ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2022 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
CHEMISTRY
(0620)
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

Process Change Heat Energy Exo/endothermic

1. The Particulate Nature of Condensing G -> L Lost Exothermic

Freezing L -> S Lost Exothermic
Matter Sublimation S -> G Gained Endothermic
Reverse sublimation G -> S Lost Exothermic
1.1. Kinetic Particle Theory
1.3. Heating Curve

Solid Liquid Gas

Strong Weaker Almost no
intermolecular intermolecular intermolecular 1.4. Brownian motion and Diffusion
forces forces than solids forces
No fixed 1. Brownian motion:
arrangement;
Fixed lattice Particles far apart It is the random movement of particles in a liquid or a gas
particles can move
arrangement and move quickly caused due to collision with smaller, invisible particles
and slide over each
Evidence:
other
In liquid- Pollen grains in water
Random
Particles vibrate in In gases- Smoke in air
Particles slide; fixed movement; no
fixed position; fixed
volume fixed shape or
shape and volume
volume 1. Diffusion

It is the spreading of one substance (liquid or gas)

When a solid is heated, the particles gain sufficient
through another from a region of high concentration to a
energy to overcome the strong intermolecular forces. The
region of low concentration due to the continuous
particles eventually can slide over each other in a more
random motion of particles.
random motion- solid expands until the structure is
Evidence for diffusion:
broken at m,p.
In liquids: potassium manganate (VII) in a beaker of water
When a liquid is heated to its b.p, the particles overcome
In gases: a gas jar of air and a gas jar of bromine
the relatively weaker intermolecular force to escape the
connected
liquids surface and move around in continuous rapid
Factors that affect the rate of diffusion:
motion – the liquid has boiled
Temperature increases → rate of diffusion increases
In the vapor, the particles move in rapid random motion.
Lower relative molecular mass→ rate of diffusion is
This movement is due to the collision of vapor particles
higher
with air particles.
When gaseous particles are heated in a closed
environment, the increase in kinetic energy causes
increased collisions with other particles as well as the
walls of the container- pressure increases.

1.2. States of Matter

2. Experimental Techniques
2.1. Measurement
Variable Unit Apparatus
Process Change Heat Energy Exo/endothermic Time min/sec Stopwatch
Melting S -> L Gained Endothermic Thermometer [liquid in glass,
Temperature ºC
Boiling L -> G Gained Endothermic thermistor or thermocouple]

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Variable Unit Apparatus 4. Different solubilities lead to different travel rates [

Mass grams Balance high solubility-> high travel rate]
Stationary phase is material on which separation
takes place
Measuring Volume in liquids:
Mobile phase consists of the mixture you want to
Approximate measure to most accurate measure
separate, dissolved in a solvent.
Measuring Pipettes [fixed Burettes [variable
Name
Cylinder volumes] volume]

Interpreting simple chromatograms:

Chromatograms are the visual outputs on the
chromatography paper
Image Number of rings/dots = number of substances
If two dots travel the same distance up the paper they
are the same substance.
Retention Value:
Used to identify a substance, calculated by the formula:

Distance moved by solute

Rf Value =
Distance moved by solvent
​

Locating Agents
Measuring Volume in gases: Used to make colorless chromatograms visible
Dry paper in oven
Spray it with locating agent
Heat it for 10 minutes in oven

A calibrated gas syringe is used to gradually 2.3. Filtration

measure the volume of gases
Used to separate a solid from a liquid

Mixture goes through a funnel with filter paper, into a

flask.
Insoluble residue remains in the funnel
Filtrate goes through and collects in flask
2.2. Criteria of Purity
Purity in substances

Assessing purity

Pure substances Have a definite, sharp m.p./b.p.

Impure substances Have a lower m.p and a higher b.p

This assessment of substance purity is important, especially

in food consumption, as its intake can be dangerous. 2.4. Crystallization
Paper chromatography: Used to separate dissolved solid from solution
Method used to separate substances in a solvent with
different solubilities Solution is heated to increase concentration (solvent
evaporates)
1. Drop substance onto the start line (pencil) drawn on A drop of solution is placed on a slide to check for crystal
chromatography paper formation
2. Paper is placed in beaker with solvent; the paper must Solution is left to cool and crystallise.
touch the surface of the solvent while the line must be Crystals are filtered from solution; washed with distilled
above the liquid water
3. Solvent travels up the paper by capillary action

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

2.7. Seperating Mixture of Two Solids

Can be done by dissolving one in an appropriate solvent
Then filter one and extract other from solution by
evaporation
If one solid is magnetic, can use a magnet e.g. sand and
iron fillings

Solvent It dissolves…
Water Some salts, sugar
White spirit Gloss paint
Propanone Grease, nail polish
Ethanol Glues, printing inks, scented substances

2.5. Simple Distillation 3. Atoms, Elements and

Used to separate a solvent from a solution Compounds
Impure liquid is heated in a round bottom flask
When it boils, the steam rises into the attached 3.1. Atomic Structure and the Periodic
condenser
Condenser cools the steams to a pure liquid and it drops Table
into the beaker
Particle Relative charge Mass (atomic mass)
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron -1 1
1837 ​

Proton number: number of protons in an atom [atomic

number]
Nucleon number: total number of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom [mass number]
2.6. Fractional Distillation
Used to separate miscible liquids Electronic Configuration

Mixture is heated Electrons are arranged in electron shells.

Substances, due to their different boiling points, rise in Electron shell structure: 2, 8, 18.
different fractions Atoms want to have full outer shells (full set of valency
A mixture of gases condense on the beads in the electrons), this is why they react.
fractional column. Noble gases have full outer shells so they have no need
The beads are heated to the boiling point of the lowest to react.
substance, so that substance being removed cannot
condense on the beads.
The other substances continue to condense and will drip Structure of the Periodic Table
back into the flask. The number of protons in each element increases by 1
The beaker can be changed after every fraction across each row

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Period number is the number of occupied shells in an

element
Group number is the number of electrons in the
outermost shell

Isotopes: atoms of the same element which have the

same protons number, but a different nucleon number. Property Reason
They have the same chemical properties due to same Form giant lattice Cations and anions attract
number of outermost shell electrons. High m.p. and b.p. Strong bonds between ions
E.g. Carbon 12 and Carbon 14. Don’t conduct electricity when
Two types: Non-radioactive isotopes and radioactive- Ions can’t move
solid
isotopes (unstable atoms that break down and
Conduct electricity when
produce radiation) Ions can move
molten/aqueous
Medical use: cancer treatment (radiotherapy) – rays
kill cancer cells using cobalt-60 Usually soluble in water Not required
Industrial use: to check for leaks – radioisotopes
(tracers) added to oil/gas. At leaks radiation is 3.4. Molecules and Covalent Bonds
detected using a Geiger counter.
Covalent bonding: When atoms share electrons to obtain a
3.2. Bonding: the Structure of Matter full outer shell electron configuration; only between non-
metals.
1. Element: Pure substance consisting of one type of Single Bond Double Bond Triple Bond
atom
2. Mixture: two or more elements mixed together but
not chemically combined
3. Compound: substance in which two or more different
elements are chemically combined
4. Alloy: Mixture of two or more elements in which at 2ē shared(1 from 4ēs shared(2 from 6ēs shared(3 from
least one is a metal, eg. brass (copper and zinc) each atom) each atom) each atom)

Metals Non-metals Examples:

Good conductors of heat & Poor conductors of heat &
electricity electricity (except graphite)
Lower m.p. and b.p. than
High m.p. and b.p.
metals
High density Low density
Forms basic oxides Forms acidic oxides HCl CO2 N2

Forms cations in reactions Forms anions in reactions

Malleable and ductile Not malleable or ductile
Covalent bonding Ionic bonding
Mostly volatile Mostly non-volatile
3.3. Ions and Ionic Bonds Insoluble in water Soluble in water

Ionic bonding: Electrostatic force of attraction between a Poor electrical conductors Good electrical conductors
lattice of alternating positive and negative ions
Covalent bonds, due to the sharing of electrons between
Chemical bonds are formed by transfer of electrons from atoms, have weaker attractive forces than ionic bonds. Thus
one atom to another they have lower melting and boiling points.
Metals lose electrons to form cations; non-metals gain
electrons to form anions 3.5. Macromolecules
Positive cations & negative anions attract to each other
Strong electrostatic force of attraction between positive
Diamond Graphite Silicon Dioxide
cations and negative anions is called ionic bonding

Ionic bonding between Group I metal and Group VII non-

metal

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

Diamond Graphite Silicon Dioxide Name Formula Valency

Nitrate NO3- -1

Hydroxide OH- -1
Carbonate CO32- -2

Sulphate SO42- -2
Each silicon is Silicate SiO32- -2
1 carbon atom bonded to 4
1 carbon atom Phosphate PO43- -3
bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, and
bonded to 3
carbon atoms each oxygen is
carbon atoms
[tetrahedral bonded to 2 silicon
structure]
[hexagonal layers] 4.2. Word equations
atoms [tetrahedral
structure] Balancing equations: A chemical equation is balanced
High m.p. and b.p High m.p. and b.p High m.p. and b.p when there are equal number of atoms and charges on
Conducts electricity both sides of the equation
no free electrons no free electrons
(free electrons) State symbols:
Used for cutting as (s) = solid
Used in pencil lead Used in production (l) = liquid
it is strongest
and as a lubricant of glass (g) = gas
known substance
(aq) = aqueous solution
Names of compounds
3.6. Metallic Bonding Compound ending with -ide only contain two different
elements
Metallic bonding: An electrostatic force of attraction between Compound ending with -ate contain oxygen
a lattice of positive metal ions and a sea of mobile electrons

4.3. Masses
Relative atomic mass (Ar): mass of one atom of an
element relative to one twelfth of the mass of one atom
of Carbon-12
Relative molecular mass (Mr): sum of relative atomic
masses of all the atoms in one molecule of the compound

4. # Stoichiometry 4.4. The Mole Concept

Valencies of each elemental group
A mole of a substance is the amount that contains the
same number of units as the number of carbon atoms in
Group Valency
12 grams of carbon-12
I 1 A mole is the Ar or Mr expressed in grams e.g. 1 mole of
II 2 Carbon-12 is equal to 12 grams.
III 3 It is equal to 6.02 × 1023 particles, this number is called
IV +/- 4 Avogadro’s constant.
V -3
VI -2 4.5. Number of Moles
VII -1
mass
VIII 0 Number of Moles =
molar mass
​

Valencies of common ions 4.6. Moles in Gases

Name Formula Valency
Volume = No. of Moles × 24dm3 at r.t.p (room temperat
Iron (II) Fe2+ +2
Copper (II) Cu2+ +2 4.7. Concentration
Ammonium NH4+ +1

f l

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no. of moles
Concentration =
volume
​

Moles per dm3

1mol/dm3 = 1M
Grams per dm3 , g/dm3

4.8. Molecular Formulae

It shows the actual number of atoms in one molecule of a
substance.
5.2. Principle
Reduction of positive cations happens at the cathode
4.9. Empirical Formulae Oxidation of negative anions happens at the anode
For example:
This is the simplest ratio of the atoms in a compound
At the anode: 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2e-
For example:
Molecular formula of ethane= C2H6 At the cathode: 2H+ + 2e- → H2
Empirical formula of ethane = CH3
To find out the empirical formula you:
Make the percent ratio into the simplest whole
number ratio (NOTE: if given %s, use them as grams)
Divide the coefficients of each element symbol by the
lowest coefficient

4.10. Percentages
mass of product (pure)
Percentage purity = mass of compound (impure) × 100
​

actual mass obtained

Percentage yield = calculated mass × 100 ​

5. Electricity and Chemistry

Electrolysis:

It is the breakdown of an electrolyte- ionic compound,

molten or aqueous solution- by passing an electric 5.3. Examples of Electrolysis
current
This is possible due to the presence of mobile electrons Electrolyte At cathode At anode
Molten lead (II) bromide Lead Bromine
Concentrated hydrochloric acid Hydrogen Chlorine
Components of Electrolysis Definition
Concentrated aqueous sodium
Metal or graphite rods that aid Hydrogen Chlorine
chloride
the flow of electricity in and
Dilute sulfuric acid Hydrogen Oxygen
Electrodes out of the electrolyte
1. Anode: Positive electrode
2. Cathode: Negative Electrode 5.4. Voltaic Cell
Negatively charged ion that
Anion Used to produce electrical energy from chemical energy
moves to anode
Positively charged ion that The electrodes are made from metals with different
Cation reactivity
moves to cathode
[Link] electrode: More reactive metal, ex. Zinc
2. Positive electrode: Less reactive metal, ex. Iron
Electrolyte is a strong acid, ex. sulfuric acid
Note: Reactive electrodes take part in the reaction while The negative electrode loses electrons; these flow
inert electrodes do not through the simple circuit to the positive electrode to
produce voltage. This is measured on the attached
voltmeter.

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5.7. Extraction of Aluminum

Note: The greater the difference in reactivity, the greater
voltage produced The main ore of aluminum is bauxite – high m.p.
Aluminum (III) oxide (alumina) is dissolved in molten
cryolite (Na3AlF6) – this mixture has a lower m.p.
5.5. Electroplating (industrially preferred)

The process of coating the surface of a metal (more reactive)

with another metal (less reactive) using electrolysis

Components:
Anode: pure metal being used to electroplate the
object
Cathode: object being electroplated During electrolysis aluminum ( Al3+ + 3e- → Al ) is
Electrolyte: aqueous solution of the soluble salt of produced at the carbon cathode and oxygen ( 2O2- - 4e-
pure metal (same as anode) → O2 ) at the carbon anode.
Used to: Due to the high temp. the oxygen reacts with the carbon
Prevent corrosion in the graphite anode to form CO2 and so anode has to
Enhance appearance be periodically replaced

Conductors Insulators
5.8. Electrolysis of Brine
Allow the passage of Resist the passage of Brine is concentrated aqueous NaCl solution
electrical charge electrical charge
Ions present: Na+, H+, Cl- and OH-
Aluminum [low density, non-
corrosive, cheaper than
copper]: used in electricity Plastics for casing in wires
cables with a steel core and
plane bodies
Copper [malleable]: used in Ceramics used to support
electrical wires cables in electricity pylons At the anode At the cathode
Made of titanium Made of steel
5.6. Refining Metals Hydrogen cations reduced to H2
Cl- ions; Chlorine gas
molecules
Cathode: thin strip of pure metal
Anode: impure metal
Unreacted ions (Na+, H+ and OH-) move through porous
Electrolyte: Aqueous Salt Solution of metal
membrane due to difference in liquid pressure
Left Na+ and OH- which form aqueous sodium hydroxide
Example:

The refining of copper: Impure copper as the anode and

pure copper as the cathode; the aqueous copper (II)
6. Chemical Energetics
sulfate helps the copper ions move from the anode to the
cathode. Here the ions gain electrons and become copper 6.1. Energetics of a Reaction
atoms, making the pure copper cathode thicker.
1. Reaction at Anode: Cu – 2e Cu2+ (mass decreases) Chemical reactions involve a transfer of energy between the
system (the chemical reaction) and its surroundings.
2. Reaction at Cathode: Cu2+ + 2e Cu (mass
Exothermic reaction Endothermic reaction
increases)
Heat energy is released into Heat energy is absorbed from
the surroundings the surroundings
Bond making reactions Bond breaking reactions
Surrounding temperature Surrounding temperature
increases decreases

6.2. Energy Level Diagrams

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Energy level diagrams are a representation of chemical Bond Bond energy (kj/mol)
reactions that include the relative energies of the H - Cl 432
reactant and product.
The energy change of a reaction is represented through
Bond breaking ⟶ 436 + 243 = 679 kj/mol
the difference in height between the reactant and its
Bond forming ⟶ 2 (432) = 864 kj/mol
product.
Thus,
Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy required for
∆ H ⟶ 676 - 864 = -185 kj/mol
the reaction to take place
The reaction is exothermic in nature

Endothermic energy level diagram: 6.4. Production of Energy

Energy is gained by the system; higher activation energy
required A fuel is a substance that can be used as a source of
energy.
Burning fuels ( like oil ) to form oxides is an exothermic
reaction.
The heat from burning fuels is used in power plants to
create steam from water and turn turbines.
A combustion process requires the presence of a fuel,
oxygen and heat.
A good fuel must:
Be cheap
Be available in large quantities
Exothermic energy level diagram: Ba a liquid at room temperature
Energy is lost by the system; lower activation energy required Have high efficiency (produce a large amount of
energy)
Not produce polluting gases

6.5. Hydrogen
Produced by reacting methane gas with steam
Used in fuel cells and rockets

Advantages Disadvantages
Difficult to transport as it is a
Releases a lot of energy
gas at room temperature
6.3. Bond Energy Forms explosive mixture with
Does not produce pollutants air when stored under
This is the amount of energy required or released when a pressure
bond is formed or broken respectively. The unit measure Is expensive to produce
Renewable and abundant
of this energy is kJ/mol. (requires a lot of energy)
The energy change in a reaction is calculated using the
following formula:
6.6. Fuel Cell
ΔH = Bond Breaking − Bond F orming
In this electrochemical cell, fuel loses electrons at one
If overall heat energy value is negative, reaction is porous electrode while oxygen gains electrons at the
exothermic alternate porous electrode.
If overall heat energy value is positive, reaction is The product is water: 2H2 + O2 → 2H2 O
endothermic
Reaction at anode:
2H2 → 4H+ + 4e-
Example Reaction at cathode:
H2 + Cl2 ⟶ 2HCl 4H+ + O2 + 4e- → 2H2 O
Bond Bond energy (kj/mol)
H-H 436 The flow of the electrons, through the electric circuit, from
the cathode to the anode generates a current. This cell is
Cl - Cl 243
used to drive electric motors in the automotive industry.

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Unit = (mol/dm3)/s

7.3. Concentration
Increasing concentration of reactants increases rate of
reaction

Higher concentration reactants contain more particles

per unit volume; this increases successful collision rate
leading to an increased rate of reaction.

6.7. Radioactive Isotopes

7.4. Temperature
Uranium-235 can be used in nuclear power stations to
produce electricity Increasing temperature increases the rate of reaction
The radioactive isotope is bombarded by neutrons
Increased temperatures leads to increased average
resulting in a lot of heat being produced
kinetic energy of particles. Particle movement produces
Small amount of radioactive fuel produces large amount
energy greater than/equal to activation energy; increased
of heat
successful collision rate leads to an increased rate of
Advantages: lots of energy is from a small amount and no
reaction.
CO2
Disadvantage: radioactive waste produced and non-
renewable

7. Chemical Reactions
Physical change Chemical change
Reaction is easily reversible Reaction is harder to reverse
Product has no new chemical Chemical product has
properties different properties
Ex. dissolving solute in a Energy change
solvent [exothermic/endothermic] 7.5. Particle Size
Decreasing the particle size increases the rate of reaction
7.2. Rates of Reaction
Decreasing particle size increases surface area; more
Collision Theory reactant particles exposed to collide so the successful
Successful collisions have enough activation energy at collision rate increases. This results in an increased rate
moment of impact to break pre-existing bonds and form new of reaction
bonds

Rates of reaction

The measure of the speed of the collision

Calculated by concentration of reactant used up or
product produced per unit time

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For gaseous reactants, if catalyst is solid metal, the

catalyst provides a surface for reaction to take place on
The larger the surface are of the metal catalyst, the larger
the area for reaction to take place therefore higher rate
of reaction

Explosive combustion

Fine particles are combustible in air due to larger surface

area Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up reactions
The rate of reaction is high making them explosive but remain chemically unchanged at the end
Examples: methane gas in coal mines and flour milling Enzymes function best at optimum temperature and pH
level otherwise they may denature and completely stop
functioning
7.6. Pressure
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous system increases the 7.8. Measuring Rates of Reaction
rate of reaction Experimentally
The distance between particles is reduced under
Interpreting graphs:
pressure
A graph with a steeper gradient at the beginning and
There are more particles per unit volume; the successful
reaching a horizontal gradient faster depicts a high rate of
collision rate increases, resulting in an increased rate of
reaction.
reaction.
Gas Evolved Mass Loss Colour Change

If a gas evolves,
measure loss in
If a gas evolves, mass \n per unit
If a colour change ,
measure volume of time by placing on
measure the time
gas produced per a balance then
taken to turn
unit time using a putting \n a cotton
cloudy
gas syringe wool on top to
allow gas to pass
but not to enter
7.7. Catalyst
A catalyst is a substance (usually a transition metal) which 7.9. Photochemistry
speeds up a chemical reaction, but remains unchanged at
the end A photochemical reaction is one where light causes a
reaction to occur. The higher the light intensity the higher the
Adding a catalyst increases the rate of reaction
rate of the reaction.
A catalyst allows the reaction to go by an alternative
pathway with lower activation energy 1. Photosynthesis: light provides energy for the reaction
More particles will have an energy greater than or equal and chlorophyll is a dye that absorbs light.
to the activation energy, therefore successful collision
rate increases resulting in increased rate of reaction carbon dioxide + water → (light + chlorophyll) → glucose +
oxygen

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6CO2 + 6H2 O → (light + chlorophyll) → C6 H12 O6 +

​ ​ ​ ​ ​

6O2 ​
Reducing agents are oxidized and oxidizing agents are
reduced
2. Silver salts in photographic film: Silver bromide breaks
down, where light strikes the film, so silver is reduced. Identifying redox reactions
Silver ions are reduced to silver.
1. Oxidation state:
2AgBr(s) → 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
​ ​ ​

Oxidation state highlights electron movement in an reaction

eg. CuO + Mg → MgO + Cu
7.10. Reversible Reactions
Cu2++ Mg → Mg2++Cu [oxide is a spectator and is removed as
In reversible reactions, the products can then react with a doesn’t change its oxidation state]
each other or decompose to form the reactant molecules Here copper (II) is reduced while magnesium is oxidized; the
Example: CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O (blue) ⇌ ​ ​
reaction is redox

CuSO4 (white) + H2 O
​ ​

2. Indicators
(anhydrous by heating; hydrated form by adding water) Potassium manganate (VII) is an oxidising agent;
when added to a reducing agent changes from
purple to colourless
There are two types of equilibrium: static and dynamic.
Potassium iodide is a reducing ; when added to an
At dynamic equilibrium: oxidising agent changes colorless to red-brown
Rate of forward reaction = rate of reverse reaction
Concentrations of all reactants and products remain
constant
8. Acids, Bases and Salts
System is closed, and on large scale everything is
constant 8.1. Properties of Acids

7.11. Equilibrium An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions (H+)

when dissolved in water. Acids are proton donors.
Le Châtelier’s Principle: if conditions of an equilibrium are
changed, the position of equilibrium moves to oppose Indicators
change
Temperature: Temperature lowered; equilibrium moves Have pH between 1 (strong) and 6 (weak)
in exothermic direction. Temperature raised; equilibrium Turns blue litmus red
moves in endothermic direction. Turns methyl orange indicator red
Pressure: Pressure raised; equilibrium moves to side with
fewest gas molecules. Pressure lowered; equilibrium Strong acids completely ionize in water producing lots of H+
moves to side with most gas molecules. ions
Concentration: Decreasing reactant concentration or Weak acids partially ionize in water producing few H+ ions
increasing product concentration; equilibrium moves to Chemical properties
reactant side. Increasing reactant concentration or
decreasing product concentration; equilibrium moves to Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas
product side. Acid + base → salt + water
Acid + metal carbonate → salt + carbon dioxide + water

7.12. Redox
8.2. Properties of Bases
A reaction in which oxidation and reduction occur at the
same time is a redox reaction. Bases are substances which neutralize acids to form a salt
and water only. They are proton acceptors (form OH- ions)
Oxidation Reduction and are mainly water insoluble.
Loss of electrons Gain of electrons
Gain of oxygen Loss of oxygen Indicators

Loss of hydrogen Gain of hydrogen Have pH between 8 (weak) and 14 (strong)

Turns red litmus blue
Note: Roman numerals next to an element’s name are the Turns methyl orange indicator yellow
oxidation state of the ion, eg. Iron (II) and Iron (III). The
reaction product formula depends on this.

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Strong alkalis completely ionize in water producing lots of Add acid to solution using burette; note volume of acid
-
OH ions required for solution to change color
Repeat without indictor using noted acid volume
Weak alkalis partially ionize in water producing OH- ions
Heat in evaporating dish to form soluble salt crystals
Chemical properties

Base + acid → salt + water (+ CO2 when base is a metal 8.6. Preparation of Salts
carbonate)
Base + ammonium salt → salt + ammonia gas + water A salt is a compound formed when all the hydrogen
atoms of an acid are replaced by a metal.
8.3. Neutral
Naming salts involves 2 parts; the name of the metal and
Neutral substances are pH 7. the acid ending
Acidity in soil: eg. calcium + hydrochloric acid = calcium chloride
Optimal plant growth requires a soil pH between 5 and 8.
Type of Salt Acid used
Soil pH imbalance to be too acidic reduces plant growth
yield. Sulphate Sulphuric acid
Soli acidity is neutralized by adding lime or powdered Nitrate Nitric acid
limestone. Chloride Hydrochloric acid
Ethanoate Ethanoic acid

pH scale Salts can either be soluble or insoluble

+ 3
pH is the concentration of H ions per dm of solution
Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts
Universal indicator solution is used to determine the pH
of a substance by matching the color change to the pH All sodium, potassium and
color chart. ammonium salts
All nitrates
Chlorides Except silver and lead
Except barium, lead and
Sulphates
calcium
Potassium, sodium and
All other carbonates
ammonium carbonates

8.4. Types of Oxides

8.7. Preparation of Insoluble Salts
Metal oxides are basic in nature e.g. iron oxide and
Method C: Precipitation
magnesium oxide
Non-metal oxides are acidic in nature e.g. sulphur oxide 2 soluble salts added to water and mixed
and carbon dioxide Note: one soluble salt should always be a potassium or
Aluminum, zinc and lead form amphoteric oxides e.g. zinc sodium solution (eg. potassium sulfate)
oxide Filter out and clean precipitate with distilled water
Oxides that react with neither acids nor bases are neutral Dry insoluble salt precipitate in oven
e.g. nitric oxide and carbon monoxide

8.8. Test for Aqueous Cations

8.5. Preparation of Soluble Salts
with aqueous
Method A: Neutralization Cation with aqueous NaOH
Ammonia
Excess insoluble compound (metal/base/carbonate) Aluminum White soluble
White precipitate,
reacts with acid whilst being heated precipitate, turns
(Al3+) insoluble in excess
Insoluble base is filtered out colorless in excess
Solution is heated in an evaporating dish to form soluble Pungent ammonium
Ammonium
salt crystals gas produced turns
(NH4+)
damp red litmus blue

Method B: Titration Calcium White precipitate,

Faint or no precipitate
(Ca2+) insoluble in excess
Phenolphthalein is added to an alkali (soluble base)

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with aqueous Gas Test and test result

Cation with aqueous NaOH
Ammonia Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches red/blue litmus paper
Blue precipitate, Hydrogen (H2) Place lighted splint, squeaky pop
Blue precipitate, soluble in excess to
Copper (Cu2+) Oxygen (O2) Place glowing splint, splint relights
insoluble in excess give a dark blue
solution
Dirty green Dirty green 9. The Periodic Table
Iron(II) (Fe2+) precipitate, insoluble precipitate, soluble in
in excess excess The Periodic table is a method of classifying elements.
Reddish-brown Reddish-brown Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
3+
Iron(III) (Fe ) precipitate, insoluble precipitate, insoluble number (each proceeding element has one more proton)
in excess in excess Made up of rows called periods and columns called
White precipitate, White precipitate, groups; the position of an element helps determine its
Zinc (Zn2+) soluble and turns soluble and turns electronic configuration
colorless in excess colorless in excess Period number: number of electron shells
Grey green Group number: number of valency electrons (outer shell
Grey green electrons)
Chromium precipitate, soluble to
precipitate, insoluble Elements in the same group have similar chemical
(Cr3+) give dark green
in excess
solution in excess properties.

8.9. Test for Anions 9.2. Periodic Trends

1. Table moves from metals on the left to non-metals on
Sulfate ions (SO42-): the right.
Add dilute nitric acid, then add aq. barium nitrate 2. Down a group of metals, elements become more
White precipitate formed reactive
3. With non-metals, going down a group, reactivity
Sulphite ions (SO32-): decreases
Add acidified potassium permanganate and heat
Color changes from pink to colorless 9.3. Alkali Metals
Halide ions: Group I metals: Lithium, sodium and potassium
Add nitric acid, then aqueous silver nitrate
Chemical Properties Physical Properties
Chloride (Cl-) White precipitate
Readily react with oxygen and Good conductors of heat and
Bromide (Br-) Cream precipitate
water; stored in oil electricity
Iodide (I-) Yellow precipitate React violently with chlorine Soft and easy to cut
Burst into flames when
heated with oxygen[red
Nitrate ions (NO3-): flame for lithium; yellow Shiny when freshly cut
Add aqueous sodium hydroxide then add warm aluminum flame for sodium; lilac flame
foil for potassium]
Pungent gas produced, turns damp red litmus blue Low melting and boiling
Produce soluble white
points compared to most
compounds.
Carbonate ions (CO32-): metals.
Add dilute hydrochloric acid React with water to form
If bubbles/ gas produced turn limewater cloudy, carbonate alkaline metal and hydrogen Low densities for metals
ion present gas

8.10. Test for Gases

Predicting the properties of other Group I alkali metals:
Gas Test and test result
Rubidium, Caesium and Francium [reactivity increases
Ammonia (NH3) Damp red litmus paper turns blue down the group]
Bubble gas through–from colorless
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
to cloudy Element Reaction with water

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

Element Reaction with water Properties Uses

Explodes with spark M.P. and B.P. increases down Neon – is used in advertising
Rubidium
Produces Rubidium hydroxide the group signs because it glows red.
Violent explosion Don’t conduct electricity
Caesium
Produces caesium hydroxide Inert due to full outer shell
Cannot predictive due to radioactive electrons
Francium
reactivity

9.4. Halogens
10. Metals
Properties Patterns 10.1. Properties of Metals
States and Colors, at RTP:
Fluorine- Yellow gas Physical Properties
Down the group; size, mass
Chlorine- Green gas
and density increase 1. Good conductors of heat and electricity
Bromine- Red liquid 2. High melting and boiling points
Iodine- Black solid 3. Malleable and Ductile
Down the group, color 4. High densities
Poisonous
darkens 5. Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
Reactivity decreases down
the group,
because it has to gain an Chemical Properties
electron, 1. Form positive ions
Diatomic; form halide ions in
so the closer the electron is 2. Form basic oxides that dissolve in water
displacement reaction
to the positive nucleus the
more easily it will be gained,
so atoms with fewer shells 10.2. Alloys
will react more easily.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals, or a metal
melting point increases down
Do not conduct electricity and non-metal
the group
Alloys are used because they have improved qualities for
Brittle and crumbly when a particular job over the pure metals
solid
Special
Alloy Made from Uses
Properties
9.5. Transition Metals
Stronger and Electrical
High melting points (except mercury) Brass Copper and zinc more resistant fittings, car
Malleable and ductile to corrosion radiators
Good conductors of heat & electricity (silver is the best) Harder,
Statues, springs,
High density Bronze Copper and tin stronger and
coins
Have no trend in reactivity sonorous
Used as catalysts Iron, carbon, Kitchen sinks,
Form colored compounds Stainless resistant to
chromium and cutlery, surgical
Can form complex ions as they have variable valences steel corrosion
nickel instruments

9.6. Noble Gases Metal alloys, due to the irregularity in atom sizes and
structure which stop layers from sliding over each other,
Properties Uses are stronger
Helium- filling balloons and This is what the structure of an alloy (a) looks like,
Density increases down the aircrafts because it is lighter compared to a pure metal (b).
group than air and will not catch
fire.
Argon – filling (tungsten) light
Monoatomic and colorless bulbs to stop the filament
reacting with oxygen.

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10.3. Reactivity Series Metal Metal

Group Metal Nitrate
Carbonate Hydroxide
Group I (except Do not Do not Metal nitrite
Note: Aluminum- despite its high placement in the reactivity lithium) decompose decompose and oxygen
series- is seemingly unreactive due to its protective Group II, Metal oxide,
Metal oxide
aluminum oxide layer lithium & Metal oxide nitrogen
and carbon
transition and water dioxide and
dioxide
General Reactivity series (descending Chemical reactivity metals oxygen
order of reactivity) of metals
K - Potassium 10.6. Extraction of Metals
Na - Sodium
Ca – Calcium Process of separating a particular metal from its
Water:
Mg – Magnesium compound; metal ore
1. metal + cold
Al – Aluminum Ores more difficult to d
‎ ecompose from gold to potassium
water → metal
C – Carbon (expensive)
hydroxide +
Zn – Zinc
hydrogen
Fe – Iron Metal Extraction Method
2. metal + steam →
Pb – Lead K - Potassium
metal oxide +
H – Hydrogen Na - Sodium
hydrogen
Cu – Copper Ca – Calcium Reduction via electrolysis
Ag – Silver Mg – Magnesium
Au – Gold Al – Aluminum
Everything above hydrogen can Oxygen: Carbon
displace hydrogen from its acid, and metal + oxygen →
Zn – Zinc
hydrogen cannot reduce their oxides. metal oxide Reducing via heating with Carbon or
Fe – Iron
Dilute acids: Carbon Monoxide
Pb – Lead
In a metal and acid
Hydrogen
reaction, the
Metals above carbon, their oxides hydrogen atom in Cu – Copper
cannot be reduced by carbon the acid is replaced Ag – Silver Occur naturally
by the metal atom Au – Gold
to form a product of
salt and hydrogen 10.7. Extraction of Iron
Ore haematite (Fe2O3)
10.4. Displacement Reactions
In these reactions, metals compete for oxygen or anions
Oxidization is the loss of electrons 1. Ore is crushed and mixed with carbon and limestone
Reduction is the gain of electrons (CaCO3) and transferred into the blast furnace
The more reactive metal will displace the less reactive
metal from oxygen or an anion. C + O2 → CO2 (exothermic)
If more reactive metal has oxygen or an anion, no CaCO3 → CaO + CO2 (thermal decomposition)
reaction occurs
CO2 + C → 2CO
The bigger the difference in reactivity between the two
metals, the faster the reaction
2. Carbon monoxide reduces Iron(III) oxide from the ore
to iron
Example: Mg + O2→ 2MgO Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2
Here Magnesium is oxidized while the Oxygen atom is 3. The calcium oxide reacts with impurities like silica to
reduced form slag
CaO + SiO2→ CaSiO3 + CO2
Uses of slag include making roads and cement
10.5. Thermal Decomposition
Metal Metal
Group Metal Nitrate
Carbonate Hydroxide

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11. Air and Water

11.1. Tests for Water
Type of
Test Positive result
test
Cobalt(II) Chloride Paper Chemical Turns from blue to pink
Anhydrous copper (II) Turns from white to
10.8. Iron to Steel sulfate
Chemical
blue

Molten iron from blast furnace is poured into an oxygen Test melting and boiling M.P at 0℃ and B.P at
Physical
furnace. point 100℃
Powdered calcium oxide is added, and a jet of oxygen is
turned on. 11.2. Purification of Water
The calcium oxide neutralizes acidic impurities, forming
slag that is skimmed off and oxygen burns the other 1. Water is pumped into screens to remove solid
impurities away. insoluble impurities
The carbon content is checked continually until it is just 2. Aluminum sulfate is added to make small clay pieces
right then the oxygen is turned off. stick together and are then removed
Mild Steel (0.25% carbon) – Used in machinery and car 3. The water is then filtered through layers of sand and
bodies gravel to remove larger, insoluble debris.
Medium carbon steel (0.5%) – Used in railway lines 4. Water encounters more flocculants (chemicals that
High carbon steel (1.5% carbon) – Used in knives and make particles sink to the bottom) and is filtered
blades again through coarse sand.
5. Chlorine gas is bubbled into the water to kill bacteria;
10.9. Extraction of Zinc the acidic effect on the water is reversed by adding an
alkali, sodium hydroxide
Ore = Zinc Blende /Zinc Sulfide (ZnS) 6. Some countries add fluoride

11.3. Uses of Water

1. Zinc blende is roasted in air; produces zinc oxide and
sulfur dioxide
Home Industry
2. Zinc oxide is reduced to zinc and carbon monoxide by
using coke in the furnace [more reactive metals like Drinking, cooking and Water jet cutting and water
aluminum and magnesium can also be used] washing blasting
3. As zinc is volatile, the gaseous metal is distilled leaving In car radiators, for gardens
As a solvent in refining ores
less-volatile impurities behind. and plants
4. Zinc is condensed in a tray and collected Generating hydroelectricity

10.10. Uses of Metal 11.4. Air

Aluminum
Components of clean air:
Airplane/Cars (Strong/Low density/resistant to
corrosion) Primary- Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%)
Cans/Foil (Resistant to corrosion/malleable) Secondary- Noble gases and carbon dioxide
Overhead cable (Good conductor of electricity/ductile)
Zinc
11.5. Pollutants in Air
Galvanizes Iron = coats it to stop it rusting
Alloys – brass/bronze
Pollutant Source Negative impact
Batteries
Sacrificial Protection
Binds with
Incomplete
Copper haemoglobin,
combustion of carbon-
Electrical Wiring (Good conductor of Carbon constricting oxygen
containing substances
electricity/Ductile) monoxide (CO) supply in cells;
(ex. Internal
Cooking utensils (Malleable/good conductor of heat) leads to fatigue/
combustion engines)
Roofs (hard wearing against weather
death

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

Pollutant Source Negative impact 1. Sacrificial protection- attaching a block of more

Hydrocarbons burned reactive metal, normally zinc or magnesium, to the
Causes acid rain iron body which corrodes in its place.
Sulfur Dioxide with sulfur
and bronchospasm
(SO2) impurities/compounds
in asthmatics
(ex. Fossil fuels) 11.9. Fertilizer
Causes respiratory
High temperatures Artificial fertilizers contain NPK:
problems,
Nitrogen that trigger a reaction
photochemical
Oxides (NOX) between N2 and O2 1. Nitrogen for chlorophyll and other proteins.
smog; contributes
(ex. Car engines) 2. Phosphorus for root growth and crop ripening
to acid rain
3. Potassium for making proteins and to resist diseases.
Damages brain and
Lead Combustion of leaded
nerve cells in young Reaction with any alkali substance (except ammonia)
Compounds fuels displaces ammonia from its compound, for example:
children
Calcium hydroxide + ammonium chloride→ Calcium chloride
+ Ammonia + Water
11.6. Fractional Distillation of Air
1. Air is filtered for dust 11.10. Greenhouse Gases
2. Cooled to -80℃ to remove CO2 and water vapour
Greenhouse gases: Methane and Carbon Dioxide
(because they would freeze and block the pipes) using
absorbent filters. Trap heat inside Earth’s atmosphere, increasing it’s
average temperature. Leads to climate change
3. Remaining air is cooled to liquify at -200℃. The Noble
Causes global warming, melting of polar-caps, rising sea
gases are still in the gaseous state and are removed.
levels, floods and droughts
4. The (liquid) air, consisting of NO2 and O2, is pumped
into the fractional column where it is slowly warmed.
The remaining components rise and condense in 11.11. Formation of Carbon Dioxide
different fractions due to different boiling points and
are collected. Respiration
Reaction between an acid and a carbonate
Sources of methane: oil and natural gas, decomposition Complete combustion of a carbon containing substance
of vegetation, and waste gases from digestion in animals Thermal decomposition of limestone

11.7. Catalytic Convertor 11.12. Haber Process

1. Present in car exhausts; contains transition metal Materials-
catalysts of platinum and rhodium N2: fractional distillation of liquid air
2. Aids redox reactions to neutralize toxic pollutants H2: Electrolysis of Brine ( H2 formed at the cathode )
formed as a result of incomplete fuel combustion (a) Conditions-
Carbon monoxide (b) Nitrogen oxides (c) Unburned Temperature: 450°C
hydrocarbons Pressure: 200 atm
3. Reaction equations: (a) 2CO+ O2→ CO2 Catalyst: Iron
(b) 2NO+ 2CO→ N2+ 2CO2 Industrial manufacture of ammonia NH3:
(c) C8H18 + 12½O2→ 8CO2 + 9H2O N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ⇌ 2NH3 (g) [Endothermic]

11.8. Rust Prevention 11.13. Carbon Cycle

Conditions for rusting: Presence of Oxygen and Water
(Sodium Chloride catalysis rust reaction)
Iron + Water + Oxygen → Hydrated Iron (III) Oxide

Preventing oxidation
1. Coating iron with barriers that prevent contact
with air or H2O
Plastic, paint and grease
Electroplating with tin or chromium
Galvanizing: dipping in molten zinc

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

3. SO3 is then dissolved in concentrated sulphuric

acid to form the liquid compound Oleum : SO3 +
H2SO4 → H2S2O7
4. The compound is mixed with water to form
concentrated sulphuric acid:
H2S2O7 + H2O → 2H2SO4

12.4. Properties of Sulfuric Acid

Properties:
Concentrated H2SO4 is a strong oxidizing and
dehydrating agent
Corrosive when concentrated
Low pH (turns blue litmus red)
High electrical conductivity

Uses:
Concentrated Diluted
Used in phosphate fertilizers Cleaning metal surfaces
Production of paints and dyes Catalyst in organic reactions

12. Sulfur 13. Carbonates

12.1. Sources
By-product of petroleum and natural gas refining
Occurs in sulphide ores e.g. lead sulphide
Underground sulfur beds
Volcano rims

12.2. Uses Manufacture of lime (Calcium oxide)

1. Obtained from the thermal decomposition of
Sulfur Sulfur Dioxide
limestone in a lime kiln
As a bleach for wood pulp in 2. CaCO3 + heat → CaO + CO2
Rubber vulcanization
the manufacture of paper 3. Slaked lime (Calcium Hydroxide): small amounts of
In car batteries as an Food preservative; kills water is slowly added to lime
electrolyte bacteria CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
Manufacture of sulphuric Metal and ore refining Uses:
acid ( Contact Process) (reducing agent)
Lime Slaked lime
Neutralizing acidic industrial
12.3. Contact Process
waste products, e.g. flue gas Neutralizing soil acidity levels
desulfurization
Essential conditions:
Production of sugar from
Manufacture of steel
Catalyst- Vanadium (V) oxide sugar cane
Temperature- 450°C
Pressure- 2atm Uses of Limestone:

Procedure: 1. Making cement: strongly heat powdered limestone

1. Oxidation of sulfur (heated in air) to form sulfur with clay in a kiln; add gypsum (calcium sulphate).
dioxide : S + O2 → SO2 2. Making iron from iron ore: limestone reacts with sand,
2. It is then further oxidized to form sulfur trioxide forming slag (calcium silicate). Used for road building.
using the catalyst, Vanadium (V) oxide under the
specified essential conditions : 2SO2 + O2 ⇌2SO3
14. Organic Chemistry

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

14.1. Organic formulae Methane: CH4 (n=1) Ethane:C2H6 (n=2)

Suffix Compound type

ane Alkane
ene Alkene
Substitutional reactions [photochemical]
anol Alcohol Alkanes go through substitutional reactions, where the
anoic acid Carboxylic acid hydrogen atom is replaced by the atom of another element,
yl /anoate Ester under the presence of UV light
CH4 + Cl2 → (light) → HCl + CH3Cl / CH2Cl2 / CHCl3 / CCl4
Homologous series are a group of organic compounds that Compounds = chloromethane / di/tri/tetrachloromethane
have similar chemical properties due to being part of the
same functional group [have same general formula]. 14.4. Alkenes
The molecular formula of each following member in each
series differs by CH2 Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons [at least 1 double
bond between 2 carbon atoms]
14.2. Fuels Have isomers: same molecular formula but different
structural formula (placement of double bond shifts) eg. but-
Common fossil fuels include: coal, natural gas [main 1ene and but-2ene
constituent: methane] and petroleum General formula = CnH2n
Functional group: C=C bond
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons which can be (n=1) Ethene:C2H4 (n=2)
separated into useful fractions by fractional distillation
Properties of molecules in fractions
N/A
Melting/boiling point increases for larger molecules
Increasing carbon chain length, liquid is darker and
thicker
Low volatility for larger molecules
Propene:C3H6 (n=3) But-1-ene:C4H8 (n=4)

Petroleum fraction Use

Refinery gas heating and cooking
Gasoline fraction petrol for cars
Naphtha fraction making chemicals
Kerosene/paraffin fraction jet fuel, lamps
Catalytic Cracking:
Diesel oil/gas oil fraction fuel in diesel engines
fuel in ships and home heating Thermal decomposition reaction, in which an alkene (and
Fuel oil fraction
systems sometimes hydrogen) are produced from an alkane.
Lubricating fraction waxes and polishes Hydrocarbon heated and vapors passed over catalyst
Bitumen making roads (alumina or silica)
Cracking always produces short chain compound with a
C=C bond
14.3. Alkanes e.g. Cracking of ethane will give ethene and hydrogen

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons [single carbon bonds]

that are generally unreactive however they do undergo
combustion reactions
General formula = CnH2n+2
Methane: CH4 (n=1) Ethane:C2H6 (n=2)

Propane:C3H8 (n=3) Butane:C4H10 (n=4)

Butane → Ethane + Ethene ; C4H10 → C2H6 + C2H4

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated Fermentation (only for

Hydration of Ethane
hydrocarbons ethanol)
Bromine water (orange) Produces greenhouse gas
Saturated: remains orange (unreactive) No greenhouse pollutants
(CO2
Unsaturated: turns colourless
Uses non-renewable
Uses renewable resources
resources (crude oil)
14.5. Alkenes’ Addition Reactions
Uses of ethanol:
1. With bromine: (the test for saturation)
e.g. ethene (g) + bromine (aq) → 1,2-dibromoethane (l) Solvent in glues, printing inks & perfumes
2. With steam [hydration]: forms alcohols with heat, Fuel
pressure and a catalyst (phosphoric acid)
e.g. ethene (g) + steam (g) ⇌ ethanol (l)
14.7. Carboxylic Acids
3. With hydrogen [hydrogenation]: double bond breaks
down to form an alkane with heat, pressure (60 atm)
General formula = CnH2n+1COOH
and a catalyst (nickel)
Functional group: COOH
e.g. ethene (g) + hydrogen (g) → ethane (g)
Methanoic Acid: CH3COOH Ethanoic Acid: C2H5COOH
(n=1) (n=2)
14.6. Alcohols
General formula = CnH2n+1OH
Functional group: OH
Methanol:CH3OH(n=1) Ethanol:C2H5OH(n=2)

Propanoic Acid: C3H7COOH Butanoic acid: C4H9COOH

(n=3) (n=4)

Propanol:C3H7OH (n=3) Butanol:C4H9OH (n=4)

Ethanoic acid:

Weak acid with high pH and low dissociation

Formed by:
Methods of production: Oxidation of ethanol
Fermentation (only for With acidified potassium mangenate (VII)
Hydration of Ethane
ethanol)
The ethene reacts with Carboxylic acids react with alcohols (with an acid catalyst) to
-Yeast added to dissolved steam (reversibly) to form give esters, in a condensation reaction, for example:
glucose. Products: ethanol, ethanol in the following
carbon dioxide and heat- conditions:570°C60- Ethanoic acid + ethanol ⇌ ethyl ethanoate + water
Temperature between 25-35 70atmCatalyst- phosphoric (alcohol = -yl & carboxylic acid = -oate)
°C for optimal enzyme activity acid[while low temp. gives
(dies after alcohol better yield, high temp. is 14.8. Polymers
concentration increases) used for faster rate of
reaction] Large molecules built up from small units known as
Slow reaction, produces dilute monomers.
Fast reaction, produces pure
solution that requires
ethanol. Continuous
processing. Can only be
production (no batches)
produced in batches

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

Polymers can have different linkages depending on the When 2 different monomers are linked together with
type of polymerization and monomer the removal of a smaller molecule, usually water (forms
Example: one H20 molecule per linkage).
1. Nylon [polyamide] is made from a dicarboxylic
Small units (monomers) Linkages Macromolecules acid monomer and an amine monomer
Glucose Ester Starch (compound with an NH2 functional group). Forms
Amino acids Amide Protein amide linkage.
Fatty acids and glycerol Ester Lipids

Use Structure
2. Terylene [polyester] made from a dicarboxylic acid
Plastic bags and
monomer and diols (alcohol with an -OH
gloves, clingfilm (low
functional group). Forms ester linkage.
density), mugs,
Polythene
bowls, chairs,
dustbins (high
density)
Water pipes,
Polychloroethane wellingtons, hoses, 14.10. Pollution from Plastics
(PVC) covering for
electricity cables Choke birds, fish and other animals that try to eat them.
They clog up drains and sewers and cause flooding.
They collect in rivers, and get in the way of fish. Some
Polypropene Crates, ropes river beds now contain a thick layer of plastic
When incinerated, release greenhouse gases (like carbon
Used as expanded dioxide) that contribute to climate change.
polystyrene in fast-

Polystyrene
food cartons, 14.11. Natural Polymers
packaging, and
insulation for roofs Proteins and carbohydrates as the main constituents of food.
and walls
Coated on frying Proteins:
pans to make them
Proteins contain the same linkages (amide links) as nylon,
non-stick, fabric
Teflon but with different units. Their structure is:
protector,
windscreen wipers,
flooring

14.9. Addition and Condensation In digestion proteins are broken down into amino acids
Polymerization (hydrolysis).

Carbohydrates:
Addition Polymerization:
Complex carbohydrates: are a large number of joined
Only occurs in monomers that contain double carbon
sugar units (monosaccharide like glucose). The sugar
(C=C) bonds
units are represented like this:
Polymers produced using alkene monomers
Forms only a polymer molecule
Poly(ethene) / Polythene: is a polymer produced from
ethene by addition polymerization
They join together in a condensation polymerization

Double bond splits and polymer is formed

The fermentation of fructose and glucose with yeast
Condensation Polymerization: enzymes produces ethanol and carbon dioxide

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CAIE IGCSE CHEMISTRY (0620)

molecules of different sizes

2. Identification:
In digestion, the hydrolysis (Decomposition of a chemical Chromatography can be used to identify products
compound by reaction with water) of starch happens in the & substances
mouth by the enzyme amylase to make glucose However, amino acids and sugars are colourless
when dissolved in water, so a locating agent is
1. Hydrolysis:
used.
Starch → glucose
Substances can be identified using Rf values or by
Proteins → amino acids
matching them with spots which are horizontal
Fats → fatty acids and glycerol
But if hydrolysis is not complete, polymers are not
completely broken down so you get a mixture of

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CAIE IGCSE
Chemistry (0620)

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