1

UNIT-4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENT

2. ALTERNATING CURRENT
ALTERNATING CURRENT AND ALTERNATING E.M.F. alternating e.m.f. varies sinusoidally with time, such an e.m.f.
is given by
A current is said to be alternating current (AC) if its
magnitude and direction vary with time. If an alternating ℰ = ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ)
current varies sinusoidally with time such a current is given
AC Circuit:
by
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ)

Where,
𝑖 = Value of current at time 𝑡,
𝑖0 = Maximum AC/peak current/current amplitude
(ω𝑡 + ϕ) = Phase of A.C.
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = = Angular frequency
𝑇
𝜙 = Initial phase at 𝑡 = 0 and 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 𝜋

Alternating current can be generated by sinusoidally varying

e.m.f. source. E.g. AC generator or AC dynamo. If an

Graphical representation of alternating current and alternating e.m.f. :

Some definitions related to alternating current or voltage: Verification of repetition of current: Let 𝑖 be the
instantaneous current.
(i) Time Period of AC:
The current and the e.m.f. repeat their values after a time 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin ω𝑡
interval T(= 2π/ω) and it constitutes a complete cycle.
After an interval T(= 2π/ω), current 𝑖′ is given by
So, this interval T is called the time period of AC.
 2

2π CHARGE SENT IN HALF CYCLE (𝒒 = 𝒊𝟎 𝐓⁄𝝅)

𝑖 ′ = 𝑖0 sin ω (𝑡 + ) = 𝑖0 sin(ω𝑡 + 2𝜋)
ω
In one complete cycle the average value of AC is zero as
⇒ 𝑖′ = 𝑖0 sin ω𝑡 = 𝑖 two halves of a sinusoidal wave of current cancel out
So, the interval T(= 2π/ω) is called the time period of each other. So, the average value of AC is taken over
half a cycle.
AC.

(ii) Frequency:
Number of cycles of AC completed in one second is called
frequency of AC. It is given by
1 1 ω
𝑓= = =
T 2π/ω 2π
The frequency of AC in India is 50 𝐻𝑧.
(iii) Phase:
Phase is a physical quantity representing both the
instantaneous value and direction of alternating current at
any instant. It is a dimensionless quantity and its unit is
An alternating current at any instant 𝑡 is given by
radian.
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin ω𝑡
If 𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙), then the argument of sin(𝜔𝑡 +
𝜙) is called its phase. Since the current is varying with respect to time, total
charge 𝑞 flown in half cycle of AC is not directly equal to the
(iv) Phase difference:
product of current and time T/2. Let a small charge
The difference between the phases of current and voltage is
𝑑𝑞 (= 𝑖 𝑑𝑡) flown in time interval 𝑡 to 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡. Total
called phase difference. If alternating voltage and current is
charge 𝑞 flown in half cycle of AC is given by
given by the relation,
T
𝑉 = 𝑉0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙1 ) 𝑞 2

and ⇒ 𝑞 = ∫ 𝑑𝑞 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
0 0
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙2 ) T
2 T/2
Then, phase difference, 𝜙 = 𝜙2 − 𝜙1 (relative to
voltage) and 𝜙 = 𝜙1 − 𝜙2 (relative to current) . ⇒ 𝑞 = ∫ 𝑖0 sin ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑖0 ∫ sin ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0 0
Is electricity supplied in our house harmful to us? In India,
cos ω𝑡 T/2
voltage and frequency of the AC supplied to our houses ⇒ 𝑞 = −𝑖0 [ ]
ω 0
are 220 𝑉 and 50 𝐻𝑧 respectively. When a person,
𝑖0 2𝜋 T
having contact with the ground, touches a live wire, =− [cos ( )
2𝜋 T 2
50 𝐻𝑧 AC passes through his body. All parts of his T
body, including his brain, start vibrating with a frequency
− cos(0)]
of 50 𝐻𝑧. Therefore, his brain stops functioning. As a
result, the body becomes paralysed in the same position. 𝑖0 T
So, electricity supplied in our house is harmful to us. ⇒𝑞=− (−1 − 1)
2𝜋
𝒊𝟎 𝐓
∴ 𝒒=
𝝅
This is the amount of charge sent in half cycle of AC.
 3

MEAN VALUE / AVERAGE VALUE OF AC

Total current ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖̅ = ⟨𝑖⟩ = =
Total time ∫ 𝑑𝑡
A sinusoidally varying current at any instant is given by
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡
Average value of the current in a half cycle is
𝑇 ⁄2
∫0 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇 ⁄2
∫0 𝑑𝑡
𝑖0 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇⁄2
[− 𝜔 ]0 Amount of charges sent by AC in time T/2 = Amount of
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = charge sent by DC in time T⁄2
𝑇⁄2
2𝑖0 2𝜋 𝑇 Charge sent in half cycle of AC is
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = − [cos − cos 0]
𝑇𝜔 𝑇 2
2𝑖0 𝑖0 T
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = − [−1 − 1] 𝑞= . . . (1)
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑇 𝑇
2𝑖0 Charge sent by DC in same period of time is
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 =
𝜋 T
Average value of the current in a complete cycle is 𝑞 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 . . . (2)
2
𝑇
∫0 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get
𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡 T 𝑖0 T
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 =
𝑖 cos 𝜔𝑡 𝑇 2 𝜋
[− 0 𝜔 ]
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0 𝟐𝒊𝟎
𝑇 ⇒ 𝒊𝒂𝒗 =
𝑖0 2𝜋 𝝅
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = − [cos 𝑇 − cos 0]
𝑇𝜔 𝑇 Thus, the average value of AC is 2/𝜋 times its peak value.
2𝑖0
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = − [1 − 1] MEAN VALUE / AVERAGE VALUE OF EMF
𝑇𝜔
⇒ 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0 Total emf ∫ ℰ 𝑑𝑡
Significance of average value of AC: ℰ𝑎𝑣 = ℰ̅ = ⟨ℰ⟩ = =
Total time ∫ 𝑑𝑡
Mean value of AC is that value of steady current which sends Average value of the emf in a half cycle is
the same amount of charge, through a conductor, in same
time as is done by AC in half its cycle. 2ℰ0
ℰ𝑎𝑣 =
𝜋
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE / EFFECTIVE VALUE /
VIRTUAL VALUE OF AC (𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝒊𝟎 ⁄√𝟐)

𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √〈𝑖 2 〉

2 ∫ 𝑖 2 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 〈𝑖 2 〉 =
∫ 𝑑𝑡
A sinusoidally varying current at any instant is given by
 4

𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin 𝜔𝑡 Heat produced by DC in T = Heat produced by AC in T

RMS value of the current in a complete cycle is Let 𝑑H be the amount of heat produced in a small interval of
time 𝑑𝑡 in a conductor of resistance R.
𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √〈𝑖2 〉 = √〈𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡〉 ⇒ 𝑑H = 𝑖 2 R𝑑𝑡 = (𝑖0 sin ω𝑡)2 R𝑑𝑡
2
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 〈𝑖2 〉 = 〈𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡〉 ⇒ 𝑑H = 𝑖02 sin2 (ω𝑡) R𝑑𝑡
𝑇 If H is the heat produced, in a complete cycle, of AC, then
2
∫0 𝑖02 sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇 H 𝑇
∫0 𝑑𝑡
⇒ ∫ 𝑑H = ∫ 𝑖02 sin2 (ω𝑡) R𝑑𝑡
𝑇
2
𝑖02 0 0
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫ sin2 𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 𝑇
0
⇒ H = 𝑖02 R ∫ sin2 (ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑇
2
𝑖02 1 − cos 2𝜔𝑡 0
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ∫( ) 𝑑𝑡 𝑇
2𝑇 2 1 − cos(2ω𝑡)
0 = 𝑖02 R ∫ 𝑑𝑡
2
2
𝑖02 sin 2𝜔𝑡 𝑇 0
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = [𝑡 − ] 𝑇
2𝑇 2𝜔 0 𝑖02 R
⇒H= ∫[1 − cos(2ω𝑡)]𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 2
𝑖02 sin 2 𝑇 𝑇 0
2
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (𝑇 − − 0)
2𝑇 2𝜔 𝑇 𝑇
𝑖02 R
⇒H= [∫ 𝑑𝑡 − ∫ cos(2ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡]
𝑖02 𝑖02 2
2 0 0
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑇=
2𝑇 2 𝑇
𝑖0 𝑖02 R sin(2ω𝑡)
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 = ⇒H= [𝑡 − ]
2 2ω
√2 0

Significance of RMS value of AC: 𝑖02 R

⇒H= [𝑇 − 0]
2
Root mean square (r.m.s.) value of alternating current is that
value of steady current which produces same heating effect, 𝑖02 RT
⇒H= . . . (1)
in a resistance, in a certain time as is produced by the 2
alternating current in same resistance in same time. Heat generated by DC of r.m.s. value of the AC is given by
2
⇒ H = 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 RT . . . (2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get

2
𝑖02 RT
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 RT =
2

2
𝑖02
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
𝑖0
⇒ 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
 5

Thus, root mean square value of alternating current is An alternating voltage may be written as
1/√2 times the peak current.
ℰ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
ROOT MEAN SQUARE VALUE OF EMF RMS value of the emf over a complete cycle is
ℰ𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √〈ℰ 2 〉 ℰ0
ℰ𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
∫ ℰ 2 𝑑𝑡 √2
2
⇒ ℰ𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 〈ℰ 2 〉 =
∫ 𝑑𝑡
 6

PHASOR DIAGRAM AND WAVE DIAGRAM ℰ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡

Phasor diagram used to represent two or more sinusoidal 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ)
quantities as vectors in a plane at any instant of time and
The phasor diagram and wave diagram of alternating e.m.f.
those vectors are called as phasors.
ℰ and alternating current 𝑖 is shown in figure.
Let us consider an alternating e.m.f. and current whose
instantaneous values are given by

⇾ Current leads the e.m.f. by a phase/an angle of ϕ. Also ⇾ Length of vectors represents value of emf and current
it can be stated as the e.m.f. lags behind the current by but they are not vector quantities.
an angle ϕ.
 7

⇾ Sinusoids of different frequencies cannot be represented ℰ = ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡) . . . (2)

on the same phasor diagram due to the different speed
Putting (2) in (1), we get
of the vectors.
ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡)
AC THROUGH INDUCTOR AND INDUCTIVE REACTANCE 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡
L
⇾ When an AC source is connected to an inductor, the By integrating both sides, we get the total current 𝑖 flown in
direction of flow of current reverses periodically causing
time 𝑡.
a continuous change of magnetic flux linked with the coil.
𝑖 𝑡
Thus, an induced e.m.f./back e.m.f. (𝑒) is produced in ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡)
the coil which offers opposition to AC. ⇒ ∫ 𝑑𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑖
L
0 0
𝑡
ℰ0 cos(ω𝑡)
=− [ ]
L ω 0

ℰ0 ℰ0 𝜋
⇒𝑖=− cos(ω𝑡) = − sin ( − ω𝑡)
ωL ωL 2
⇾ The applied e.m.f. (ℰ) and the current in a purely ℰ0 𝜋
inductive circuit does not vary linearly. ⇒𝑖= sin (ω𝑡 − )
ωL 2
According to Faraday’s second law of electromagnetic The term ωL is called the reactance of inductor or inductive
induction, reactance. It is the net opposition offered by the inductor to
the flow of AC through it. It is denoted by XL .
𝑑𝑖
⇒ 𝑒 = −L
𝑑𝑡 ℰ0 𝜋
⇒𝑖= sin (ω𝑡 − )
From Kirchhoff’s voltage law, XL 2

⇒ℰ+𝑒 =0
𝑑𝑖 Let 𝑖0 be the maximum value of AC. The current will be
⇒ℰ−L =0 maximum when the value of sine function will be maximum i.e.
𝑑𝑡
1.
𝑑𝑖
⇒ℰ=L ℰ0
𝑑𝑡 𝑖0 =
ℰ XL
⇒ 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑑𝑡 … (1)
L The instantaneous current 𝑖 at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given by
by 𝜋
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin (ω𝑡 − ) . . . (3)
2

Phasor diagram:
 8

It is clear from (2) and (3) as well as from the graph that By differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑡, we get the
the current lags behind the e.m.f. by a phase of total current 𝑖 flown in time 𝑡.
𝜋⁄2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 or the e.m.f. leads the current by a phase of
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝜋⁄2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 in a purely inductive circuit. ⇒ = (ℰ0 C sin ω𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
AC THROUGH CAPACITOR AND CAPACITIVE REACTANCE 𝑑
⇒ 𝑖 = ℰ0 C (sin ω𝑡) = ℰ0 ωC cos ω𝑡
⇾ When an AC source is connected to a capacitor, 𝑑𝑡
opposite charges starts inducing on both the plates. This ℰ0 ℰ0 𝜋
process reverses periodically. Hence the electric field in ⇒𝑖= cos ω𝑡 = sin ( + ω𝑡)
1⁄ωC 1⁄ωC 2
between the two plates varies periodically which offers
ℰ0 𝜋
opposition to AC. ⇒𝑖= sin (ω𝑡 + )
1⁄ωC 2
The term 1⁄ωC is called the reactance of capacitor or
capacitive reactance. It is the net opposition offered by the
capacitor to the flow of AC through it. It is denoted by XC .
ℰ0 𝜋
⇒𝑖= sin (ω𝑡 + )
XC 2
⇾ The applied e.m.f. (ℰ) and the current in a purely
Let 𝑖0 be the maximum value of AC. The current will be
capacitive circuit does not vary linearly.
maximum when the value of sine function will be maximum i.e.
The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given 1.
by
ℰ0 ℰ0
So, 𝑖0 = .1 =
ℰ = ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡) . . . (1) XC XC
Let 𝑞 be the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. The instantaneous current 𝑖 at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
According Kirchhoff’s voltage law, by
𝑞 𝜋
⇒ −ℰ =0 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin (ω𝑡 + ) . . . (2)
𝐶 2
⇒ 𝑞 = ℰC = ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡) C
Phasor diagram:
 9

It is clear from (1) and (2) as well as from the graph that the ℰ = ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡) . . . (1)
e.m.f. lags behind the current by a phase of 𝜋⁄2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
Let R be the value resistance of the resistor. Dividing R on
or the current leads the e.m.f. by a phase of 𝜋⁄2 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛
both sides of (2), we get
in a purely capacitive circuit.
ℰ ℰ0
Unit of capacitive reactance and inductive reactance: = sin(ω𝑡)
R R
𝑜ℎ𝑚 (Ω)
According to Ohm’s law,
AC THROUGH RESISTOR
ℰ
⇾ When a source of alternating current is applied to a ⇒ ℰ = 𝑖R ⇒ 𝑖 =
R
resistor, the flow of current is resisted due to the
collision of the free electrons with themselves and with So,
the lattice ions of the element. ℰ0
𝑖= sin(ω𝑡)
R
Let 𝑖0 be the maximum value of AC. The current will be
maximum when the value of sine function will be maximum i.e.
1
ℰ0
⇾ The applied e.m.f. (ℰ) and the current in a purely 𝑖0 =
R
resistive circuit does not vary linearly.
The instantaneous current 𝑖 at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given by
by
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(ω𝑡) . . . (2)
 10

Phasor diagram:

It is clear from (1) and (2) as well as from the graph that there is no phase difference between the e.m.f. and the current in a
purely resistive circuit.
IMPEDANCE (𝐙) CURRENT IN A SERIES L-R CIRCUIT (VECTOR METHOD)
When the circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a
capacitor is connected to a DC source, then according to
Ohm’s law the ratio of voltage and current is equal to the
resistance offered by the resistor.
But when the same circuit is connected to a source of
alternating current, then the ratio of voltage and current
depends upon the net effective opposition offered by all the
The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
circuit elements, called impedance (𝒁).
by

ℰ = ℰ0 sin𝜔𝑡
Phasor diagram for a series LR-circuit:

The current and the e.m.f. in the AC circuit can be written as

ℰ
Z=
𝑖
Unit of impedance: 𝑜ℎ𝑚 (Ω)
ADMITTANCE (𝐘) Let 𝑖 be the current through the series circuit at any instant.
Admittance of an AC circuit is the reciprocal of its Then
impedance. It is denoted by Y. Voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 across the resistance 𝑅 will be in phase
with current 𝑖. The amplitude of 𝑉𝑅 is
Unit of admittance: 𝑚ℎ𝑜 or 𝑜ℎ𝑚−1
(𝑉0 )𝑅 = 𝑖0 𝑅
 11

Voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑖𝑋𝐿 across the inductance 𝐿 is ahead of

current 𝑖 in phase by 𝜋/2 rad. Its amplitude is

(𝑉0 )𝐿 = 𝑖0 𝑋𝐿
where 𝑋𝐿 is the inductive reactance.

By parallelogram law of vector addition,

The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
ℰ02 = (𝑉0 )2𝑅 + (𝑉0 )2𝐿 = (𝑖0 𝑅)2 + (𝑖0 𝑋𝐿 )2 by
⇒ ℰ02 = 𝑖02 (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 ) ℰ = ℰ0 sin𝜔𝑡
ℰ0
⇒ 𝑖0 = Phasor diagram for a series CR-circuit:
√𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2
Let 𝑖 be the current through the series circuit at any instant.
Clearly, √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 is the effective resistance of the series Then
LR-circuit, called its impedance. Thus
Voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 across the resistance 𝑅 will be in phase
with current 𝑖. The amplitude of 𝑉𝑅 is
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐿2 = √𝑅 2 + 𝜔 2 𝐿2
(𝑉0 )𝑅 = 𝑖0 𝑅
The phase angle 𝜙 between the resultant voltage and
current is given by
(𝑉0 )𝐿 𝑖0 𝑋𝐿 𝑋𝐿 𝜔𝐿
tan 𝜙 = = = =
(𝑉0 )𝑅 𝑖0 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Impedance triangle:

Voltage 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖𝑋𝐶 across the capacitance 𝐶 lags behind

the current 𝑖 in phase by 𝜋/2 rad. Its amplitude is

It is obvious from the phasor diagram that the current lags (𝑉0 )𝐿 = 𝑖0 𝑋𝐿
behind the emf by phase angle 𝜙, so the instantaneous value where 𝑋𝐶 is the capacitive reactance.
of current is given by
By parallelogram law of vector addition,
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
ℰ02 = (𝑉0 )2𝑅 + (𝑉0 )2𝐶 = (𝑖0 𝑅)2 + (𝑖0 𝑋𝐶 )2
ℰ0
⇒𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
2 ⇒ ℰ02 = 𝑖02 (𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2 )
√𝑅 2 + ( 1 )
𝜔𝐶 ℰ0
⇒ 𝑖0 =
CURRENT IN A SERIES C-R CIRCUIT (VECTOR METHOD) √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2

Clearly, √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2 is the effective resistance of the series

CR-circuit, called its impedance. Thus

1
𝑍 = √𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2 = √𝑅 2 + ( 2 2 )
𝜔 𝐶
 12

The phase angle 𝜙 between the resultant voltage and Voltage 𝑉𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅 across the resistance 𝑅 will be in phase
current is given by with current 𝑖. The amplitude of 𝑉𝑅 is
(𝑉0 )𝐶 𝑖0 𝑋𝐶 𝑋𝐶 1/𝜔𝐶 (𝑉0 )𝑅 = 𝑖0 𝑅
tan 𝜙 = = = =
(𝑉0 )𝑅 𝑖0 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Voltage 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑖𝑋𝐶 across the capacitance 𝐶 lags behind
Impedance triangle: the current 𝑖 in phase by 𝜋/2 rad. Its amplitude is

(𝑉0 )𝐿 = 𝑖0 𝑋𝐿
where 𝑋𝐶 is the capacitive reactance.
Voltage 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑖𝑋𝐿 across the inductance 𝐿 is ahead of
current 𝑖 in phase by 𝜋/2 rad. Its amplitude is

It is obvious from the phasor diagram that the current leads (𝑉0 )𝐿 = 𝑖0 𝑋𝐿
the emf by phase angle 𝜙, so the instantaneous value of where 𝑋𝐿 is the inductive reactance.
current is given by
As 𝑉𝐿 and 𝑉𝐶 are in opposite directions, their resultant of
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑉𝑅 and (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶 ) must be equal to the applied emf ℰ0 .
ℰ0
⇒𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) By parallelogram law of vector addition,
2
√𝑅 2 + ( 1 )
𝜔𝐶 ℰ02 = (𝑉0 )2𝑅 + ((𝑉0 )𝐿 − (V0 )𝐶 )2
CURRENT IN A SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT (VECTOR ⇒ ℰ02 = (𝑖0 𝑅)2 + ((𝑖0 𝑋𝐿 )2 − (𝑖0 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
METHOD)
⇒ ℰ02 = 𝑖02 (𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )
ℰ0
⇒ 𝑖0 =
√𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2

The impedance of the circuit is given by

1 2
𝑍= √𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 = √𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶
The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
by The phase angle 𝜙 between the resultant voltage and
ℰ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 current is given by
(𝑉0 )𝐿 − (V0 )𝐶 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
Phasor diagram for a series LCR-circuit when 𝑉𝐿 > 𝑉𝐶 : tan 𝜙 = =
(𝑉0 )𝑅 𝑅
Impedance triangle:
 13

It is obvious from the phasor diagram that the current lags 3. If 𝑋𝐶 = 𝑋𝐿 , the current and the emf are in same
behind the emf by phase angle 𝜙, so the instantaneous value phase. The circuit behaves as a purely resistive circuit.
of current is given by
𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
ℰ0
⇒𝑖= sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜙)
2
√𝑅 2 + (𝜔𝐿 − 1 )
𝜔𝐶

CURRENT IN A SERIES L-C-R CIRCUIT (ANALYTICAL

METHOD)

Special Cases:
1. If 𝑋𝐶 < 𝑋𝐿 , the current lags behind the emf by phase
𝜙. The instantaneous e.m.f. ℰ at any instant of time 𝑡 is given
by
ℰ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
According Kirchhoff’s voltage law,
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
⇒ℰ−L − − R𝑖 = 0
𝑑𝑡 C
𝑑𝑖 𝑞
⇒L + R𝑖 + = ℰ . . . (1)
𝑑𝑡 C
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑖 𝑑 2 𝑞
2. If 𝑋𝐶 > 𝑋𝐿 or 𝑉𝐶 > 𝑉𝐿 , the current leads the emf by Now, 𝑖 = , =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
phase 𝜙.
Equation (1) becomes
𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
⇒L 2
+R +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 C
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 . . . (2)
 14

In order to solve the equation (2), we have to assume a ⇒ 𝑞0 ωZ[cos(ω𝑡 + θ) cos ϕ

solution given by, + sin(ω𝑡 + θ) sin ϕ]
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
𝑞 = 𝑞-0 sin(ω𝑡 + θ)
⇒ 𝑞0 ωZ cos(ω𝑡 + θ − ϕ) = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
𝑑𝑞
= ω𝑞 0 cos(ω𝑡 + θ) 𝜋
𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑞0 ωZ sin [ + (ω𝑡 + θ − ϕ)] = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
2
𝑑2𝑞
= −ω2 𝑞 0 sin(ω𝑡 + θ) 𝜋
𝑑𝑡 2 ⇒ 𝑞0 ωZ sin [ω𝑡 + ( + θ − ϕ)]
2
Putting the above values in (2), we get = ℰ0 sin(ω𝑡 + 0)

⇒ −ω2 𝑞 0 L sin(ω𝑡 + θ) + ω𝑞 0 R cos(ω𝑡 + θ) Comparing both sides of the equation, we get

𝑞-0 sin(ω𝑡 + θ) 𝜋
+ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 𝑞0 ωZ = ℰ0 and +θ−ϕ=0
C 2
𝑞-0 𝜔
⇒ ω𝑞 0 R cos(ω𝑡 + θ) + ℰ0
C 𝜔 𝑞0 ω = = 𝑖0
Z
− ω2 𝑞 0 L sin(ω𝑡 + θ)
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 Current in the circuit at the same instant of time 𝑡 is

⇒ ω𝑞 0 R cos(ω𝑡 + θ) 𝑑𝑞 𝑑(𝑞-0 sin(ω𝑡 + θ))

𝑞-0 𝜔 ⇒𝑖= =
+( − ω2 𝑞 0 L) sin(ω𝑡 + θ) 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ωC = 𝑞0 ω cos(ω𝑡 + θ)
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖0 cos(ω𝑡 + θ)
⇒ ω𝑞 0 R cos(ω𝑡 + θ)
𝜋 𝜋
1 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖0 cos (ω𝑡 + ϕ − ) [∵ θ = ϕ − ]
+ 𝑞0 ω ( − ωL) sin(ω𝑡 + θ) 2 2
ωC
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 𝜋
⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖0 cos [ − (ω𝑡 + ϕ)]
2
⇒ 𝑞0 ω [R cos(ω𝑡 + θ) ∴ 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ) . . . (4)
1
+( − ωL) sin(ω𝑡 + θ)]
ωC
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
R
⇒ 𝑞0 ωZ [ cos(ω𝑡 + θ)
Z
Impedance:
(XC − XL )
+ sin(ω𝑡 + θ)]
Z Squaring and adding (3a) and (3b), we get
= ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 . . . (3)
R2 (XC − XL )2
⇒ cos2 ϕ + sin2 ϕ = +
Suppose Z2 Z2
R ⇒ Z 2 = R2 + (XC − XL )2
= cos ϕ . . . (3𝑎)
Z
∴ 𝐙 = √𝐑𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
(XC − XL )
and = sin ϕ . . . (3𝑏) 𝟏 𝟐
Z = √𝐑𝟐 + ( − 𝛚𝐋)
𝛚𝐂
Equation (3) becomes
Phase factor:
 15

(XC − XL ) frequency changes. The receiver antenna is exposed to all the

sin ϕ Z
⇒ = signals (electromagnetic waves) in the surrounding which
cos ϕ R induce voltages at different frequencies in the inductor of
Z
LCR circuit. When the frequency of the transmitted signals
(𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 ) from the station matches with the resonant frequency, the
∴ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛟 =
𝐑 antenna receives the signal and drives a current in the tuning
CONDITION OF RESONANCE OF A SERIES LCR CIRCUIT circuit and hence the tuning is complete.

A series LCR-circuit is said to be in the resonance condition E.g. Suppose we set the resonant frequency at 92.7 𝑀𝐻𝑧
when the current through it has its maximum value. by changing the nob of capacitor. The induced voltage in the
antenna corresponding to the signal of frequency at
In an L-C-R circuit 𝑋𝐿 and 𝑋𝐶 varies as 𝜔 of AC varies and 92.7 𝑀𝐻𝑧 will drive maximum current in the circuit and
hence the peak current also varies. The value of peak we are able to listen the contents from that signal.
current is given by
SHARPNESS OF RESONANCE: Q-FACTOR
ℰ0
𝑖0 = Current v/s Frequency Graph:
√R2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
The value of peak current is maximum when 𝑋𝐿 = 𝑋𝐶 . This Graph shows variation in the peak current 𝑖0 with the
is called the condition of resonance. applied frequency 𝑓 of the AC source in two different
circuits.
ℰ0
(𝑖0 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
R
Resonant frequency:
This is the frequency at which the circuit will achieve
resonance condition.
At resonance condition

1 1 1
⇒ = ω0 L ⇒ ω20 = ⇒ ω0 = √
ω0 C LC LC
⇾ Peak current of the circuit is maximum if the frequency
The corresponding frequency is of the applied AC is close to the resonant frequency 𝑓0 .

𝛚𝟎 𝟏 𝟏 In a series LCR circuit, peak current of the circuit is

𝒇𝟎 = = √
𝟐𝝅 𝟐𝝅 𝐋𝐂 maximum if XL = XC and R is minimum i.e. resonant circuit.
The resonant frequency is independent of 𝑅, but the
This frequency is known as the resonant frequency of the sharpness of peak depends on 𝑅. The peak is higher for
given circuit. smaller values of 𝑅. Thus, the resonance is sharp for small 𝑅
The series resonant circuit is also called an acceptor circuit. and a flat one for large 𝑅. The sharpness of resonance is
When a number of frequencies are fed to it, it accepts only measured by a coefficient called the quality or Q-factor of
the circuit.
one frequency 𝑓0 and rejects the other frequencies. The
current is maximum for this frequency. QUALITY FACTOR:
Radio Tuning:
The L-C-R resonant circuit is used as tuning circuit in radio
or television. When we ‘tune’ a radio, we change the
capacitance of the tuning circuit and hence the resonant
 16

capacitor. So, a current 𝑖 = 𝑖0 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ) flows in the

circuit. The work done by the source during the time interval
𝑡 to 𝑡 + 𝑑𝑡 is
𝑑W = ℰ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ℰ0 𝑖0 sin ω𝑡 sin(ω𝑡 + ϕ) 𝑑𝑡
𝑑W = ℰ0 𝑖0 (sin2 ω𝑡 cos ϕ
+ sin ω𝑡 cos ω𝑡 sin ϕ)𝑑𝑡
The work done in a complete cycle is
T

W = ℰ0 𝑖0 cos ϕ ∫ sin2 ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0
T
Q-factor of a circuit or sharpness of resonance is defined as
the ratio between resonant frequency to the band width of + ℰ0 𝑖0 sin ϕ ∫ sin ω𝑡 cos ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
the circuit. 0
T
Resonant frequency 𝒇𝟎 1
𝑸= = ⇒ W = ℰ0 𝑖0 cos ϕ ∫(1 − cos 2ω𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Band width ∆𝒇 2
0
T
Let 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 be the two values of frequencies for which the 1
current in the circuit is 𝑖0 /√2, where 𝑖0 is the current at + ℰ0 𝑖0 sin ϕ ∫ sin 2ω𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2
resonant frequency 𝑓0 . 0

1
Band width; ∆𝑓 = 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 = R⁄L ⇒W= ℰ 𝑖 cos ϕ T
2 00
𝑓0 𝑓0 1 sin 2ω𝑡 T
∴ Q= = − ℰ0 𝑖0 cos ϕ [ ]
∆𝑓 𝑓2 − 𝑓1 2 2ω 0
Q-factor is also defined as the ratio of the voltage drop 1 cos 2ω𝑡 T
− ℰ0 𝑖0 sin ϕ [ ]
across the inductor or capacitor at resonance to the voltage 2 2ω 0
drop across resistance which is equal to the applied voltage. 1
⇒W= ℰ 𝑖 cos ϕ T
𝑖 1 2 00
( 0 ) ω0 L L 2𝜋
VL √2 ω0 L √LC 1 sin 2 T T
Q= = = = − ℰ0 𝑖0 cos ϕ [
ℰ 𝑖 R R
( 0 )R 2 2(2𝜋/T)
√2
2𝜋
sin 2 T 0
1 L − ]
⇒Q= √ 2(2𝜋/T)
R C
2𝜋
1 cos 2 T T
𝐕𝐋 𝛚𝟎 𝐋 𝟏 𝐋 − ℰ0 𝑖0 sin ϕ [
∴𝐐= = = √ 2 2𝜋
2( T )
𝓔 𝐑 𝐑 𝐂
2𝜋
cos 2 T 0
POWER IN AC CIRCUIT − ]
2𝜋
2( T )
The rate at which electric energy is consumed in an electric
circuit is called its power. 1
⇒W= ℰ 𝑖 cos ϕ T
Suppose an e.m.f. ℰ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡 is applied to an AC 2 00
circuit which may contain a resistor, an inductor and a The average power delivered by the source is
 17

W 1 ℰ0 𝑖0 the voltage and current differ by a phase angle of (𝜋⁄2),

𝑃= = ℰ0 𝑖0 cos ϕ = cos ϕ
T 2 √2 √2 i.e., 𝜙 = ± 𝜋⁄2, so that
⇒ 𝑷 = 𝓔𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛟 𝜋
𝑃av = ℰrms 𝐼rms cos (± ) = 0
2
The term cos ϕ is called the power factor of the circuit.
Thus, the current in the circuit has no power. It flows
For a purely resistive circuit (resonant circuit), ϕ = 0 so sometimes along the voltage and sometimes against the
that cos ϕ = 1 and voltage, so that the net work done per cycle is zero.
𝓔𝟐𝒓𝒎𝒔 L-C OSCILLATIONS
𝐏 = 𝓔𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒊𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝑹
If the resistance R in an L-C-R circuit is zero (which is
For purely reactive circuits (no resistance, only capacitance practically not possible), the peak current at resonance is
and/or inductance), ϕ = 𝜋⁄2 or ϕ = − 𝜋⁄2. In these
ℰ0
cases, cos ϕ = 0 and hence no power is absorbed in such 𝑖0 =
circuits. zero
It means current suddenly increases to a very large value
WATTLESS CURRENT
(∞) and immediately decreases to zero.
The current in an a.c. circuit is said to be wattless if the
But according to Lenz’s law, an opposing e.m.f. is set up in
average power consumed in the circuit is zero.
the inductor which opposes the sudden increase and decrease
The average power of an a.c. circuit is given by of the current in the circuit. This is the case when a charged
capacitor is connected to a pure inductor. There is current in
𝑃av = ℰrms 𝐼rms cos𝜙
the circuit at frequency 𝑓 = (1⁄2𝜋)√1⁄LC.
The capacitor gets discharged by sending a current in the
inductor and induced e.m.f. in the inductor charges the
capacitor again. It means the charge acquired by the
capacitor oscillates in the closed circuit. Thus, the energy
oscillates between electric field energy in the capacitor and
magnetic field energy in the inductor. This phenomenon is
called L-C oscillations.

Figure shows the phase angle 𝜙 between ℰrms and 𝐼rms . The
current 𝐼rms can be resolved into two components:
(i) Component 𝐼rms cos𝜙 along ℰrms . As the phase angle
between 𝐼rms cos𝜙 and ℰrms is zero, therefore
𝑃av = ℰrms (𝐼rms cos𝜙)cos0 = ℰrms 𝐼rms cos𝜙
(ii) Component 𝐼rms sin𝜙 normal to ℰrms . As the phase
𝜋
angle between 𝐼rms sin𝜙 and ℰrms is 2 , therefore
𝜋
𝑃av = ℰrms (𝐼rms sin𝜙)cos =0
2
The component 𝑰rms 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝝓 as the idle or wattless current
because it does not consume any power in an a.c. circuit. This
happens in a purely inductive or capacitive circuit in which
 18

Various stages of oscillations in the LC circuit are shown below:

 19

If the L-C circuit has a negligible resistance, there is

negligible dissipation of energy. So, the amplitude of
oscillations of charge in the closed circuit is constant. These
oscillations are called undamped oscillations.

Why the iron core is laminated? The magnetic field in the

If the L-C circuit has comparable resistance, there is a core is of varying nature. So, eddy current flows through the
continuous loss of energy resulting in a continuous decrease virtual boundary of each possible area of cross-sections of
of amplitude of oscillations of charge. These oscillations are the core. Due to the flow of current in the core as well as the
called damped oscillations. own resistance of the core, it dissipates some energy in the
form of heat. If the amount of heat dissipation is high, it may
TRANSFORMER melt the insulation of the coils. This may cause short-circuit
A transformer is an electrical device for converting an in the transformer. Thus, the iron core is laminated.
alternating current at low voltage into that at high voltage
Working. As the alternating current flows through the
or vice versa. If it increases the input voltage, it is called step
primary, it generates an alternating magnetic flux in the core
up transformer and if it decreases the input voltage, it is
which also passes through the secondary. This changing flux
called step down transformer.
sets up an induced emf in the secondary, also a self-induced
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction. i.e., emf in the primary. If there is no leakage of magnetic flux,
when a changing current is passed through one of the two then flux linked with each turn of the primary will be equal to
inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is set up in the other that linked with each turn of the secondary.
coil.
Theory: Let’s consider the situation when no load is
Construction: A transformer essentially consists of two coils connected to the secondary, i.e., its terminals are open. Let
of insulated copper wire having different number of turns 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 be the number of turns in the primary and
and wound on the same soft iron core. The coil to which secondary respectively. Then
electric energy is supplied is called the primary and the coil
𝑑𝜙
from which energy is drawn or output is obtained is called Induced emf in the primary coil, ℰ1 = −𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
the secondary. To prevent energy losses due to eddy
currents, a laminated core is used. Because of high 𝑑𝜙
Induced emf in the secondary coil, ℰ2 = −𝑁2
permeability of soft iron, the entire magnetic flux due to the 𝑑𝑡
current in the primary coil practically remains in the iron where 𝜙 is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the
core and hence passes fully through the secondary. primary or secondary at any instant. Thus
ℰ2 𝑁2
=
ℰ1 𝑁1
Let ℰ be the emf applied to the primary. By Lenz’s law, self-
induced emf ℰ1 opposes ℰ in the primary coil.
∴ Resultant emf in the primary = ℰ − ℰ1
 20

This emf sends current 𝐼1 through the primary coil of Losses In Transformer
resistance 𝑅.
1. Copper loss. Some energy is lost due to heating of
∴ ℰ − ℰ1 = 𝑅𝐼1 copper wires used in the primary and secondary
But 𝑅 is very small, so the term 𝑅𝐼1 can be neglected. windings. This power loss (= i2 R) can be minimised by
using thick copper wires of low resistance.
∴ ℰ ≈ ℰ1 2. Eddy current loss/Iron loss. The alternating magnetic
flux induces eddy currents in the iron core which leads
Thus ℰ1 may be regarded as input emf and ℰ2 as the output
emf. to some energy loss in the form of heat. This loss can be
reduced by using laminated iron core.
ℰ2 Output emf 𝑁2 3. Hysteresis loss. The alternating current carries the iron
= =
ℰ1 Input emf 𝑁1 core through cycles of magnetisation and
demagnetisation. Work is done in each of these cycles
The ratio 𝑁2 /𝑁1 of the number of turns in the secondary
to that in the primary is called the turns ratio of the and is lost as heat. This is called hysteresis loss and can
transformer. It is also called the transformation ratio. be minimised by using core material having narrow
hysteresis loop.
⇾ In a step-up transformer, 𝑁2 > 𝑁1, i.e., the turns 4. Flux leakage. The magnetic flux produced by the
ratio is greater than 1 and therefore ℰ2 > ℰ1 . The primary may not fully pass through the secondary. Some
output voltage is greater than the input voltage. of the flux may leak into air. This loss can be minimised
⇾ In a step-down transformer, 𝑁2 < 𝑁1 , i.e., the turns by winding the primary and secondary coils over one
ratio is less than 1 and therefore ℰ2 < ℰ1. The output
another.
voltage is less than the input voltage.
5. Humming loss. As the transformer works, its core
Currents in primary and secondary lengthens and shortens during each cycle of the
alternating voltage due to a phenomenon called
Assuming the transformer to be ideal so that there are no magnetostriction. This gives rise to a humming sound.
energy losses, then So, some of the electrical energy is lost in the form of
Input power = Output power ⇒ ℰ1 𝐼1 = ℰ2 𝐼2 humming sound.

where 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 are the currents in the primary and Efficiency of Transformer
secondary, respectively.
The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio of
𝐼1 ℰ2 𝑁2 useful output power to the input power. It is denoted by η.
∴ = =
𝐼2 ℰ1 𝑁1
output power output power
Thus, a step-up transformer increases the voltage but η= =
input power output power+losses
decreases the current in exactly the same ratio. Similarly, a
step-down transformer decreases the voltage but increases DYNAMO OR GENERATOR
the current in exactly the same ratio.
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy.

How mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy?

In hydro-electric projects, mechanical energy is obtained by
making water to fall from a height. The potential energy of
water gets converted into kinetic energy. Water is allowed to
fall on a big toothed wheel, called turbines, to turn. A coil,
placed in between the two magnetic poles, is coupled to the
axles of this wheel. As the coil rotates, an e.m.f. is generated
in it.
 21

There are two types of dynamo: AC dynamo, DC dynamo position. In time 𝑡, the coil rotates through an angle θ =
ω𝑡. The flux through each turn of the coil at this time 𝑡 is
AC DYNAMO OR AC GENERATOR
ϕ = BA cos ω𝑡
An AC dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy and it supplies alternating current in the circuit Using Faraday’s law, the e.m.f. induced in each turn of the
connected to it. coil is
Principle: AC dynamo is based on the principles of 𝑑ϕ 𝑑
− = − (BA cos ω𝑡) = −(−BA sin ω𝑡)
electromagnetic induction, i.e. whenever magnetic flux linked 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
with a circuit changes, an e.m.f. is induced in it. = BA sin ω𝑡

Construction: A simplified diagram of an AC dynamo is Total e.m.f. induced in the coil is

shown in figure. It consists of three main parts: a magnet, an 𝑑ϕ
armature with slip rings and brushes. ℰ = −𝑛 = 𝑛BA sin ω𝑡
𝑑𝑡
⇒ ℰ = ℰ0 sin ω𝑡
This e.m.f. drives an alternating current in the load circuit.
Gensets (Generators), which are used in houses at the time
of power failure, at marriage functions, at public meetings
where regular electric supply is not available etc., works on
this principle. Here a diesel or a petrol engine drives the
armature.
ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS OF A.C. OVER D.C.
(a) Advantages of a.c. over d.c. are:

(i) Magnet. It may be a permanent magnet or an (i) Alternating current can be transmitted over long
electromagnet. The poles of the magnet face each other so distances using step up transformers. The loss of energy
that a strong uniform magnetic field ⃗B is produced between is negligible. Direct current cannot be transmitted as
the poles. such.
(ii) The a.c. voltages can be easily varied using
(ii) Armature. It is, generally, a copper coil wound over a soft transformers.
iron core. The core increases the magnetic field due to its (iii) The a.c. can be easily converted into d.c.
magnetization. The two ends of the coil are connected to two (iv) The magnitude of a.c. can be reduced using a choke coil,
slip rings C1 and C2 . The armature is capable of rotation in without involving loss of energy.
between the two pole pieces of the magnet. (v) The a.c. is easier and cheaper to generate than d.c. The
(iii) Brushes. Two graphite brushes B1 and B2 permanently a.c. generators are usually more robust and their
touch the slip rings C1 and C2 so that the contact is efficiency is high.
maintained all the time. These brushes are connected to an (b) Drawbacks of a.c. are:
external load R.
(i) It is more dangerous to work with a.c. at high voltages.
Working: Suppose the area of the coil is A, it contains 𝑛 The moment the insulation is faulty, one gets a severe
turns and it is rotated with the help of the handle at a shock.
constant angular velocity ω. Suppose the plane of the coil is (ii) The shock of a.c. is attractive, whereas that of d.c. is
perpendicular to the magnetic field at 𝑡 = 0. The total repulsive.
magnetic flux through each turn of the coil is BA in this
 22

(iii) There are certain phenomena like electroplating,

electrorefining, electrotyping etc. where a.c. cannot be
used. In such cases, d.c. is needed.
(iv) The a.c. is transmitted more from the surface of
conductor than from inside. Therefore, several fine
insulated wires (and not a single thick wire) are
required for the transmission of a.c.