❖ A sample size of 100 is often considered good because it strikes a
balance between statistical precision and practical feasibility, acting
as a common minimum for ensuring meaningful results in surveys and
studies. It generally provides enough power for basic statistical
analyses, reduces the margin of error significantly compared to
smaller samples, and is often sufficient for central limit theorem
applications.
Why 100 is a Good Sample Size:
• Optimal Balance: It minimizes the margin of error to a reasonable
level, making it a common rule of thumb for ensuring reliable data in
research.
• Statistical Power: 100 is generally considered the minimum sample
size required for conducting more complex statistical analyses, such
as multivariate analysis.
• Error Reduction: Larger samples reduce random errors, leading to
more accurate representations of the population compared to very
small samples.
• Efficiency: It avoids the high costs and time investment of massive,
unnecessary, or potentially unethical, large-scale studies.
• Representative Data: While larger is usually better, a sample of 100
often provides a "good enough" estimate, offering a vast improvement
in precision over smaller samples (e.g., 10 or 30), with diminishing
returns for excessive increases beyond 100–1000.
❖ Paired T-Test
The paired sample t-test, sometimes called the dependent sample t-test, is a
statistical procedure. Specifically, it determines whether the mean difference
between two sets of observations is zero. In a paired sample t-test, one
should measure each subject or entity twice, resulting in pairs of
observations. Common applications of the paired sample t-test include case-
control studies or repeated-measures designs. Suppose if you want to
evaluate the effectiveness of a company training program, you might follow
the following approach. One approach you might consider would be to
measure the performance of a sample of employees before and after
completing the program, and analyze the differences using a paired
sample t-test.
❖ Hypotheses
Like many statistical procedures, the paired sample t-test has two competing
hypotheses, the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. The null
hypothesis assumes that the true mean difference between the paired
samples is zero. Under this model, all observable differences are explained
by random variation. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis assumes that
the true mean difference between the paired samples is not equal to zero. As
a result, the alternative hypothesis can take one of several forms depending
on the expected outcome. If the direction of the difference does not matter,
one should use a two-tailed hypothesis. Otherwise, the power of the test
increases by an upper-tailed or lower-tailed hypothesis. The null hypothesis
remains the same for each type of alternative hypothesis. The paired
sample t-test hypotheses are formally defined below:
• The true mean difference (μd) poses to be equal to zero in the null
hypothesis (H0).
• A two-tailed alternative hypothesis (H1) believes that the true mean
difference μd is not equal to zero.
• According to an upper-tailed alternative hypothesis (H1) the true mean
difference μd is greater than zero.
• It is assumed that μd is lesser than zero in a lower-tailed alternative
hypothesis (H1).
❖ Advantages and Disadvantages of the Designs
An open observational clinical study is a research design where
investigators monitor patient outcomes in real-world settings without
manipulating treatment, while both researchers and participants know which
treatments are being used
Randomised Controlled Trial
An experimental comparison study in which participants are allocated to
treatment/intervention or control/placebo groups using a random
mechanism (see randomisation). Best for study the effect of an intervention.
Advantages:
▪ unbiased distribution of confounders;
▪ blinding more likely;
▪ randomisation facilitates statistical analysis.
Disadvantages:
▪ expensive: time and money;
▪ volunteer bias;
▪ ethically problematic at times.
Crossover Design
A controlled trial where each study participant has both therapies, e.g, is
randomised to treatment A first, at the crossover point they then start
treatment B. Only relevant if the outcome is reversible with time, e.g,
symptoms.
Advantages:
▪ all subjects serve as own controls and error variance is reduced thus
reducing sample size needed;
▪ all subjects receive treatment (at least some of the time);
▪ statistical tests assuming randomisation can be used;
▪ blinding can be maintained.
Disadvantages:
▪ all subjects receive placebo or alternative treatment at some point;
▪ washout period lengthy or unknown;
▪ cannot be used for treatments with permanent effects
Cohort Study
Data are obtained from groups who have been exposed, or not exposed, to
the new technology or factor of interest (eg from databases). No allocation
of exposure is made by the researcher. Best for study the effect of predictive
risk factors on an outcome.
Advantages:
▪ ethically safe;
▪ subjects can be matched;
▪ can establish timing and directionality of events;
▪ eligibility criteria and outcome assessments can be standardised;
▪ administratively easier and cheaper than RCT.
Disadvantages:
▪ controls may be difficult to identify;
▪ exposure may be linked to a hidden confounder;
▪ blinding is difficult;
▪ randomisation not present;
▪ for rare disease, large sample sizes or long follow-up necessary.
Case-Control Studies
Patients with a certain outcome or disease and an appropriate group of
controls without the outcome or disease are selected (usually with careful
consideration of appropriate choice of controls, matching, etc) and then
information is obtained on whether the subjects have been exposed to the
factor under investigation.
Advantages:
▪ quick and cheap;
▪ only feasible method for very rare disorders or those with long lag
between exposure and outcome;
▪ fewer subjects needed than cross-sectional studies.
Disadvantages:
▪ reliance on recall or records to determine exposure status;
▪ confounders;
▪ selection of control groups is difficult;
▪ potential bias: recall, selection.
Cross-Sectional Survey
A study that examines the relationship between diseases (or other health-
related characteristics) and other variables of interest as they exist in a
defined population at one particular time (ie exposure and outcomes are both
measured at the same time). Best for quantifying the prevalence of a disease
or risk factor, and for quantifying the accuracy of a diagnostic test.
Advantages:
▪ cheap and simple;
▪ ethically safe.
Disadvantages:
▪ establishes association at most, not causality;
▪ recall bias susceptibility;
▪ confounders may be unequally distributed;
▪ Neyman bias;
▪ group sizes may be unequal.
❖ What is Observational Study Design?
An observational study is when researchers are looking at the effect of some
type of intervention, risk, a diagnostic test or treatment, without trying to
manipulate who is, or who isn’t, exposed to it.
This differs from an experimental study, where the scientists are
manipulating who is exposed to the treatment, intervention, etc., by having
a control group, or those who are not exposed, and an experimental group,
or those who are exposed to the intervention, treatment, etc. In the best
studies, the groups are randomized, or chosen by chance.
Any evidence derived from systematic reviews is considered the best in the
hierarchy of evidence, which considers which studies are deemed the most
reliable. Next would be any evidence that comes from randomized
controlled trials. Cohort studies and case studies follow, in that order.
Key Types of Data
• Qualitative (Categorical) Data: Descriptive information that cannot
be measured numerically.
o Nominal:
Data used to label variables without any quantitative value or order (e.g.,
gender, eye color, hair color)
.
o Ordinal: Data with a set order or scale, but the differences
between values are not known (e.g., survey responses: satisfied,
neutral, unsatisfied; education level).
• Quantitative (Numerical) Data: Numerical information that can be
measured and subjected to mathematical operations.
o Discrete: Distinct, whole numbers that are counted and cannot
be divided (e.g., number of children, website visitors).
o Continuous: Data that can take any value within a range and
can be divided (e.g., height, weight, temperature).