Basic of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

NOTE: This Notes will help you to go through the recommended book(s) I have
mentioned in class as per the topics given in BATU Curriculum 2024-25.

Module 1: - (Book 1: Anurag Kandya, ―Elements of Civil Engineering , Charotar

Publishing,Anand; and Book 2: Sushil Kumar, ―Building Construction , Standard
PublishersDistributors). I will refer the Book 1 as BCM1 and Book 2 as BCM3 as given
in BATU Curriculum 2024-25.

 Revise the engineering materials (Chapter 2 in BCM1).

 Please go through the Important Definitions and Values/Formulae in the chapters.
 Practice the Questions at the end of the chapters.
1. Various Branches in Civil Engineering-
i. Construction and Management Engineering
ii. Geotechnical and Foundation Engineering
iii. Structural and Design Engineering
iv. Transportation Engineering
v. Water Resource and Irrigation Engineering
vi. Fluid Mechanics
vii. Surveying and Levelling
viii. Environmental Engineering
ix. Estimating and Costing

Please refer to the BCM1 Chapter 1 (1.1, 1.2 and 1.4)

2. Role of civil engineer in various construction activities-

a. Definition of Civil Engineer: A civil engineer is a person who practices civil
engineering – the application of planning, designing, constructing, maintaining,
and operating infrastructure while protecting the public and environmental
health, as well as improving existing infrastructure that may have been
neglected.
b. Role of a Civil Engineer: Please refer to the BCM1 Chapter 1 (1.6).
3. Basic engineering properties and uses of materials: – Please refer to the types (if
present), properties and uses of materials in these chapters.
i. Earth: -

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 a) Earth or Mud is the oldest building material in the world.
b) Mud construction is less energy intensive and effective in the climatic
conditions.
c) It is cheap, available everywhere and the usage if technology is less.
d) The Great Wall of China has sections in it which are made of rammed
earth.
e) Approximately 58% of the houses in India are still made of mud
f) Mud is a tried and a tested building material for thousands of years.
g) Mud - Self-air conditioning material.
h) Durable in the localised area.
i) There are limitations of mud constructions – height of the building,
architecture of the building, etc.
ii. Bricks: -

Please refer to BCM1 (Chapters 7 and 17) and BCM3 (Chapter 9)

iii. Timber: -

Please refer to BCM1 (Chapter 4)

iv. Stones: -

Please refer to BCM1 (Chapter 6)

v. Sand: -
a) Sand is a naturally occurring granular material comprising finicky
divided minerals.
b) Sand is primarily made up of silicon and oxygen, which combine to
form silicon dioxide (SiO2). The most common form of silicon
dioxide is quartz, a hard, chemically inert mineral. Other elements in
smaller quantities can also be present in sand such as aluminium,
calcium, potassium, sodium, magnesium, titanium, and iron.
c) Sand is defined by its grain size. Sieve Analysis is done to differentiate
between the types of sand.
d) Sand used in construction is divided into different types depending
upon the grain size. According to the Indian Standards (IS)
classification system, fine sand has a grain diameter ranging from

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 0.075 mm to 0.425 mm. The IS classification for grain size distribution
is as follows:
1. Fine sand: 0.075 mm < d < 0.425 mm
2. Medium sand: 0.425 mm < d < 2 mm
3. Coarse sand: 2 mm < d < 4.75 mm
e) Sand is used to make concrete for constructions of buildings, bridges,
etc.
f) Sand is used as a filler material to fill voids created by the coarse
aggregate to have a dense body of concrete.
g) Sand can be used as a road base, a protective layer underneath all
roads.
h) Apart from the construction industry, sand is also used in water
filtration systems, for example, slow sand filters and rapid sand filters.
vi. Aggregates: -
a) Aggregates are mineral materials used in construction to make
concrete, asphalt, and other materials.
b) The IS 383: 2016 code specifies the requirements for coarse and fine
aggregates used in concrete. This code classifies aggregates into three
types:
1. Fine aggregate: Aggregates that pass through a 4.75 mm mesh.
Sand, crushed stone, ash or cinder, and surkhi are some examples
of fine aggregates.
2. Coarse aggregate: Aggregates that do not pass through a 4.75
mm mesh. Coarse aggregates have a higher density than fine
aggregates, typically ranging from 1500 to 1700 kg/m³.
3. All-in aggregate: A mix of coarse and fine aggregates.
c) They have many engineering properties that affect the strength,
durability, and workability of the materials they're used in:
1. Composition - Aggregates must be tested to ensure they don't
react with cement or weaken concrete.
2. Size and shape - Larger aggregates are used when possible, and
the shape of the aggregate can affect how it flows and how strong
the concrete is.

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3. Surface texture - The texture of the aggregate can affect the skid
resistance of asphalt and the appearance of the final structure.
4. Crushing value, Impact value, and Abrasion value - These values
indicate how strong the aggregate is under load.
a. As per IS:383 (1970), the maximum limit of aggregate
Crushing value for aggregates used in concrete other than
wearing surfaces should be 45% by weight.
b. The code for the impact value of aggregate is IS: 2386
(Part IV) - 1963. The impact value of aggregate measures
how well the aggregate resists sudden shock loads or
impacts. The impact value of aggregate for concrete used
for wearing surfaces, such as roads, runways, and
pavements, should not exceed 30% by weight. For
concrete used for other purposes, the impact value should
not exceed 45% by weight.
c. The Indian Standard (IS) code for the abrasion test of
aggregate is IS 2386 (Part IV): 1963. This code covers
the mechanical properties of aggregates for concrete,
including the Los Angeles test. The Los Angeles abrasion
test is a common method for measuring the abrasion
resistance and toughness of aggregates. The test involves
mixing aggregates with steel balls and rotating them in a
drum to simulate abrasive action. The percentage of wear
is calculated based on the amount of material that passes
through a 1.7 mm sieve after the test.
5. Aggregates are used in many ways, including:
a. Concrete: Aggregates provide a rigid structure and
reduce the space taken up by the cement paste.
b. Asphalt: Aggregates can increase the skid resistance of
asphalt.
c. Roads: Aggregates are used in roads, pavements, airport
runways, and more.
d. Water filtration and sewage treatment: Aggregates are
used in these processes.
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 e. Railway ballast: Aggregates are used in railway ballast.

Please refer to BCM1 (Chapter 11 section 11.2.i) and BCM3 (Chapter

22 section 22.7)

vii. Cement: -

Please refer to BCM1 (Chapter 5 section [Link] and 10) and BCM3
(Chapter 22 section 22.1, 22.2, 22.3, 22.4, 22.5 and 22.6)

viii. Mortar: -
a) Mortar is the result of blending a binding material, which can be
cement or lime, with fine aggregates like sand or surkhi and mixing
them with water.
b) Uses: -
1. Adhesion - Mortar should adhere strongly to building units to
prevent displacement or loosening over time.
2. Strength - Mortar should have enough compressive and tensile
strength to support the loads placed on it by masonry units and
other structural loads.
3. Durability - Mortar should be able to withstand environmental
conditions like moisture, temperature fluctuations, and
weathering without degrading over time.
4. Workability - Mortar should be easy to work with, allowing for
smooth application and spreading.
5. Consistency - Mortar should be able to be spread and applied to
surfaces while maintaining its shape and stability.
6. Setting time - Mortar should set and harden within a reasonable
period, while still allowing enough time for application.

Please refer BCM1 (Chapter 11) and BCM3 (Chapter 22) to understand
the usage of mortar in concrete.

ix. Concrete: -

Please refer BCM1 (Chapter 11) and BCM3 (Chapters 22 and 27).

x. Steel: -

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a) Steel bars and Structural Steel are a common building material
because they are durable, strong, and versatile.
b) Types of steel bars used in construction include:
1. TMT bars - These are a popular choice for construction projects
because they are manufactured under strict conditions, which
reduces the risk of variability on-site. The yield strength of TMT
bars varies depending on the grade of the bar, with some
common grades being Fe 500 and Fe 550, Fe 550D (where the
"D" stands for ductility).
2. HYSD bars - High Yielding Strength Deformed (HYSD) bars are
steel bars that are known for their flexibility and durability in
construction. They are manufactured by heating and then
twisting them cold in rolling mills. The yield strength of TMT
Steel bars is 415 MPa, 500 MPa, etc.
3. Mild steel bars (Fe250) – It is also known as "plain bars", these
are a good choice for general construction because they are easy
to manipulate and weld and offer good strength and
ductility. The yield strength of Mild Steel bars is 250 MPa.
c) Though Structural steel shapes can be customized, they usually fall
into one of four categories: beams, angles, channels, or plates. Each
shape has defining features and optimal applications. Refer BCM3
(Chapter 19) to understand it better.
d) Usage of Steel based on its properties –
1. Strength - Steel bars increase the tensile strength of concrete,
which is weak in tension.
2. Durability - Steel bars are resistant to corrosion, wear, and tear,
and can withstand harsh environments.
3. Ductility - Steel bars have good ductility, which means they can
deform under stress without fracturing.
4. Enhanced performance - Galvanized rebar is considered the
strongest form of steel and is used in many building projects,
including bridges, highways, door frames, and monuments.
5. Versatility - Steel bars are ductile, so they can be bent and shaped
into different configurations.
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 6. Cost-effective - Steel bars are a cost-effective way to improve
the structural integrity of concrete.
7. Tensile strength - Steel bars can withstand heavy loads and
forces without deforming or collapsing. This allows for the
construction of tall buildings and long-span structures.
8. Recyclable - Steel bars can be recycled and reused in other
construction projects.
9. Wide use - Steel bars are used in many types of construction
projects, including residential, commercial, high-rises, dams,
bridges, and more.
xi. Bitumen: -
a) Bitumen is a black, semi-solid, and highly adhesive substance that is
made up of complex hydrocarbons. It is a byproduct of crude oil and
can also be found naturally in oil sands.
b) The properties of Bitumen includes –
1. Viscosity: Bitumen is thick and sticky and doesn't flow easily at
normal temperatures.
2. Ductility: Bitumen's ductility allows it to tolerate deflections in
the road, which can help prevent cracking and increase the
lifespan of asphalt.
3. Colour: Traditional bitumen is black, but pigments can be added
to create coloured bitumen.
4. Thermoplasticity: Bitumen softens at high temperatures and
hardens at lower temperatures.
5. Durability: Bitumen is durable and can resist impacts well.
6. Waterproofing and adhesive properties: Bitumen's
waterproofing and adhesive properties make it useful for
roofing.
c) Bitumen is used as a binding agent in many building materials,
including asphalt and bituminous concrete:
1. Asphalt: A mixture of stone and other aggregates bound together
with bitumen. Bitumen is used in asphalt to bind the aggregates
together and to waterproof the surface.

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 2. Bituminous concrete: A mixture of stone and other aggregates
bound together with bitumen. Bituminous concrete is often used
for paving highways, parking lots, and service roads.
3. Roof felting: Bitumen is used for roof felting.
xii. Glass: -
Please refer BCM1 (Chapter 12).
xiii. FRP: -
a) Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composite is a type of material
wherein a polymer is reinforced with fibers, falling into the category
of composite materials. These materials are formed by dispersing
particles of one or more materials within another material, creating a
continuous network around them. Refer BCM1 (Chapter 3) to
understand about polymers.
b) Distinguishing itself from traditional construction materials like Steel
and Aluminium, FRP composites exhibit anisotropic properties, while
Steel and Aluminium are isotropic. This anisotropy signifies that their
properties vary depending on the direction of the fibers, with the
highest mechanical properties aligning with the direction of fiber
placement.
c) FRP composites boast a high strength-to-density ratio, exceptional
corrosion resistance, and advantageous electrical, magnetic, and
thermal properties. However, they are susceptible to brittleness, and
their mechanical properties may be influenced by factors such as
loading rate, temperature fluctuations, and environmental conditions.
d) The primary function of fiber reinforcement is to bear the load along
the length of the fiber and provide strength and stiffness in a particular
direction, often replacing metallic materials in structural applications
that prioritize load-carrying capacity.
e) The utilization of FRP in engineering applications has led to
significant advancements in construction functionality, safety, and
economy, primarily due to their exceptional mechanical properties.
f) Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) is a building material with many
properties, including:

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 1. Strength-to-weight ratio: FRP is stronger per unit of weight than
many metals, making it ideal for lightweight structures.
2. Corrosion resistance: FRP doesn't corrode like metals, making it
a good choice for areas with high humidity or exposure to
chemicals.
3. Durability: FRP is durable and can withstand harsh weather
conditions, impact, and heavy loads.
4. Flexibility: FRP is flexible and can be moulded into almost any
shape.
5. Tensile strength: FRP has great tensile strength and can tolerate
extreme temperatures.
6. Flexural strength: FRP has greater flexural strength than wood
and is often stronger than steel and aluminium in a lengthwise
direction.
7. Maintenance: FRP requires much less maintenance and repairs
than traditional materials.
8. FRP is a cost-effective alternative to traditional materials such as
g) Types of Fibre Reinforced Polymer (FRP) –
1. Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) - Glass fibers are
typically produced by mixing silica sand, limestone, folic acid,
and other minor ingredients, which are then heated until they
melt at approximately 1260°C. The molten glass is drawn
through fine holes in a platinum plate, cooled, gathered, and
wound. These fibers, woven into various forms, offer high
electrical insulating properties, low susceptibility to moisture,
and significant mechanical properties. Despite being impact-
resistant, glass fibers are heavier compared to carbon or aramid.
2. Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) - Carbon fibers boast
a high modulus of elasticity ranging from 200 to 800 GPa, with
ultimate elongation between 0.3% and 2.5%. They do not absorb
water, resist various chemical solutions, excel in fatigue
resistance, and exhibit no corrosion or creep.
3. Aramid Fibre Reinforced Polymer (AFRP) - Aramid, short for
aromatic polyamide, includes well-known trademarks such as
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 Kevlar, along with other brands like Twaron, Technora, and
SVM. Aramid fibers offer moduli ranging from 70 to 200 GPa
and ultimate elongation between 1.5% and 5%, depending on
quality. While they possess high fracture energy, aramid fibers
are sensitive to elevated temperatures, moisture, and ultraviolet
radiation, limiting their use in civil engineering applications.
h) Some applications of FRP -
1. Carbon FRPs find applications in prestressed concrete,
underwater piping, structural parts of offshore platforms, and
areas where resistance to corrosion and electromagnetic
transparency are paramount.
2. CFRP composites are utilized for underwater pipes due to their
increased buoyancy compared to steel, as well as in stairways,
walkways, high-performance hybrid structures, and seismic
retrofitting.
3. FRP bars, sheets, and strips are employed for strengthening
various structures made from concrete, masonry, timber, and
steel.
4. AFRP composites, with their high energy absorption, are suitable
for strengthening engineering structures subjected to dynamic
and impact loading, such as helmets and bullet-proof garments.
xiv. Composite materials: -
a) A Composite material is a material made from two or more different
materials that are combined to create a new material with distinct
properties. These materials can be natural or synthetic.
b) Here are some types of composite materials:
1. Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) - These are made of ceramic
fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix. They are lightweight,
durable, and resistant to corrosion. CMCs are often used in
applications that require reliability at high temperatures. Please
refer BCM1 (Chapter 5) to know more about Ceramics.
2. Metal matrix composites (MMCs) - These are made by
combining a ductile metal or alloy with ceramic particles. The
ceramic particles are added to the hot matrix.
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 3. Reinforced concrete - This is made by embedding steel bars or
tendons in concrete. The steel helps the concrete resist cracking
and carry tensile forces.
4. Wood-plastic composite (WPC) - This is made from a mixture
of wood fibers, recyclable plastics, and other additives. WPC is
used in a variety of applications.
5. Polymer matrix composites (PMCs) - These are made from a
matrix of organic polymers that binds together short or
continuous fibers. PMCs are designed to transfer loads between
the fibers of the matrix.
6. Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) - These materials are
known for their high strength-to-weight ratio and are made of
carbon fibers embedded in a polymer matrix.
7. Other types of composite materials include:
a. Plastics reinforced with glass fiber or other fibers
b. Ceramic-metal composites
c. Oriented strand board (OSB)
d. Engineered wood, such as plywood
c) Composite materials are used in many industries and applications
because of their many properties, including:
1. Strength: Composite materials are strong and stiff, even over a
wide range of temperatures.
2. Weight: Composite materials are lightweight and have a high
strength-to-weight ratio.
3. Durability: Composite materials are resistant to corrosion, wear,
and chemical damage. They can also absorb and withstand
impacts.
4. Thermal and electrical insulation: Composite materials can
provide thermal and electrical insulation.
5. Ease of use: Composite materials are easy to shape and
customize and require minimal upkeep.
6. Fuel efficiency: Composite materials can improve fuel efficiency
in transportation.

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d) Composite materials have many uses based on its properties (as
mentioned above):
1. Lightweight: Composite materials are lightweight and reduce the
overall weight of a manufactured material.
2. Strong: Composites have excellent strength-to-weight ratios.
3. Durable: Composites are durable and resist wear and corrosion.
4. Insulation: Composites provide electrical and thermal insulation.
5. Easy to shape: Composites are easy to shape and customize.
6. Chemical resistance: Composites resist chemical damage.
7. Impact absorption: Composites absorb and withstand impacts.
8. Low maintenance: Composites require minimal upkeep.
9. Fuel efficiency: Composites enhance fuel efficiency in
transportation.

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