or rock

to create a stable foundation for buildings
and other structures. It is the first step in

1. Excavation for foundation

2. Timbering and Strutting
3. Materials used for plinth Filling

1. Excavation for Foundation

● Excavation: The process of removing
earth to prepare a foundation for the
construction of a structure.
● Steps in Excavation:
○ Site Preparation: Clearing the
site by removing vegetation,
debris, and any existing
structures.

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 ○ Marking: The layout of the foundation is marked on the ground based
on the building plan.
○ Excavation Depth: The depth is determined by the type of soil and the
type of foundation to be constructed (shallow or deep foundation).
○ Soil Disposal: The excavated soil is either reused for backfilling or
disposed of as per environmental regulations.
● Types of Excavation:
○ Manual Excavation: Using hand tools for smaller projects or areas
with restricted access.
○ Mechanical Excavation: Using machinery like JCBs or excavators for
larger-scale projects.

2. Timbering and Strutting

● Timbering: The process of
providing temporary supports to the
sides of a trench or excavation to
prevent soil collapse.
● Strutting: Horizontal members that
brace the walls of the excavation to
ensure stability.

● Types of Timbering:
1. Stay Bracing: Simple and used in
shallow trenches.
2. Box Sheeting: Used for deeper
excavations, where boards are
placed horizontally.
3. Runner System: Vertical boards
with horizontal struts, ideal for
narrow excavations.

3. Materials Used for Plinth Filling

● Plinth Filling: The filling of earth or other materials between the foundation
walls to level the ground and support the flooring system.
- Once the work in the foundation completed, the space around
the foundation masonry shall be cleared
- The cleaned foundation trenches shall be filled with earth in
layers not exceeding 250 mm, each layer being watered,
rammed, and compacted before the succeeding one is laid.
● Common Materials Used:
○ Soil or Excavated Earth: Reused soil from the excavation itself.
○ Sand or shingle: Provides good drainage and compaction.
○ Gravel: Improves the bearing capacity and drainage characteristics.
○ Fly Ash or Murrum: Lightweight and eco-friendly material.
● Purpose of Plinth Filling:
○ Provides a level surface for the flooring system.
○ Improves load distribution.
○ Acts as a barrier to moisture rising from the ground.

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4. Foundation
The foundation transfers the load of the structure to the ground and provides
stability.

Functions of Foundation:
● Distributes the load of the structure over a larger area.
● Prevents differential settlement.
● Anchors the building to the ground and resists environmental forces like wind
and earthquakes.

Types of Foundation:
● Shallow Foundation: Used when the load of the building is low and the
bearing capacity of the soil is high.
● Deep Foundation: Used when the soil near the surface is weak, and the load
needs to be transferred to deeper, stronger layers.

Shallow foundation

1. Isolated spread footing

● Most common and
economical type
● Generally used for ordinary
buildings
● Have independent footings
● Each column has its own footings
● Footing may be rectangular, square or circular in shape

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Isolated footings may be of three types:

2. Wall/Strip footing

● Each strip contains number of

footings
● Helps to distribute loads from
columns to ground
● Strip will be along direction of wall
● A group of columns share single
lengthier footing

3. Combined footing
● Footings made common to more than one
column
● Uniform distribution of loads
● Opted when columns are closely spaced
● Opted when dimensions of one side is
restricted

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 4. Cantilever/Strap footing
● Nearby footings
connected using a
strap/beam
● When edge of footing cannot extend beyond property line

5. Mat/raft footing
● Used when bearing capacity of soil is poor
● Load from number of columns is distributed by a single large footing
● Raft behave as a single unit
● Used for heavy construction works in low load bearing soil

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6. Grillage Foundation

A column foundation –
● formed by 2 or more layers of cross
beams
● placed at right angles to each other &
● covered by concrete

Applications
● To distribute heavy structural loads
over columns
● On weak soils
● Helps to avoid deep excavations as necessary base
● area provided (depth : 1m to 1.5m)

Deep Foundations

1. Pile foundation
● Used when bearing capacity of soil is poor
● Pile is a slender member with a small CSA
● Used to transmit loads to a deeper rock
strata
● Transmits load either by skin
friction or bearing
● Used to resist uplift and provide
stability against lateral and
overturning forces.

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2. Well or Caisson foundation
● Provided below water level for
bridges
● Caisson means ‘box’
● Construction of structures in water
● Dams, bridges, etc

SYLLABUS - MODULE 3

Contents:
Types of stone masonry - Rubble masonry, Ashlar Masonry. - Pointing of stone
masonry and their purpose - Precautions.

Brick masonry - Terms used in brick masonry-Bonds in brick masonry- header bond,
stretcher bond, English bond, Flemish bond [Link] of Brick Masonry -
Precautions to be observed - Hollow and Solid concrete block masonry - composite
masonry - interlock bricks.

Scaffolding and Shoring - Purpose and Types - Underpinning - Formwork. Doors -

Fully Paneled Doors, Partly Paneled and Glazed Doors, Flush Doors, Collapsible

Doors, Rolling Shutters, Revolving Doors, Glazed Doors.

Windows: FullyPaneled, Partly Paneled and Glazed, wooden, Steel, Aluminium

windows, Sliding Windows, Louvered Window, Bay window, Corner window, Gable
and Dormer window, Skylight - Sizes of Windows recommended by BIS.

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Ventilators - Fixtures and fastenings for doors and windows.

Vertical Communication methods-stair, lifts and escalators.

Roofs - Roofing Materials - RCC, MP Tiles, Ceramic roofing tiles, Thatched, G.I.
sheets, Corrugated G.I. Sheets, Plastic and Fiber Sheets, Innovative roofing
materials (Fiber reinforced cement board, Shingles Etc.), Types of Roof - Flat roof,
Pitched Roof - terms used in roofs - King Post truss, Queen Post Truss-terms used.

MODULE 4

MASONRY
Masonry is defined as the construction of building structures with stones or
brick or concrete blocks and mortar.

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 ● Course: A horizontal layer of brick or stones is called a course.
● Bed: The lower surface of brick or stones in each course.
● Natural bed: Stones are obtained from rocks which have a clear plane of
division along which the stones can be easily split. This plane of division is
called a natural bed.
● Sill: The bottom surface of a door or window opening is called sill.
● Jambs: The vertical sides of a door or window opening is called a jamb.
● Soffit: The underside of the top surface of a door or window opening is called
a soffit.
● Reveal: The exposed vertical surfaces of opening after a door or window
frame is placed is called reveal
● Corbel: A projecting stone provided on top of walls to support roof trusses,
beams etc.
● Cornice : It is a horizontal layer of stones usually provided at the top of a wall
or at the junction of a wall and ceiling, provided for decorative purposes.
● Coping: It is a layer of stones provided on the top surface of a compound wall
or a parapet to prevent the seepage of water.
● Weathering: It Is the method of sloping the upper surface of stones used for
coping in such a way that the water will flow away easily.
● Throating: It is a cutting or a groove provided on the underside of a coping so
that rain water will be discharged clear off the wall surface.
● Quoins: The external corners of a wall surface are called quoins and the
stones used for this purpose are called quoin stones.
● Spalls: Small pieces or chips of stone used to fill up the gaps in stone
masonry are called spalls.
● Buttresses: It is a sloping or stepped masonry projection from a wall to
provide strength to a wall.

Functions of masonry construction

1. Support load
2. Subdivide space
3. Provide heat and sound insulation
4. Provide fire and weather protection.

Classification of Masonry
Based on materials used masonry is classified as
1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hollow concrete block masonry
4. Composite masonry – In this masonry, two or more types of building materials are
used.

STONE MASONRY
It is defined as the construction of building structures with stones and mortar.

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Classification of Stone Masonry
Depending on the type of arrangement of stones and the extent of dressing of
stones, stone masonry is classified as :-

NOTE:

RUBBLE MASONRY
In this type of masonry, stones are either undressed or roughly dressed. This
masonry has wider joints.
Rubble masonry is classified as
A. Random rubble : This is the roughest and cheapest form of stone masonry
in which stones of irregular sizes are used.
They are of two types –
1. Uncoursed Random Rubble
2. Coursed Random Rubble.

1. Uncoursed Random Rubble Masonry : The stones used are not of regular
size and shape and also they are not laid in regular layers. The thickness of
the joint should not be more than 13mm. Larger stones are used at corners.

2. Coursed Random Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, stones are

roughly arranged level in layers of 30 to 45 cm thick. The courses need not be
of the same height. The stones may be placed one above the other in each
layer to maintain the uniform thickness of the course

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B. Squared Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, stones are roughly
dressed to square shaped by hammer and the bed and sides of stone are
roughly straight.
They are of two types-
1. Uncoursed Squared Rubble.
2. Coursed Squared Rubble Masonry.

1. Uncoursed Squared Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, roughly

squared stones of different sizes are arranged in an irregular pattern. A more
uniform joint is made facing the wall and they have a better appearance.

2. Coursed Squared Rubble Masonry: In this type squared rubble are arranged
in layers. Stones in a layer will be of equal height. But the layers need not be
of the same height

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C. Polygonal Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, stones are dressed with a
hammer on the face to an irregular polygonal shape. Stones should be arranged
to avoid continuous vertical joints in face work. Small chips of stone should be
avoided.

D. Flint masonry: Flint is a type of stone which are irregularly shaped nodules
of silica. They may be arranged as coursed or uncoursed. Lacing courses can be
provided to increase strength.

E. Dry Rubble Masonry: In this type of masonry, no mortar is used at joints. They
are cheaper but require skilled supervision. They can be used for constructing
non load bearing walls & compound walls.

NOTE:

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ASHLAR MASONRY
In Ashlar masonry masonry, the beds and sides of stone blocks are finely chisel
dressed. The faces of stones may be finely dressed or roughly dressed. So this type
of masonry is of high grade and has a good appearance. But it is costly in
construction.

1. Ashlar Fine: This is the finest and most

superior of ashlar masonry.
● In this type, the beds, sides and face
of stones are finely chisel dressed.
● The stones are laid in regular
courses.
● The thickness of the layer should not
be less than 15 cm.
● Face stones are laid as headers and
stretchers alternatively.
● The thickness of the mortar joint is
uniform and it should not be more
than 5mm.

2. Ashlar Rough Tooled: In this type, the bed and sides of stone are finely
chisel dressed. But the exposed face is roughly tooled. A strip about 25mm wide
is finely chisel dressed around the perimeter of every stone exposed for view. The
thickness of the mortar joint should not exceed 6mm.

3. Ashlar Rock or Quarry faced:

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 ● In this type, the bed and sides of stones are finely chisel dressed.
● And a strip of 25 mm wide finely chisel dressed is made around the perimeter
of stone as in case of ashlar rough tooling.
● The remaining faces are left undressed.
● However larger projections of stone on the face are removed with a
hammer.

4. Ashlar Chamfered:
● In this type of masonry a strip 25mm wide, finely chisel dressed is made
around the perimeter of stone, but it is chamfered at an angle of 45.
● Another strip 12mm is then provided around it.
● Remaining portion of the face is left as undressed.

5. Ashlar Block in Course:

● The faces of stones are hammer dressed and the thickness of mortar
joints does not exceed 6mm.
● The depth of courses vary from 20cm to 30cm.
● It is used for heavy works such as bridges, retaining
walls etc.

6. Ashlar Facing:
● In this type, the facing of the wall is constructed of
ashlar masonry, but the backing is constructed of
rubble masonry or brick masonry.
● It gives a better appearance and at the same time it is
economical.

ASHLAR FACING
POINTING
It is the finishing of mortar joints of stone masonry or brick
masonry.

Objects of pointing
● To improve the appearance of the structure as a whole and to give a smooth
surface.
● To protect the surfaces from atmospheric effects.
● To cover the inferior quality materials used.

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 ● To cover the defective workmanship

Mortar for pointing:

● Lime mortar: Equal proportion of fat lime and fine sand and then grinding
them together in a flour mill.
● Cement mortar: Cement and sand in proportion 1:2 or 1:3.
● Composite mortar: It consists of cement, lime and sand in proportion 1:3:10 or
1:4:16.

Method of pointing and precautions to be taken while pointing :-

● The mortar of masonry joints is raked out to a depth of 20mm and dust is
removed by brushes.
● The surface is washed with water and kept wet for a few hours.
● Mortar is then placed by a small trowel and is slightly pressed to bring it into
close contact with the old mortar and is then given a suitable finish.
● The pointing shall be finished with the proper tool and excess mortar is cut off
from the edges.
● It is well watered for 3 days if lime mortar is used and for 10 days if cement
mortar is used.

Types of pointing
1. Beaded pointing: is formed by a steel or iron rod with a concave edge. It is
good in appearance, but is easily damaged.
2. Flush pointing: is formed by making joints flush with the face. It does not
give a good appearance but is durable.
3. Rubbed or keyed or grooved pointing: A groove is formed at the center of
height by a pointer. It gives a better appearance.
4. Struck pointing: The face of pointing is kept inclined by pressing the upper
edge of the joint 10mm inside the face of masonry.
5. Tuck pointing; A groove of width 5mm and depth 3mm I formed at the centre
of the joint. Groove is then filled by white cement putty.
6. Vee pointing: A v-shaped groove is formed in a mortar joint by the pointing
tool.
7. Weathered pointing: In this type of pointing, a projection in the form of v-
shape is formed in the mortar joint.

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BRICK MASONRY

Some Important Terms Used In Masonry :

1. STRETCHER:
A brick, laid with its length horizontal and parallel with the face of the wall or other
masonry member is called a "Stretcher" and a course, in which, all the bricks are
laid as Stretchers is called a “Stretching course" or "Stretcher course".

2. HEADER:
A brick laid, so that only its end shows on the face of a wall is called a "Header" and
a course, in which all the bricks are laid as headers, is known as "Heading Course"
or "Header course“.

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3. BOND:
Bond is the arrangement of bricks or stones in each course, so as to ensure
the greatest possible interlocking and to avoid the continuity of vertical joints in
two successive courses, both on the face and in the body of a wall.

4. COURSE:
Each horizontal layer of bricks laid in mortar in a brick work is called a "course".

5. BRICKBATS:
The pieces of bricks, cut along their length and having width equivalent to that of a
full or half brick are called "Brickbats“.

6. QUEEN CLOSER:
Queen closer is a brick, which is half as wide as full brick and is made by cutting
a whole brick lengthwise into two portions.
These are generally used next to the Quoin header for creating bonds in brickwork.

7. KING CLOSER:
A brick, whose one diagonal piece is cut off one corner by a vertical plane
passing through the center of one end to the center of one side.

8. BEVELED CLOSER:
A brick cut longitudinally along a vertical plane, starting at the middle of one
end to the far corner. One quarter of the brick is cut off in this way.

9. BULLNOSE :
A brick with rounded corners is called a “Bull Nose Brick”.

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10. FROG
Frogged bricks shall have depressions in one or more bed faces but their total
volume shall not exceed 20% of gross volume of a brick.

BRICK MASONRY

● Brick masonry is the art of building the structures with bricks. It is the
arrangement of building the structures with brick and mortar.
● The actual size of a modular brick is 19cm x 9cm x 9cm.
● With mortar thickness, the size of such a brick becomes 20cm x 10cm x
10cm and it is known as the nominal size of brick.

Bonds in Brickwork

Bond is an arrangement of bricks or stones or other blocks in a masonry wall

in such a way to avoid continuous vertical joints.

The various types of bonds in brickwork are

1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond
5. Garden wall bond
6. Raking bond
7. Dutch bond
8. Brick on edge bond
9. English cross bond
10. Facing bond

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1. Stretcher bond: In this type of bond, all the
bricks are arranged in stretcher courses. It can
be used only for walls having thickness 10cm only.

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2. Header bond: In this type of bond, all the bricks are arranged in header
courses. The overlap is usually kept equal to half the width of brick and it is
achieved by providing three quarter brick bats as quoins on every alternate course.
This type of bond can be used for walls having thickness 20cm. It is suitable for the
construction of curved walls.

3. English bond: In this type of bond alternate courses or layers of headers and
stretchers are laid.(One layer of header, one layer of stretcher alternatively)
● The queen closer is placed next to the first header of a header course to
develop the necessary lap.
● Each alternate header is centrally placed over a stretcher. In stretcher
courses, the stretcher should have a minimum lap of one-fourth of their length
over headers.

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● If the wall thickness is even multiple of half brick, the same course have
similar appearance on the front and back elevation. (i.e. header on both the
faces or stretcher on both the faces. )

● But if the wall thickness is equal to an odd multiple of half brick, a course
showing stretcher on the face shows header on the back and vice versa.
Continuous vertical joints are formed except at the stopped ends

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4. Flemish bond: In this type of bond, headers and stretchers are placed
alternatively in each course. (one stretcher, one header alternatively in each layer).
● Queen closer is placed next to the quoin header or corner header to develop
the necessary lap.
● Every header is centrally supported over a stretcher below it.

Flemish bond is of two types:

1. Single Flemish Bond
2. Double Flemish Bond

1. Single Flemish bond:

In Single Flemish bond, the face elevation is of Flemish bond and the filling
and backing are of English bond. So this bond has the appearance of Flemish
bond and the strength near to English bond.

● But in order to construct this bond, a minimum wall thickness of 1 ½ bricks is

required. In this type of bond, short continuous vertical joints are formed.
● Brick bats are to be used for walls having a thickness equal to an odd number
of half bricks.
● Flemish bond has better appearance than English bond.
● But this bond is not as strong as the English bond as it contains more bats and
stretchers.
● It requires more skilled construction than English bond

2. Double Flemish Bond: In Double Flemish bond, headers and

stretchers are placed alternatively in the front as well as back elevation.

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 For this type of bond, half bats and three quarter bats are used for
walls having thickness equal to an odd number of half brick (10, 30,50
etc).

Comparison between Brick Masonry & Stone Masonry

● Stone masonry has high strength and durability than brick masonry
● Stone masonry is more water tight than brick masonry
● Stone masonry is more resistant to environmental action and chemicals than
brick masonry
● Good textured stone masonry has more attractive appearance than brick
masonry
● Brick masonry can be easily handled than stone masonry
● Construction of brick masonry is quick as bricks are of uniform size
● More skilled labors is required in stone masonry

SOLID AND HOLLOW CONCRETE BLOCK MASONRY

SOLID BLOCK :-
● Length: 40cm (half blocks: 20cm) Height: 20cm Width: 8/10/15/20cm

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 ● High compressive strength,
● resistance to weathering, impact and abrasion
● Capability of being molded into components of any shape and size
● Good fire resistance up to about 400°C Rapid construction
● Very good stability

HOLLOW BLOCK:-
● Size : 390x140mm, 390x190mm
● Can be made larger than solid blocks
● Are lighter in weight & Construction of walls is easy and quick
● The voids can be filled with steel bars and concrete, achieving high
earthquake resistance
● The air space provides good thermal insulation
● The cavities can be used for electrical installation and plumbing

COMPOSITE MASONRY
A composite masonry is a type of masonry which is constructed of different
materials or with different classes of masonry.

Composite masonry is available in the following combinations.

1. Facing of ashlar masonry and backing of rubble masonry
2. Facing of stone slabs and backing of brickwork or concrete blocks
3. Facing of ashlar masonry and backing of brick masonry.
4. Facing brick masonry and backing of cement concrete blocks or hollow blocks.
5. Facing brick masonry and backing of rubble masonry.

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Advantages of composite masonry
● Cost: Total cost of structure can be reduced by using cheaper materials as
backing.
● Appearance: By using good quality materials in the facing, the appearance of
the masonry is improved.
● Durability: By using good quality materials in facing walls which are exposed
to atmospheric conditions, the durability of the structure is increased.

Disadvantages
● Since different types of masonry are used, a large number of mortar joints are
formed. This will lead to unequal settlement of the structure.
● Skilled supervision is required

INTERLOCKING BLOCK MASONRY

● Interlocking block masonry consists of solid blocks constructed of concrete or

clay with projections and grooves on their surfaces so that they can be
arranged without mortar.

● Every block has a projection at one end

and a depression at the other end. The
projection of one block fits into the
depression of the other block to form tight
joints.

● They can be constructed solid or hollow.

Hollow interlocking block reduces the
amount of material.

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 ● They are used for constructing walls, for landscaping, for fencing and for
paving. Paved interlocking blocks are nowadays very widely used.

Advantages of interlocking blocks

● No need of mortar
● Considerable reduction in material when hollow blocks are used.
● No skilled labor is required.
● Speedy construction
● They are structurally stable and durable
● Decorative effect is obtained since they are available in wide variety of colours
and patterns.

SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a temporary supporting structure used in building construction
to support platforms for workmen and materials when the height of
construction is greater than 1.5m.

Component parts of scaffolding

Standards: These are vertical members of scaffolding.

Ledgers: These are horizontal members placed parallel to the wall.
Putlogs: These are horizontal members placed at right angles to the wall, one end is
supported on the wall and the other end on ledgers.
Transoms: These are horizontal members placed at right angles to the wall, both
ends are supported on ledgers.
Braces; These are members fixed diagonally on the standards.
Bridle: This is a member used to bridge a wall opening, supporting one end of putlog
at the opening.
Boarding or planks: These are horizontal platforms to
support men & material.
Guard rails: These members are provided at working
level to protect men & material.
Toe board: These are placed parallel to ledgers for
protection at the level of working platform

Types of Scaffolding:
The various types of scaffolding are
1. Single scaffolding
2. Double Scaffolding
3. Cantilever Scaffolding
4. Suspended Scaffolding

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5. Trestle Scaffolding
6. Steel Scaffolding
7. Patented Scaffolding.

1. Single Scaffolding for Brick layers scaffolding:

● It consists of a single row of standards which are laid at 1.2m away from the
wall. The distance between standards is 1.5 to 2m.
● Standards are connected by ledgers placed at right angles. Vertical distance
between ledgers is 1.2 to 1.5m.
● Putlogs are placed at right angles to ledgers, one end of which is resting on
the wall and other end on ledgers.
● Putlogs are placed at a horizontal distance of 1.2 to 1.5m. Guard rails and
boarding are provided.
● It is commonly used for bricklaying. Braces are used for strengthening

2. Double Scaffolding or Mason’s Scaffolding:

● It consists of two rows of standards, one row is placed close to the wall at a
distance of 15cm and the next row at 1m away from the first one.
● Putlogs are supported on both the frames.
● Rakers and cross braces are provided to make the scaffolding more stable
and strong. Such a scaffolding is also called independent scaffolding.

3. Cantilever or Needle Scaffolding:

● This type of scaffolding is used, when it is
not possible to fix the standards into the
ground or when the scaffolding is to be
provided on a busy street.
● In this type the scaffolding is supported by
a series of needle beams or cantilever
beams.
● They are taken out at floor levels or
through openings in walls.
● The needle beams are supported by struts
resting on the floor or on the window sill.
The needle beams are also tightened at
floor level by vertical posts and wedges.

4. Suspended Scaffolding; This is a lightweight

scaffolding used for repair works and painting.
The working platform is suspended from the roof
by wire ropes or chains. The platform can be raised or lowered.

5. Trestle Scaffolding: In this type of scaffolding, the working platform is supported

on removable devices such as tripod, ladder etc. These tripods are mounted on
lorries or wheels or bogies.

50
They can be used for minor repairs or painting work.

6. Steel Scaffolding: it is similar to timber scaffolding, but instead of wooden

members steel tubes are used. Steel couplers and fittings are used for connection.

Advantages of steel scaffolding

● It can be easily erected and easily dismantled.
● It has greater strength.
● It has greater durability.
● It has higher fire resistance.
● It has a high salvage value.

SHORING
Shoring is a temporary structure to support a building which has become
unsafe due to the unequal settlement of foundations or due to the removal of
nearby buildings.

Types of shoring
1. Raking Shores
2. Flying Shores
3. Dead Shores

1. Raking Shores:
● In this type of shoring, inclined members called
rakers are used to give lateral support to walls.
● A raking shore consists of rakers, wall plates,
needles, cleats, bracings and sole plate.
● Rakers are fixed to the wall by means of wall
plates. Wall plates are fixed to the wall by means
of needles which penetrate into the wall. Needles
are fixed tightly by wooden cleats
● There will be one raker to support the wall at
each floor level. Rakers are interconnected
by struts to prevent their buckling.
● The feet of rakers are connected to the sole
plate at the ground level and they are further
tightened by hoop iron.
● For tall buildings, the length of raker can be
reduced by using rider raker.

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2. Flying or Horizontal Shores:
● In this type horizontal supports are provided to support parallel walls of two
adjacent buildings which have become unsafe due to the removal of an
intermediate building.
● A single flying shore consists of wall plates, struts, straining pieces, horizontal
shore, needles, cleats and wedges.
● The walls are held in position by horizontal shores.
● Inclined struts are used for further strengthening of the wall.
● Straining sills are used to keep the struts in position and they are further
tightened by wedges.
● This type of shoring can be used for a maximum distance of 9m. When the
distance exceeds 9m ,a double flying shore is used.

3. Dead or Vertical Shores:

● In this type, vertical members known as dead
shores are used to support the wall. Dead
shores are provided when ,
1. The lower part of the wall has become
defective.
2. When large openings are to be made in the
wall.
3. Foundations are to be deepened.

● In this type of shoring, horizontal members

known as needles are inserted in the holes
made in the wall at suitable height.
● Needles take the load from the wall. Needles
are supported at two ends by vertical shores.
● The needles are placed at a suitable distance
of 1.5m..
● The vertical shores transfer all the loads to the
ground. The shores are only removed after the new construction has attained
sufficient strength.

UNDERPINNING
The process of placing a new foundation underneath the existing one or
strengthening an existing foundation is called underpinning.

Underpinning is provided under following circumstances.

● A building with a deep foundation is to be constructed adjoining to an existing
building.
● Settlement of the existing foundation has taken place, as a result large cracks
are formed in the wall.
● The existing foundation is to be deepened so as to rest on a soil of high
bearing capacity.

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Methods of Underpinning
1. Pit method
2. Pile method

NOTE:

1. Pit method:
● In this method the entire length of foundation for underpinning is divided into
sections of 1.2 to 1.5m length.
● One section is taken at a time.
● A hole is made in the wall above the plinth level, and a needle is inserted into
the hole.
● Bearing plates are provided
above the needle to support
the masonry above it. Needle
is supported on either side of
the wall on wooden blocks
and screw jacks.
● The foundation pit is then
excavated upto the desired
level and a new foundation is
constructed.
● When the work of one section
is over, the next alternate
section is carried out.
● Then the remaining intermediate sections are underpinned, one at a time.
Needles are removed only after the foundation has attained sufficient
strength.

2. Pile method:
● In this method, piles are driven at regular
intervals along both the sides of the wall at
regular intervals.
● The piles are connected by steel needles
penetrating through the wall.
● Now the whole weight of the building is carried
by needles and then to the piles.
● The existing foundation is very much relieved
of this load.
● They are very useful in clayey and water
logged areas.

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 NOTE:

FORMWORK
When concrete is placed, it is in a plastic state. So it becomes necessary to provide
a temporary supporting structure, till the concrete becomes sufficiently strong to
support its own weight. This temporary supporting structure is called formwork
or shuttering. Mold is used to indicate formwork of small units such as lintels,
cornices etc.

Requirements of formwork
1. Easy removal: The formwork should be designed in such a way that it can be
removed easily.
2. Rigidity: The formwork should be rigid enough to retain the shape without any
appreciable deformation. The deflection is limited to 1/300 to 1/150 of span.
3. Strength: The formwork should be strong enough to support the weight of
concrete, labour, equipment etc.
4. Quality: the formwork should be designed and built accurately so that the desired
size, shape and finish of concrete is attained.
5. Less leakage: The formwork should be so arranged that there is minimum
leakage through joints.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels.
7. Supports: The formwork should rest on sound, and hard supports.
8. Economy: The formwork should have minimum cost and it can be made
economical.

Materials of Formwork
● Most commonly used materials are timber, plywood, aluminium and steel.
● If the material is to be used only a few times, timber is used.
● Steel forms are used in large construction projects where the shuttering is to
be used a large number of times.

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 Formwork for COLUMNS

Formwork for SLABS

Removal of formwork
● The formwork can be removed only when concrete has attained sufficient
strength.
● The formwork used to retain the concrete such as for sides of beams can be
removed 2 to 3 days after placing of concrete.
● In case of formwork for slabs which are designed to carry the weight of
concrete, the formwork can be removed only after 10 days.
● The removal of formwork is also known as stripping.

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 NOTE:

DOORS

What is a Door?
A door may be defined as a framework
of wood, steel, aluminum, glass or a
combination of these materials secured
in an opening left in a wall for the
purpose of providing access to the
users of the structures.

Consists of two parts:

1. Frame
2. Shutter (Leaf)

Frame Shutter

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Types of Door

1. 2. 3. 4.

1. Framed and Panelled Doors,

2. Partly Paneled and Glazed Doors,
3. Flush Doors,
4. Collapsible Doors,
5. Rolling Shutters,

57
 6. Revolving Doors,
7. Glazed Doors.

5. 6. 7.

1. Framed and paneled doors

● It consists of a framework in which panels
are fitted.
● The styles are continuous from top to
bottom and rails are joined to styles.
● The thickness of the shutter is 30 to 40mm and
the thickness of the panel is 20mm.
● These doors may be provided as single leaf or
double leaf.

2. Partly Panelled and Glazed Doors

● Partly paneled Glazed doors are provided to admit light by providing glass
panels.
● The doors may be fully glazed or partly glazed and partly paneled.
● Usual ratio of glazed portion to paneled portion is 2 : 1.
● The glass is fitted into the rebates provided in the wooden sash bars.

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3. Flush doors
A flush door consists of a framework of
styles, rails, horizontal ribs, vertical ribs and
plywood or hardboard.
Flush doors are of two types-
1. Framed flush door and
2. Laminated flush door.

Framed flush door

● A framed flush door consists of
styles, rails, horizontal and vertical
ribs.
● Vertical ribs rest on rails.
● Over the framework plywood of
thickness 3mm is fixed with a glue under
pressure. They are light in weight and
cheap.

Laminated flush door

● A laminated flush door consists of a
frame of two vertical and horizontal
members.
● The solid core is developed by gluing small
strips of wood under pressure.
● The plywood sheets are also glued to the
laminated core under pressure.

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 ● The thickness of plywood used is 6mm and the total thickness of the flush
door is 25mm to 40mm.

The flush doors are economical, easy to clean, better in appearance, little affected
by moisture and reasonably strong.

4. Louvered Doors:
● In this type, shutters are provided with louvers, either fully or partly.
● Louvers are arranged at an inclination to obstruct the vision. Louvers may be
movable or immovable.
● In movable levers, louvers are hinged to a vertical piece of timber.
● Louvered doors allow free passage of air when closed and at the same time
provide sufficient privacy.

5. Collapsible Doors:
● For big size openings, collapsible doors are used. A collapsible door
consists of a mild steel frame work.
● Two vertical pieces of mild steel channels are joined with the hollow portion of
the channel inside.
● Such pieces are spaced at 12 cm center to center and they are joined by
cross iron pieces.
● It allows the strips to stretch or fold.
● The door shutter slides over rollers mounted at its top and bottom.
● These doors are used in schools, sheds, godowns etc.

6. Revolving Doors:
● A revolving door consists of a central support to which four radiating
shutters are attached.
● The shutters may be fully glazed,
fully paneled, partly paneled and
● These doors are used where there
is regular traffic of people entering
and going to an entrance such as

60
WINDOWS

Types of Windows

1. Casement Windows:
● These windows have shutters which open like doors.
● It consists of a frame, styles, rails, vertical and horizontal sash bars.
● The empty panels formed within the framework are filled up with either wood
panels or glass panels.

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2. Sash or Glazed Windows:

● The window shutter consists of vertical styles, rails, sash bars and glass
panes.
● The empty panels formed by the framework are subdivided into small panels
by sash bars.
● Glass is fixed in panels by putty or by beading. They are used in residential
and public buildings.

3. Pivoted Windows:
● In this type of window, the shutters sing
around pivots.
● The windows may be pivoted vertically or
horizontally.
● Pivoted windows are easy to clean and admit
more light.

4. Sliding Windows:

● The shutters of these windows can slide

on roller bearings either horizontally or
vertically.

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 ● Suitable openings are provided in the window to receive the shutters, when
windows are opened.

5. Louvered Windows:

● In these windows, louvers are provided.

● They allow free passage of air when
closed and at the same time
maintain sufficient privacy.
● The shutter consists of top rails, bottom
rails and two styles which are grooved
to receive the shutters.
● The louvers should slope downward to
the outside to prevent entry of rain
water

6. Metal Windows:

● Mild steel, Aluminium, bronze or alloys may be

used for metal windows.
● They are used in public buildings, hospitals etc.
Frames of windows are made out of light steel
sections.
● Glass panes are fixed within the frame. The frame
may be directly fixed to the wall or fixed on to a
metal or wooden frame.

7. Corner Windows:

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 ● These windows are provided at the corner of a room and have two faces
in two perpendicular directions.
● There is entry of light and air from two directions.

8. Gable windows:

● These windows are provided in the gable

end of a roof.

9. Dormer windows:

● These are windows provided on sloping

roofs to admit more light into the sloping
roof.

10. Bay windows:

● These windows project outside the external walls of a room.

● They may be square, splayed, circular or polygonal.
● Windows may be projected from sill level or floor level.

10. Clerestory windows:

● These windows are provided near the top of the roof.
● Clerestory windows are usually pivoted at the center.
● They swing horizontally.

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 ● The upper portion opens to the inside of the room and the bottom portion opens to the
outside. These windows admit more light into the room.

11. Skylights:
● These are windows provided on the sloped surface of a sloping roof and are fixed type.
● The glass panels may be fixed on a frame at the level of roof or on a raised frame called
curb frame.
● The curb frame is fixed to the common rafters.

VENTILATORS
● Ventilators are windows of small heights, fixed at top of doors or windows
and also for bathrooms and toilets.
● They are provided with glass panels and steel grills for safety.
● The recommended sizes for ventilators are 60 x 60cm,100 x 60 cm, 120 x 60 cm.
● Ventilators may be independent ventilators or ventilators fixed at the top of a
door or window frame (Known as Fanlights) or clerestory type ventilator.

VERTICAL COMMUNICATION METHODS

1. Stair,
2. Lifts
3. Escalators.

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STAIR CASES
● A stair is a series of steps provided for vertical transportation or give access to
different floors of a building.
● The room in which a stair is provided is called a staircase.

Flight : The series of steps between two landings is called a flight.

Landing : The horizontal platform between two flights of a stair is called landing.
It helps in change of direction and also serves as a place for taking rest.
Baluster : The vertical members fixed between the step and handrail to give
support to the hand rail is called a baluster. The framework of balusters and handrail
is called a balustrade.
Tread : The horizontal upper portion of a step is called tread.
Rise : The vertical distance between two successive treads is called rise.
The vertical member of the step which is connected to the steps is called a riser.
Steps : A combination of tread and riser is called a step. Ordinary rectangular steps are
called fliers. A tapering step used to change the direction of flight is called a winder.
Going : The horizontal distance between faces of two consecutive risers is called going.
String : The inclined member of a stair which supports the ends of steps is known as string.
Nosing : The projecting part of the tread beyond the face of the riser is known as
nosing.
Pitch : The angle of inclination of the stair with the floor is known as pitch.
Soffit : The underside of the stair is called soffit.

66
Headroom : The vertical distance between the tread of one flight and bottom of flight
immediately above is known as headroom.
Waist : The thickness of structural slab in case of an RCC stair is known as waist

Types of stairs:
Stairs are classified as
1. Straight stairs: are stairs in which all steps lead in one direction only.
This type of stair consists of one or more flights and they are used when the
space available for the staircase is long but narrow in width.

2. Turning stair: In this type of stairs, flights take turns or change their
direction.
They are classified as Quarter turn stairs: A stair turning through one right
angle is known as quarter turn stair.

67
Classification of stairs based on materials of construction

1. Stone stairs
2. Wooden stairs
3. Brick stairs
4. Metal stairs
5. RCC stairs

LIFT
● A lift or elevator is a structure
provided for vertical transportation
to various floors of a building.
● For buildings with more than three
storeys, lifts should strictly be
provided.
● Lifts can be operated electrically or
hydraulically.

Component parts of a lift

1. Lift car moving on guide rails: It is a

cage or room of metal supported on a frame, to which the ropes are attached.

2. Machine room with winding machine with electric motor: is the room provided
for placing the motor and winding mechanism for ropes.

68
3. Suspension ropes made of steel wire, provided for lifting and lowering of lift car.

4. Counter weight : to balance the weight of the lift car.

5. Lift pit: The space provided for accommodating a lift.

6. Buffers: Spring buffers are provided on the lift pit to bring the car or counter
weight to a safe stop.

7. Specially operating landing for entry and exit

Structural components of lifts

The civil work components necessary to accommodate a lift are
1. A lift well of suitable size extending upto 1.6m to 2.6m below the bottom landing
2. Openings of height 2m for entry and exit of people at every floor level.
3. An upper machine room on the top of lift to suit the lift size chosen

Types of Lifts

1. Passenger lift
2. Goods Lift
3. Service Lifts

Passenger lift Goods Lift Service Lifts

ESCALATOR

● Escalators are powered stairs used to transport a large number of

people from floor to floor.
● These escalators are in the form of an inclined bridge spanning
between the floors.

69
 ● Escalators are provided with emergency stop bottoms near the top and
bottom landings to stop the escalator in case of emergency.

Th
e components of an escalator consist of a steel framework, handrails and an
endless belt with steps.

70
RAMPS

● Ramp is a uniformly sloping surface or inclined plane provided with a gentle

slope than a stair.
● Ramps are provided where a large number of persons or vehicles are to be
moved from floor to floor, and also for the convenience of old persons, sick
and physically handicapped persons.
● It is mainly provided in hospitals, multi storey car parks and for old age
homes. It occupies much more space than a stair as the slope is much less,
usually 1in 10 to 1in 15.

ROOFS
A roof is the uppermost part of a building which is constructed to give protection to
the building against
rain, heat, wind, snow etc. and to enclose the space.

Requirements of a good roof.

1. A roof should be durable against adverse effects of weather such as sun, rain,
wind etc.
2. A roof should be soundproof, fire proof and should give good thermal insulation.
3. A roof should be structurally stable and should take all the loads coming on it.
4. A good roof should easily drain away the water.

Classification of roofs
Roofs are classified as
1. Flat or terraced roofs

71
2. Pitched or sloping roofs
3. Curved roofs or shell roofs

1. Pitched or Sloping Roofs

Define:
1. Pitch: The inclination of sides of a roof to the horizontal plane is called pitch
2. Span: The horizontal distance between the supporting walls of the roof is called
span of roof.
3. Truss: The framework of triangles used to support the roof covering is known as
roof truss.
4. Gable: The triangular upper part of a wall formed at the end of a pitched roof is
called gable.
5. Ridge line: The apex line or topmost line of a roof is called ridgeline.
6. Ridge: A wooden piece provided at the ridge line of a sloping roof is called ridge
piece or ridge board.
7. Eaves: The lower edges of a roof which are projecting beyond the walls are
known as eaves. The wooden board provided at the level of eaves is known as
eaves board or facia board.

8. Rafters: The wooden members placed parallel to the slope of a roof extending
from eaves to the ridge are known as rafters. The various types of rafters are
a) Common Rafters: are the rafters which give support to the roof covering.
b) Principal rafters: These are the inclined members of a roof truss.
c) Hip rafters: These are the rafters provided at the junction of two roof slopes.
d) Jack rafters: A rafter which is shorter than a common rafter is called jack rafter.

9. Battens: Rafters are thin strips of wood which are fixed to the rafters to support
the roofing. They are also fixed to the ceiling to support it.
10. Hip: The line formed at the intersection of two sloping surfaces, where the
exterior angle is greater than 180 is called hip. The rafter along the slope of the hip is
called hip rafter.
11. Valley: The line formed at the intersection of two sloping surfaces, where they
meet at an exterior angle less than 180 is called valley. The rafter provided along the
slope of the valley is called valley rafter.

72
12. Purlins: Purlins are horizontal wooden or steel members placed on principal
rafters to support the common rafters.
13. Cleats: Cleats are short sections of wood or steel which are fixed on principal
rafters to support the purlins.
14. Wall plates: Wall plates are long wooden members fixed on walls, to which the
feet of rafters are connected.
Classification of Pitched Roofs
Pitched Roofs are classified as
1. Single Roofs
2. Double Roofs
3. Trussed Roofs

[Link] roofs: In single roofs only common rafters are provided to support the
roofing. Rafters are provided to each slope without any supporting member. Single
roof is further classified as

1a. Lean to roof: This type of roof slopes only to one side. In this type of roof, one
wall is carried up sufficiently higher than the other one to give necessary slope to the
roof. Rafters are fixed on wall plates attached to the walls. This type of roof is used
for sheds, verandahs etc. and is used for a maximum span of 2.4 meters.

1b. Couple roof: In this type of roof, common rafters slope upwards from opposite
walls and they meet on ridge pieces in the middle. Common rafters are fixed to wall
plates on one end and to ridge piece on the other end.

1c. Couple close roof: This type of roof is similar to common roof, that is common
rafters slope upwards from opposite walls and meet on a ridge piece in the middle.
But the legs of common rafters are connected by a tie beam. The tie beam prevents
the tendency of rafters to spread out.

73
II. Double or Purlin roof: When the span of roof exceeds 2.4 m, larger size rafters
have to be provided.
In order to reduce the size of rafters, the intermediate supports called purlins are
introduced under the rafters. Such a roof is known as double or purlin roof and is
suitable to span up to 4.8m.

III. Trussed roofs: When the span of roof exceeds 5m and where there are no
inside walls to support purlins, framed structures known as trusses are provided at
suitable intervals along the length of room. The spacing of the truss depends upon
the load on the roof, position of walls, materials and span of roof. For wooden
trusses, the spacing is 3 m.
Trussed roof consists of three components:
1. Rafters to support the roof covering
2. Purlins to support the rafters
3. Trusses to support the purlins

1. King post roof truss: In this type of truss, there is a central wooden member
called king post. It supports the tie beam. Purlins will rest on principal rafters of the
truss. Inclined members called struts support the principal rafters and prevent its
bending. A king post is suitable for a span of 5 to 8m.

74
 NOTE:

2. Queen post roof truss: This type of truss has two vertical members called queen
post. The upper ends of the queen post are held in position by a horizontal member
called straining beam.
Purlins supporting the common rafters will rest on the principal rafters. Struts support
the principal rafters. Principal rafters are connected by a tie beam.

A straining sill is placed on the tie beam to resist the pressure of struts.
Queen post trusses are suitable for a span of 8 to 12m.

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3. Steel roof truss: When the span of truss exceeds 12m, steel trusses are
economical. Mild steel is generally used and it is available in rolled sections of
standard shapes and sizes. For smaller spans, angle sections are used for trusses
and these angle sections are connected to gusset plates by rivets or weld.

Advantages of steel truss over timber truss

● The components of steel truss can be easily obtained in required sizes
without wastage of material.
● They are fire proof and termite proof.
● They are light in weight and can be fabricated in any shape.
● Steel trusses can be installed easily and less time is needed for the erection
of trusses.
● They can be used for larger spans.

Roof coverings for pitched roof

Factors affecting selection of type of roof covering for pitched roof :
1. Climate of the locality
2. Nature of the building
3. Initial cost and maintenance cost
4. Durability
5. Availability of the material
6. Fabrication facilities
7. Type of roof framework
8. Resistance to fire and heat
9. Special features of the locality

Roof coverings of pitched roofs

1. Tile roofing: Tiles are manufactured from locally available earth or from concrete.
The various types of tiles are
1. Plain or flat tiles
2. Curved or pan tiles
[Link] round country tiles
4. Patented tiles

76
5. Interlocking tiles. They are laid with sufficient overlap

2. Asbestos cement sheets: Asbestos cement sheets are prepared by mixing

cement with 15% asbestos fibers and the mix is rolled under rollers with grooves.
The sheets are provided with corrugations, which increases the strength and rigidity
and permits easy flow of rainwater. They are laid with laps of 15cm at ends and 1 to
1 ½ corrugations at sides. These sheets can be cut, nailed, sawn or screwed. They
are cheap, light in weight, fire resisting, strong and sound proof. They are used for
factories, garages, workshops, big halls etc.

3. Corrugated galvanized iron sheets: Galvanized iron sheets are prepared by

pressing flat wrought iron plates between rollers with groove or teeth and then they
are galvanized with a coat of zinc. The corrugations help to increase the strength
and rigidity and they permit easy flow of rain [Link] are available in lengths of
120-360 cm and width 60- 90cm and thickness 0.18-1.6mm. They are costly and do
not offer resistance to fire and sound and are easily corroded by atmospheric
actions.

4. Aluminium sheets: Aluminium sheets are prepared by pressing aluminum plates

between [Link] corrugations help to increase the strength and rigidity. They are
not affected by weather effects and hence are very durable.

Laying of AC sheets:
● Laying of AC sheet is started from the bottom leeward corner (opposite side of
direction of wind).
● Holes in AC sheets for fixing bolts are drilled through the ridge of corrugation,
when the sheets are laid on the roof in the correct position.
● AC sheets are laid with a smooth side upwards.
● Sheets arelaid with a lap of ½ to 1 corrugation on sides and 150mm to
225mm on ends. Sheets are fixed to the purlins galvanized hook bolts (J
bolts). A rubber washer is placed above the asbestos sheet and over this
washer, an iron metal washer is put.
● Then the nut is screwed down tight to the bolt. The hook bolts are generally
placed on 2nd and 6th corrugations in areas where the wind effect is minimal.
At the gable end of the roof, the sheet overhang should be limited to 150mm.

Laying of GI sheets:
● GI sheets are fixed to purlins by hook bolts. Sheets are fixed by 6mm
galvanized hook bolts with rubber washer directly over the sheet and then a
metal washer is laid over it and it is tightened by a nut. Side lap is ½ to 1
corrugation and the end lap is 150 to 225mm.
● Slope of the roof should not be less than 10. J bolts are fixed on the 1 st, 4th
and 8th corrugations.

77
 ● Sheets are fixed from the point away from the direction of heavy rains. Ridge
and hip are laid on plain GI sheets.
● Spacing of the purlin depends on the thickness of the sheet. Purlins are
spaced at 2.8m for 1.6mm thick sheets, 2m for 1 mm thick sheets and 1.8m
for 0.8mm thick sheets.

Laying of Aluminium sheets: Aluminium sheets are fixed to purlins by hook bolts
made of aluminium. When steel purlins are used, the purlins should be coated with
paints. Sheets are laid with a lap of 1 ½ corrugations atsides and 15 to 22.5cm at
ends. Overhang at the gable ends should not exceed 15 cm beyond the purlins.
Plain sheets are used for hips and ridges.

Flat roof
A roof which is nearly flat is known as a flat roof. A slope less than 10 is laid to drain
away the rain water.

Advantages of flat roof

● The construction of roof is simple
● Flat roofs are more fireproof.
● The roof area can be utilized for roof gardens, play areas etc.
● Construction of upper floors can be easily done.
● Flat roofs do not require false ceilings as in case of pitched roofs.
● A flat roof is more suitable against high winds.
● For multi storeyed buildings flat roof is more suitable, as further extension can
be carried out and overhead structures like water tanks can be located on
terrace.
● A flat roof is overall more economical than pitched roof.

Disadvantages of flat roof

● A flat roof cannot be used for long spans without intermediate beams and
pillars.
● Cracks will develop on the roof due to temperature variations.
● If slope is not sufficient, rain water gets collected which leads to leakage.
● Flat roofs are not desirable for places of heavy rainfall.

RCC roofs:
Roof Slab of reinforced cement concrete is widely used for the construction of flat
roofs. Steel Bars are provided as reinforcement to resist the tensile stresses.
The advantage of RCC roof is that
● They can be used for any span and loading conditions,
● Durable,
● Fire Resistant,
● Strong And Hard,

78
 ● Water Tight Etc.

Building Construction and Construction Materials (version 1)

Third semester Model Question paper (Revision 2021)

PART A
I. Answer all questions in one word or one sentence.
1. Define seasoning of stone.
2. List the types of lime.
3. Define efflorescence in bricks.
4. List down any four wood products for construction
5. List down uses of POP.
6. Define MDF and HDF
7. Define framed structure
8. Define scaffolding.
9. Define bonding in masonry

PART B

II. Answer any eight questions from the following, Each question carries 3 marks.

79
1. List any six natural building materials
2. List the advantages of bamboo as construction material
3. List down the constituents of good brick earth.
4. Make a brief note on use of industrial waste in civil construction sector.
5. Discuss the properties of any two ferrous metals for construction.
6. Explain water proofing methods for buildings.
7. Draw the schematic diagram of under reamed pile foundation.
8. Suggest a type of foundation for a building in made-up soil formation with justification.
9. List down the precautions to be made in brick masonry construction.
10. Sketch the plans of two consecutive courses of a 1 1/2 brick thick wall corner in English
bond.

8x3 -24 marks

PART C

Answer ALL questions. Each question carries 7 marks.

III. Give the detailed classification of natural stones
OR
IV. Explain the methods of seasoning of timber

V. Suggest and justify the use of a modern cladding material for public building.
OR
VI. Suggest any four low cost and eco friendly materials for construction
with their comparison with traditional materials

VII. Explain the suitability of pile foundations and give classifications of pile foundation
OR
VIII. Explain the functions of foundation structure.

IX. Prepare a schematic diagram of a well foundation.

OR
X. Suggest and justify type of foundation for black cotton soil

XI. Explain the Underpinning operation with the help of a sketch

OR
XII. Explain the suitability of raft foundation in field condition

XIII. Draw plans of two consecutive courses of 1 1/2 brick wall corner in Flemish bond.
OR
XIV. Suggest suitable materials to suit site conditions for roofing.

80