Cisco Certified Entry Networking Technician

CCENT (CCND1)
CCENT Course Outline
• Chapter 1: Internetworking
- History of Networking
- Define Internetworking
- Internetworking terms
- Internetworking devices
- Security Threats
- OSI Reference Model
- Ethernet Networking

• Chapter 2: Introduction to TCP/IP

- TCP/IP Protocol Stack
* TCP, UDP, IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP, Proxy ARP
- IP addressing
- Class C Subnetting 2
• Chapter 3: The Cisco Router and Switch Interface
- Cisco IOS
- Cisco CLI
- Administrative Functions
- Configuring Interfaces
- Introduction to Cisco Catalyst Switches

• Chapter 4: Managing a Cisco Internetwork

- Copying and saving the IOS and configuration
- Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
- Domain Name System
- Troubleshooting Cisco networks

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• Chapter 5: IP Routing
- Basic IP routing
- Static Routing
- RIPv1 and RIPv2
• Chapter 6: VLSM and Summarization
- VLSM design and implementation
- Discontiguous Networks
- Summarization
• Chapter 7: Network Address Translation
- Static NAT
- Dynamic NAT Pools
- Port Address Translation (PAT)
• Chapter 8: VLANs and STP
- Virtual LANs (VLANs)
- Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) 4
• Chapter 9: Wireless LANs
- 802.11
- Basic Service Sets (BSS)

• Chapter 10: Cisco WAN Support

- Basic WAN
- HDLC
- PPP
- Frame Relay

• Chapter 11: Secure Device Manager

- Overview

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Local-Area and Wide-Area Network Symbols Key

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Chapter 1
• Welcome to the exciting world of internetworking. This
first chapter will really help you understand the basics of
internetworking by focusing on how to connect networks
together using Cisco routers and switches.

• To get all that down, you’ll first need to know exactly what
an internetwork is, right?

• You create an internetwork when you take two or more

LANs or WANs and connect them via a router, and
configure a logical network addressing scheme with a
protocol like IP.

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Network Evolution
• 1960s and 1970s - United States Department of Defense
(DOD) performed research. The Defense Advanced Research
Project Agency (DARPA) was the group performing the
research. The outcome was ARPANET which later became the
Internet. Mainly centered around a mainframe with
unintelligent terminals communicating with the host.

• 1970s and 1980s - Introduction of PCs. Local-areanetworks

(LANs) grew primarily to decrease costs. DEC VAX systems
and DECnet were common. Wide-area-networks (WANs)
started to evolve.

• 1980s and 1990s - Networks have become a way of life when

performing daily tasks. Internetworks put together LANs and
WANs. Internetworks give an organization a competitive
advantage.
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Network Evolution

• 1990s -Users are placing increasing demands on the network.

Current and future networks are providing for integration of
voice, data and video. Client/server model placing increasing
demands on the network.

• 2000+ - Computer networks and the Internet are crucial to the

success of most every business. Wireless networks have become
commonplace. Speeds (data rates) are ever increasing.

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The Basic Network

• The basic network allows devices to share information

• The term “Computer Language” refers to Binary code (0’s
or 1’s)

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• The reason that networks were even created is so that we can
easily share information and files. Before networks, we had to use
floppy disks or other type of physical media to share files.

• Before Local Area Networks (LANs), we used mainframes from

IBM, Honeywell, DEC, and others. The first LANs used coax
connectivity but distance and amount of hosts that could be on a
network were limited.

• On a basic network, hardware addresses (MAC addresses) are

used to communicate between the hosts.

• Hosts communicate with a language referred to as binary code –

which is 0’s and 1’s.

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The Basic Internetwork

A router creates an internetwork

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• In a basic network, hosts use hardware addresses to
communicate between each host on the LAN. However, in an
internetwork, hosts use logical addresses (IP addresses) to
communicate with hosts on a different LAN (other side of the
router).

• Each connection into a router is a different logical network

(broadcast domain).

• A network is a connected collection of devices and end

systems, such as computers and servers, which can
communicate with each other. Networks carry data in many
types of environments, including homes, small businesses, and
large enterprises. Large enterprises may have various parts such
as a Main Office, Remote Locations and Branch Offices along
with Home Offices and Mobile Users.
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The three basic types of networks include:
• Local Area Network:
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is
confined to a relatively small area. It is generally limited
to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or
building. Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile
apart.
• Metropolitan Area Network:
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger
geographic areas, such as cities or school districts. By
interconnecting smaller networks within a large
geographic area, information is easily disseminated
throughout the network. Local libraries and government
agencies often use a MAN to connect to citizens and
private industries.
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• Wide Area Network:
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic
areas, such as Florida, the United States, or the world.
Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may
be used to connect this type of network.

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 Advantages of Installing a Network
• Speed. Networks provide a very rapid method for sharing and
transferring files. Without a network, files are shared by copying
them to floppy disks, then carrying or sending the disks from one
computer to another. This method of transferring files (referred to
as sneaker-net) is very time-consuming.
• Cost. Networkable versions of many popular software programs
are available at considerable savings when compared to buying
individually licensed copies. Besides monetary savings, sharing a
program on a network allows for easier upgrading of the program.
The changes have to be done only once, on the file server, instead
of on all the individual workstations.
• Security. Files and programs on a network can be designated as
"copy inhibit," so that you do not have to worry about illegal
copying of programs. Also, passwords can be established for
specific directories to restrict access to authorized users.

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• Centralized Software Management. One of the greatest benefits of
installing a network at a school is the fact that all of the software
can be loaded on one computer (the file server). This eliminates
that need to spend time and energy installing updates and tracking
files on independent computers throughout the building.
• Resource Sharing. Sharing resources is another area in which a
network exceeds stand-alone computers. Most schools cannot
afford enough laser printers, fax machines, modems, scanners,
and CD-ROM players for each computer. However, if these or
similar peripherals are added to a network, they can be shared by
many users.
• Electronic Mail. The presence of a network provides the hardware
necessary to install an e-mail system. E-mail aids in personal and
professional communication for all school personnel, and it
facilitates the dissemination of general information to the entire
school staff. Electronic mail on a LAN can enable students to
communicate with teachers and peers at their own school. If the
LAN is connected to the Internet, students can communicate with
others throughout the world.
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• Flexible Access. School networks allow students to
access their files from computers throughout the
school. Students can begin an assignment in their
classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the
network, then go to the media center after school to
finish their work. Students can also work cooperatively
through the network.
• Workgroup Computing. Workgroup software (such as
Microsoft BackOffice) allows many users to work on a
document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county
could simultaneously contribute their ideas about new
curriculum standards to the same document and
spreadsheets.

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Disadvantages of Installing Networks
• Expensive to Install. Although a network will generally save
money over time, the initial costs of installation can be prohibitive.
Cables, network cards, and software are expensive, and the
installation may require the services of a technician.
• Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network
requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools have
installed a network, only to find that they did not budget for the
necessary administrative support.
• File Server May Fail. Although a file server is no more susceptible
to failure than any other computer, when the files server "goes
down," the entire network may come to a halt. When this happens,
the entire school may lose access to necessary programs and files.

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Routing Protocols

When you have more then one router, a routing protocol is used to share
network information between the routers. Examples of routing protocols are
RIP, RIPv2, IGRP, EIGRP and OSPF.

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• Routing protocols are used to tell neighbor routers about networks
that they are directly connected to. The routers place these
networks in their routing table (map of the internetwork)

• Examples of routing protocols are RIP, RIPv2, IGRP, EIGRP and

OSPF. EIGRP is a Cisco proprietary routing protocol and is the
preferred routing protocol for most networks. You only have Cisco
routers in your internetwork, right?

• Once all the routers have converged (all have the same routing
table), then a routed protocol (typically and hopefully just IP) can
send packets through the internetwork.

• In smaller networks, you can create static routes instead of using a

routing protocol. However, EIGRP works well in small and large
networks, so why go through the hassle of static routes? (except for
maybe a default route to the Internet).
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 Internetworking Terms
• Collision Domain
– Network segment with multiple hosts in which they all share the
same bandwidth. If two hosts transmit at the same time a
collision occurs. Typically created by using hubs in the network.

• Broadcast Domain
– Boundary in which all devices see and participate in broadcasts
sent from hosts and servers. Broadcast domains created by
routers.

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• By default, switches break up collision domains. This is an Ethernet term
used to describe a network scenario wherein one particular device sends a
packet on a network segment, forcing every other device on that same
segment to pay attention to it. At the same time, a different device tries to
transmit, leading to a collision, after which both devices must retransmit,
one at a time. Not good—very inefficient! This situation is typically found
in a hub environment where each host segment connects to a hub that
represents only one collision domain and only one broadcast domain. By
contrast, each and every port on a switch represents its own collision
domain.
• Routers, by default, break up a broadcast domain, which is the set of all
devices on a network segment that hear all broadcasts sent on that
segment. Breaking up a broadcast domain is important because when a
host or server sends a network broadcast, every device on the network
must read and process that broadcast—unless you’ve got a router.
• Switches create separate collision domains, but a single broadcast domain.
Routers provide a separate broadcast domain.
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 Common Network Components
Devices used in an internetwork:

❑ PC: Computers serve as end points

❑ Interconnections: i.e. Network Interface Cards (NICs)
❑ Hub: Multiple port repeater
❑ Bridge: Segments network with hardware addresses
❑ Switch: Multiport bridge with more intelligence
❑ Router: Segments networks with logical addresses (i.e. IP)

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 Multi-Port Repeater (Hub)
• A hub is really a multiple-port repeater. A repeater receives a digital
signal and reamplifies or regenerates that signal, and then forwards
the digital signal out all active ports without looking at any data.
• An active hub does the same thing. Any digital signal received
from a segment on a hub port is regenerated or reamplified and
transmitted out all ports on the hub.
• This means all devices plugged into a hub are in the same collision
domain as well as in the same broadcast domain.

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 Transparent Bridges
• Bridges and switches read each frame as it passes through the
network. The layer-2 device then puts the source hardware address
in a filter table and keeps track of which port the frame was
received on. This information (logged in the bridge’s or switch’s
filter table) is what helps the machine determine the location of the
specific sending device.

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 Multi-Port Bridge (Switch)
• The term bridging was introduced before routers and hubs were implemented, so it’s pretty
common to hear people referring to bridges as “switches.”
• That’s because bridges and switches basically do the same thing—break up collision
domains on a LAN.
• After a filter table is built on the layer-2 device, it will only forward frames tothe segment
where the destination hardware address is located.
• If the destination device is on the same segment as the frame, the layer-2 device will block
the frame from going to any other segments.
• If the destination is on a different segment, the frame can only be transmitted to that
segment. This is called transparent bridging.

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 Router
Here are some points about routers:
• Routers, by default, will not forward any broadcast or multicast packets.
• Routers use the logical address in a Network layer header to determine the next hop
router to forward the packet to.
• Routers can use access lists, created by an administrator, to control security on the types
of packets that are allowed to enter or exit an interface.
• Routers can provide layer-2 bridging functions if needed and can simultaneously route
through the same interface.
• Layer-3 devices (routers in this case) provide connections between virtual LANs
(VLANs).
• Routers can provide quality of service (QoS) for specific types of network traffic.

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 Impact of Applications on the Network
• Batch Applications
– TFTP, FTP
– Bandwidth important but not critical
– No direct human interaction
• Interactive Applications
– Human to Machine Interaction
– Inventory Inquiries, Database Updates
• Real-Time Applications
– VoIP, Video
– Mission Critical Applications (end to end latency critical)
– Human to Human Interaction

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• When considering the interaction between the network and
applications that ran on the network, bandwidth was historically
the main concern. Batch applications such as FTP, TFTP, and
inventory updates would be initiated by a user, then run to
completion by the software with no further direct human
interaction.
• Like interactive applications, real time applications such as
VoIP and video applications involve human interaction.
Because of the amount of information that is transmitted,
bandwidth has become critical. In addition, because these
applications are time-critical, latency (delay through the
network) has become critical. Even variations in the amount of
latency can affect the network. Not only is proper bandwidth
mandatory, QoS is mandatory. VoIP and video applications
must be given the highest priority.

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 Characteristics of a Network
• Speed: Speed is a measure of how fast data is transmitted over the network.
Another term to describe speed is data rate.
• Cost: Cost indicates the general cost of components, installation, and
maintenance of the network.
• Security: Security indicates how secure the network is, including the data that is
transmitted over the network.
• Availability: Availability is a measure of the probability that the network will be
available for use when it is required.
• Scalability: Scalability indicates how well the network can accommodate more
users and data transmission requirements. If a network is designed and optimized
for just the current requirements, it can be very expensive and difficult to meet
new needs when the network grows.
• Reliability: Reliability indicates the dependability of the components (routers,
switches, PCs, and so on) that make up the network. This is often measured as a
probability of failure, or mean time between failures (MTBF).
• Topology: In networks, there are two types of topologies: the physical topology,
which is the arrangement of the cable, network devices, and end systems (PCs
and servers), and the logical topology, which is the path that the data signals take
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through the physical topology.
Hardware and Logical Addressing

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 Physical Topologies
• Bus: In early networks, computers and other network devices were
cabled together in a line using coaxial cable. Modern bus topologies
connect the host devices to the bus using twisted-pair wiring.
• Ring: Computers and other network devices are cabled together,
with the last device connected to the first to form a circle, or ring.
This category includes both ring and dual-ring topologies. The
physical connection can be made using either coaxial or fiber.
• Star: A central cabling device (i.e. switch) connects the computers
and other network devices. The physical connection is commonly
made using twisted-pair wiring. Most prevalent in today’s networks.
• Mesh: There are both full-mesh and partial mesh topologies. In a
full-mesh topology each node is connected to every other node for
redundancy.

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 Common Threats to Physical Installations
– Hardware threats: The threat of physical damage to the router or switch
hardware. Mission-critical network equipment should be located in locked room
with restricted access.
– Environmental threats: Threats such as temperature extremes (too hot or too
cold) or humidity extremes (too wet or too dry). The room should have
dependable temperature and humidity control systems. If possible, remotely
monitor and alarm the environmental parameters of the room.
– Electrical threats: Threats such as voltage spikes, insufficient supply voltage
(brownouts), unconditioned power (noise), and total power loss. Electrical supply
problems can be limited by installing uninterruptible power supply (UPS) or
backup generator.:
– Maintenance threats: Maintenance threats include poor handling of equipment
(ESD), lack of spares, poor cabling. Clearly label all equipment cabling and secure
the cabling to equipment racks to prevent accidental damage, disconnection, or
incorrect termination. Do not leave a console connected to and logged into any
console port. Always log off administrative interfaces when leaving a station.

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What should be part of a comprehensive network
security plan?

*Physically secure network equipment from potential access by

unauthorized individuals.

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 Need for Network Security

• Closed Network – No outside connectivity, networks designed

in this way can be considered safe from outside attacks.
However, internal threats still exist.

• Open Network - Corporate networks require access to the

Internet and other public networks. It is not uncommon for
corporate networks have several access points to public and
other private networks. Securing open networks is extremely
important. Open networks have not only internal threats but
external threats as well.

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 Balancing Network Security

• There is a huge challenge of balancing network security needs

against e-business needs, legal issues, and government policies.

• The overall security challenge is to find a balance between two

important needs: open networks to support evolving business
requirements and freedom-of-information initiatives, versus
protection of private, personal, and strategic business information.
 Common Attack
• Denial of Service (DoS): a flood of packets that are requesting a TCP
connection to a server
Security Appliances
• IDS

An intrusion detection system is used to detect several types of

malicious behaviors that can compromise the security and trust of a
computer system. This includes network attacks against vulnerable
services, data driven attacks on applications, host based attacks such
as privilege escalation, unauthorized logins and access to sensitive
files, and malware (viruses, trojan horses and worms).
 Security Appliances (cont.)
• IPS

An intrusion prevention system is a computer security device that

monitors network and/or system activities for malicious or
Unwanted behavior and can react, in real-time, to block or prevent
those activities. Network-based IPS, for example, will operate in-
line to monitor all network traffic for malicious code or attacks.
When an attack is detected, it can drop the offending packets while
still allowing all other traffic to pass.
The OSI Reference Model
• The OSI reference model was created in the late 1970s, and the
main reason the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) released the OSI model was so different vendor networks
could work (communicate) with each other.
• One of the greatest functions of the OSI specifications is to
assist in data transfer between disparate hosts, meaning, they
enable us to transfer data between a Unix host and a PC or a
Mac, for example.
• The OSI isn’t a physical model, though. Rather, it’s a set of
guidelines that application developers can use to create and
implement applications that run on a network.
• It also provides a framework for creating and implementing
networking standards, devices, and internetworking schemes.
ISO
ISO is the Greek term for “equal”
Advantages of using the OSI layered model include, but are not
limited to, the following:
• Allows multiple-vendor development through standardization of
network components
• Allows various types of network hardware and software to
communicate
• Prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it
does not hamper development
OSI Layer & Functions
OSI Model (Rational)
• Early network development was chaotic. The early 1980s saw
tremendous increases in the number and sizes of networks. By
the mid-1980s, companies began to experience difficulties from
all of the expansions they had made. It became more difficult for
networks using different specifications and implementations to
communicate with one another.

• To address the problem of networks being incompatible and

unable to communicate with one another, the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched different
network schemes. As a result of this research, the ISO created a
model that would help vendors create networks that would be
compatible with, and operate with, other networks, hence the
OSI reference model.
• The OSI reference model was released in 1984. It provided
vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility
and interoperability between the various types of network
technologies produced by companies around the world. The OSI
model is considered the best tool available for teaching people
about data networks.
• Sentences to help remember the layers of the OSI Reference
Model:
Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away.
Or
All People Seem To Need Data Processing.
Or
Please Do Not Teach Sales People Anything.
 Application Layer
The Application layer of the OSI model marks the spot where
Users actually communicate to the computer.

This layer is responsible for identifying and establishing the availability

Of the intended communication partner, and determining if sufficient
resources for the intended communication exist.

A vast array of protocols combine at the DoD model’s Process

/Application layer to integrate the various activities and duties
spanning the focus of the OSI’s corresponding top three layers
(Application, Presentation, and Session).
Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer gets its name from its purpose: It presents
data to the Application layer and is responsible for data translation and
Code formatting.
This layer is essentially a translator and provides coding and conversion
functions. A successful data-transfer technique is to adapt the data into a
standard format before transmission.
 Session Layer
The Session layer is responsible for setting up, managing, and then
tearing down sessions between Presentation layer entities.
This layer also provides dialogue control between devices, or nodes.
Transport Layer
• The Transport layer segments and reassembles data into a data
stream.
• Services located in the Transport layer both segment and reassemble
data from upper-layer applications and unite it onto the same data
stream.
• They provide end-to-end data transport services and can establish a
logical connection between the sending host and destination host on
an internetwork.
• Provides mechanisms for the establishment, maintenance, and
termination of virtual circuits.
• The Transport layer can use positive acknowledgement and
retransmission to ensure reliable delivery.
• Information flow control.
• The Transport Layer sends Segments between peer transport
layers.
 Network Layer
• The Network layer (also called layer 3) manages devices
addressing, tracks the location of devices on the network, and
determines the best way to move data, which means that the Network
layer must transport traffic between devices that aren’t locally attached.
• Routers (layer-3 devices) are specified at the Network layer and
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
– Device addressing
– Tracks locations of devices on the network
– Determines the best way to move data

PDU at the Network layer is called “Packet”.

The Network layer sends Packets between peer network layers.

 Data Link Layer
• The Data Link layer provides the physical transmission of the data
and handles error notification, network topology, and flow control.
• This means the Data Link layer will ensure that messages are delivered to
the proper device on a LAN using hardware addresses, and translates
messages from the Network layer into bits for the Physical layer to
transmit.
• The Data Link layer sends Frames between peer data link layers.
 IEEE Data Link Sub-Layers
The IEEE Ethernet Data Link layer has two sublayers:
Media Access Control (MAC) 802.3
This defines how packets are placed on the media. Contention media
access is “first come/first served” access where everyone shares the
same bandwidth—hence the name. Physical addressing is defined here,
as well as logical topologies.

Logical Link Control (LLC) 802.2

This sublayer is responsible for identifying Network layer protocols
and then encapsulating them. An LLC header tells the Data Link layer
what to do with a packet once a frame is received.

PDU at the Data Link layer is called “Frame”.

 MAC Address
Unique for each local area interface 48-bit addresses

Expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits

[Link]

First six hexadecimal digits contain manufacturer identification (vendor

code) also called Organizational Unique Identifier (OUI).

Manufacturer IDs administered by IEEE

Physical Layer
• Finally arriving at the bottom, we find that the Physical layer does two
things: It sends bits and receives bits. Bits come only in values of 1 or
0—a Morse code with numerical values.

• The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural

and functional specifications for:
– activating
– maintaining
– deactivating
– the physical link between end systems.

• The Physical layer sends Bits between peer physical layers.

Peer to Peer Communication
Each layer of the OSI model at the source must communicate with its
peer layer at the destination. During the protocols at each layer
exchange packets of information called protocol data units (PDUs)
between peer layers.

Bits are sent between physical layer peers.

Frames are sent between data link layer peers.
Packets are sent between transport layer peers.
Segments are sent between transport layer peers.
TCP/IP Stack TCP/IP Stack compared to OSI
The TCP/IP model is basically a condensed version of the OSI
model— it’s composed of four, instead of seven, layers:

❑Process/Application layer
❑Transport layer
❑Internet layer
❑Network Access layer

The OSI model and the TCP/IP stack were developed, by different
organizations, at approximately the same time as a means to
organize and communicate the components that guide the
transmission of data.
Data Encapsulation
Following the data stream:
Alphanumeric user input is converted to data for transmission on
the network (At the upper layers)

Data is converted to segments, which allow hosts to reliably

communicate (At the Transport Layer)

Segments are converted to packets or datagrams with a source

and destination logical address (At the Network layer)

Packets or datagrams are converted to frames for transmission

over an interface to the network (At the Data Link Layer)

Frames are converted to bits, and uses a synchronization and

clocking function (At the Physical Layer)

When going from layer 7 to layer 1, encapsulation occurs

When going from layer 1 to layer 7, de-encapsulation occurs
 Benefits of Layered Protocol Specifications
Less Complex : Layered protocol network model breaks the functions and
tasks of the networking into smaller chunks
Standard Interfaces : standard interfaces definition between the layers
enables multiple vendors to develop products on specific layers
Easier to develop : reduced complexity mean easier program changes and
faster product development
Easier to learn : easier to learn more details of a protocol specification
Multi-vendor interoperability : creating products meeting same networking
standards means, computers and network gears from different vendors can
work together
Modular engineering : vendors can concentrate on developing modular
products in specific layers
A software or a hardware device in a layer does not have to worry, or can
assume that the software and hardware devices in other layers will perform
functions defined for that layer.

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Ethernet Technologies
Ethernet is a contention media access method that allows all hosts on a network
to share the same bandwidth of a link.

Ethernet is popular because it’s readily scalable, meaning it’s

comparatively easy to integrate new technologies, like FastEthernet and
Gigabit Ethernet, into an existing network infrastructure.

It’s also relatively simple to implement in the first place, and with it,
troubleshooting is reasonably straightforward. Ethernet uses both Data
Link and Physical layer specifications
Ethernet
Physical star topology means that the network is physically connected
in the center, as shown in the hub diagram in this slide.
The logical bus means the signal must run from the beginning of a
network segment to the end, and everyone on that segment must listen
to the signal on the bus.
Switches break up these segments into smaller logical bus’s
CSMA/CD
Carrier Sense, Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

Statistical limit to the number of devices on segment

As devices increase:
• Collisions increase
• Effective bandwidth decreases (through-put)
• Increased delay
• Increased congestion
Ethernet networking uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detect
(CSMA/CD), a protocol that helps devices share the bandwidth evenly without
having two devices transmit at the same time on the network medium.

CSMA/CD was created to overcome the problem of those collisions

that occur when packets are transmitted simultaneously from different
nodes.
❑Used in Half-Duplex Ethernet networks.
❑Half-duplex is single pair for both transmit and receive.
❑If a collision does occur, the transmitting host sends an extended
jam
❑signal, which tells all hosts to stop transmitting.
❑Backoff algorithm is the retransmission delay that is enforced when
a collision occurs. This causes global synchronization which reduces
performance.
Duplex Overview
Half-duplex Ethernet is defined in the original 802.3 Ethernet and uses
only one wire pair with a digital signal running in both directions on
the wire.

It also uses the CSMA/CD protocol to help prevent collisions and to

permit retransmitting if a collision does occur.

If a hub is attached to a switch, it must operate in half-duplex mode

because the end stations must be able to detect collisions. Half-duplex
Ethernet—typically 10BaseT—is only about 30 to 40 percent efficient
as Cisco sees it, because a large 10BaseT network will usually only give
you 3- to 4Mbps—at most.
Duplex Overview(cont.)
But full-duplex Ethernet uses two pairs of wires, instead of one wire
pair like half duplex. And full duplex uses a point-to-point connection
between the transmitter of the transmitting device and the receiver of
the receiving device. This means that with full duplex data transfer, you
get a faster data transfer compared to half-duplex. And because the
transmitted data is sent on a different set of wires then the received
data, no collisions will occur—sweet!
▪ Full-Duplex is collision free
▪ Half-Duplex is subject to collisions
▪ Full-Duplex provides higher throughput than Half-Duplex
Ethernet of the same bandwidth
▪ Half-Duplex operates in a shared collision domain
▪ Full-Duplex operates in a private collision domain
 Types of Cables and Connectors Used in
Networking
• Identify and describe common types of cables
 Network Cables
• In order for communication to occur a source,
destination, and some sort of channel must be present.
• A channel, or medium, provides a path over which the
information is sent. In the networked world, the medium
is usually some sort of physical cable or
electromagnetic radiation, in the case of wireless
networking.
• There are two kinds of physical cable.
– Metal cables, usually copper, have electrical
impulses applied to them to convey information.
– Fiber optic cables, made of glass or plastic, use
flashes of light to convey information.
 Network Cables
• Twisted Pair
– Modern Ethernet technology generally uses a type of
copper cable known as twisted pair (TP) to interconnect
devices. Because Ethernet is the foundation for most local
networks, TP is the most commonly encountered type of
network cabling.
• Coaxial Cable
– Coaxial cable is usually constructed of either copper or
aluminum, and is used by cable television companies to
provide service.
• Fiber Optic
– Fiber optic cables are made of glass or plastic. They have
a very high bandwidth, which enables them to carry very
large amounts of data.
 Types of Cables and Connectors Used in
Networking
• Describe twisted pair cables, common
terminations, and when they are used
 Twisted pair cables
• Twisted pair cables consist of one or more pairs of
insulated copper wires that are twisted together and
housed in a protective jacket and uses pulses of
electricity to transmit data.
• There are three types of twisted pair cable:
• unshielded twisted pair,
• shielded twisted pair, and
• screened twisted pair.
• UTP cable is inexpensive, offers a high bandwidth,
and is easy to install, used to connect workstations,
hosts and network devices.
 Twisted pair cables
• Shielded twisted-pair (STP) and Screened twisted-pair
(ScTP), are very expensive, not as flexible, and have
additional requirements due to the shielding that make
them difficult to work with.
• Suitable for electrical environments in which EMI and
RFI are so strong that shielding is a requirement to
make communication possible.
• All Categories of data grade UTP cable are
traditionally terminated into an RJ-45 connector.
 Types of Cables and Connectors Used in
Networking
• Describe Coax cable, common terminations, and
when they are used
 Coax cable
• Coaxial cable carries data in the form of electrical
signals. It provides improved shielding compared to
UTP, so has a lower signal-to-noise ratio and can
therefore carry more data, though physically harder
to install and is more expensive
• It is often used to connect a TV set to the signal
source and used at NOCs to connect to the cable
modem termination system (CMTS) and to connect
to some high-speed interfaces.
 Types of Cables and Connectors Used in
Networking
• Describe optical fiber cables, common
terminations, and when they are used
 Optical Fiber cables
• Unlike TP and coax, fiber optic cables transmit data
using pulses of light and widely used in enterprise
environments and large data centers.
• Fiber optic cable is constructed of either glass or
plastic, neither of which conducts electricity. This
means that it is immune to EMI and is suitable for
installation in environments where interference is a
problem.
• Fiber optic cables support a large amount of bandwidth
making them ideally suited for high-speed data
backbones.
 Optical Fiber cables
• Each fiber optic circuit is actually two fiber cables. One
is used to transmit data; the other is used to receive
data.
• There are two forms of fiber optic cable: multimode and
single mode.
• Multimode
– Multimode is the less expensive and more widely
used. The light source that produces the pulses of
light is usually an LED. It is referred to as multimode
because there are multiple rays of light, each
carrying data, being transmitted through the cable
simultaneously.
 Optical Fiber cables
• Single Mode
– Single mode fiber optic cables are constructed in
such a way that light can follow only a single path
through the fiber. The light source for single mode
fiber optic cables is usually a LED laser, which is
significantly more expensive and intense than
ordinary LEDs. Due to the intensity of the LED laser,
much higher data rates and longer ranges can be
obtained.
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Define cable standards and state their purpose
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Identify and describe the cross-over and straight through cable pinouts
and color codes
 Cable pinouts and Color codes
• Twisted pair cable is most commonly used in
network installations. The TIA/EIA organization
defines two different patterns, or wiring scheme,
called T568A and T568B, where each wiring scheme
defines the pinout, or order of wire connections, on
the end of the cable.
• Using the T568A and T568B wiring standards, two
types of cables can be created: a straight-through
cable and a crossover cable.
• Straight-through Cables
– A Straight-through cable is the most common
cable type. It maps a wire to the same pins on
both ends of the cable.
RJ-45 Wiring and CAT 5 Cables

This type of Ethernet cable is used to connect:

✓Host to switch or hub
✓Router to switch or hub

Four wires are used in straight-through cable to connect Ethernet

devices. It is relatively simple to create this type of cable.
 Cable pinouts and Color codes
• Crossover Cable
– A crossover cable uses both wiring schemes.
T568A on one end of the cable and T568B on the
other end of the same cable. This means that the
order of connection on one end of the cable does
not match the order of connections on the other.
Cable pinouts
• Specific pins on the connector are associated with a
transmit function and a receive function. The transmit
pin versus the receive pin is determined based on the
device.
RJ-45 Wiring and CAT 5 Cables

This type of Ethernet cable can be used to connect:

✓Switch to switch Hub to hub
✓Host to host Switch to hub
✓Router to Router PC to Router
The same four wires are used in this cable as in the straight-through
cable, but we just connect different pins together.
 Cable pinouts and Color codes
• Two devices directly connected and using different
pins for transmit and receive are known as unlike
devices. They require a straight-through cable to
exchange data.
• Devices that are directly connected and use the
same pins for transmit and receive, are known as like
devices. They require the use of a crossover cable to
exchange data.
Console Cables

Although this type isn’t used to connect any Ethernet connections

together, you can use a rolled Ethernet cable to connect a host to a
router console serial communication (com) port.
If you have a Cisco router or switch, you would use this cable to
connect your PC running HyperTerminal to the Cisco hardware. Eight
wires are used in this cable to connect serial devices.
As you can see, Cisco console cables are rolled cables where pin 1
maps to pin 8, pin 2 maps to pin 7 and so on.
 Hubs to Switches
Five steps of a hub creating electrical bus.
1. NIC sends a frame
2. NIC loops the send frame to its receive pair internally on the
card
3. hub receives the electrical signals, interpret the signals as bits, so
that it can clean up and repeat as strong signals
4. hubs internal wiring repeats the signal to all other ports, except
the port the signals was received from
5. the hub repeats the signal to each receiver pair on all other
devices
If two NIC send frames at same time, at step 4, the electrical
signals would overlap, frames would collide, and either frames will
be completely unintelligible, or full or errors.

CSMA/CD algorithm helps prevent the collision and also defines

how to act when collision occurs, CSMA/CD algorithm work like
this;
92
• A device with a frame to send listens until Ethernet is not busy

• when the Ethernet is not busy sender(s) begin(s) sending the

frame
• the sender(s) listen(s) to make sure that no collision occurred

• if a collision occurs the devices that had been sending, each

send a jamming signal to ensure that all stations recognizes the
collision
• after the jamming is complete, each sender randomizes a timer
and waits that long before trying to resend the collided frame
when each random timer expires, the process start from step 1
Using a hub with CSMA/CD causes performance problems;
• only one device can send at a given point in time
• if a collision occurs, the sending devices waits for a randomized
time before trying to re-send the collided frame
93
For devices connected to a hub, only one device can send at any one instant in
time. As a result the devices connected to a hub share the bandwidth available
through the hub. The logic of waiting for the LAN to be silent before sending,
means that a device either send or receive at a given point in time, but not both
, and this is called half duplex.
Collision domain : defines the set of devices whose frame could collide. All
devices on a 10BASE2 and 10BASE5 network and any network using a HUB
are said to be in the same collision domain.
Hubs : A LAN device providing a centralized connection point for LAN
cabling, repeating any received electrical signals out all other ports, thereby
creating a logical bus. Hubs do not interpret the electrical signals as a frame of
bits, so Hubs are considered to be Layer 1 devices.
Switches
• Interprets the bits in the received frame, so that they can typically send the
frame out the required one port, rather than all other ports
• If the switch needs to forward multiple frame out the same port, the switch
buffers the frames in memory, sending one at a time and thereby avoiding
collision. 94
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Describe how to terminate UTP cables
 Terminate UTP cables

• UTP and STP cable is usually terminated into an

RJ-45 connector.
• The RJ-45 connector is considered a male
component, which is crimped to the end of the
cable.
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Describe how to punch down wires to patch panel
and wall jacks.
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Describe how to test cable termination and
functionality (Cable testing).
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Define Attenuation
– Attenuation, also commonly referred to as insertion loss,
is a general term that refers to the reduction in the
strength of a signal. Attenuation is a natural
consequence of signal transmission over any medium.
• Define Crosstalk
– Crosstalk is the leakage of signals between pairs. If this
is measured near the transmitting end it is termed near-
end crosstalk (NEXT). If measured at the receiving end
of the cable it is termed far-end crosstalk (FEXT).
 Construct and Terminate Twisted Pair Cables
• Describe cabling best practices