INTRODUCTION

This chapter of the paper delineates the goals and contextual framework of the

study. It encompasses the study’s background, research objectives, the significance of

the study, and outlines the scope and limitations of the study.

RATIONALE

Water is the most significant substance on Earth. 1It is important because of its

various purposes, mostly for drinking and food production of all living things in

everyday living. Therefore, regular evaluation of the water quality is vital to ensure that

the water is safe. 2 Sometimes, it is contaminated by chemical or biological matter. Due

to these contaminants, the quality of water becomes poor, which entails that even a little

exposure to them can result in health problems 3

In the Philippines, water pollution is one of the most common problems that the

country is facing, and because of this, the water availability and quality are alarming.

43% of the country’s rivers and 56% of the major water bodies are polluted.

Furthermore, the country’s oceans are in a similar state. 4The Philippines is the world’s

1
Mishra, Rakesh Kumar. "Fresh water availability and its global challenge." British
Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies4, no.3 (2023):1-78.
[Link]
2
Morin-Crini, Nadia, Eric Lichtfouse, Guorui Liu, Vysetti Balaram, Ana Rita Lado
Ribeiro, Zhijiang Lu, Friederike Stock et al. "Worldwide cases of water pollution by
emerging contaminants: a review." Environmental Chemistry Letters 20, no.
4 ( 2022): 2311-2338.
3
Singh, Jyoti, Priyanka Yadav, Ashok Kumar Pal, and Vishal Mishra. "Water
pollutants: Origin and status." Sensors in water pollutants monitoring:
Role of material (2020): 5-2[Link] 0671-
0_2
4
Koons, Eric. 2024. “Water Pollution in the Philippines: Causes and Solutions.”
Energy Tracker Asia. June 20, 2024. [Link]
philippines/
leading ocean plastic polluter, contributing 36% of the world's total ocean plastic

pollution annually. This equates to an average of 3.3kg of plastic per person. In addition,

water pollution primarily stems from industrial processes, agriculture, and domestic

sewage. These causes poor water quality across the country and are tied to

environmental, economic, and public health concerns.5

Rivers make up 7.6% of the inland water in the country, or 406,328 hectares in total.

These can effortlessly fulfill a myriad of different purposes in the contribution of

betterment for locals and organisms. These freshwater ways play a critical role in

sustaining and preserving life as they serve as home to aquatic species, both endemic

and non-endemic to the country, with a total of 369 different species of freshwater fish

currently known, as well as aquatic plants.6 Together, these organisms have built stable

ecosystems and have increased underwater biodiversity rapidly, which is evident

considering the country’s standing as one of the 18 mega-biodiverse countries of the

world, containing two-thirds of the world’s total biodiversity.7

All organisms present on Earth depend on water. Freshwater that is located around

the habitats of humans is important as they generally natural in ecosystems that are

suitable for water stagnation. 8 The quality of water is important in daily living of

5
Migo, Veronica P., Marlo D. Mendoza, Catalino G. Alfafara, and Juan M. Pulhin.
"Industrial water use and the associated pollution and disposal problems in the Philippines."
Water policy in the Philippines: issues, initiatives, and prospects (2018): 87-116.
[Link] 70969-7_5
6
Guerrero III, Rafael. 2023. “Commercially Caught Freshwater Fishes in the Philippines:
Status, Issues, and Recommendations.” Transactions of the National Academy of Science and
Technology. January, 2023. [Link] content/uploads/2023/01/2022_RD-
[Link].

7
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (n.d.). Main details.
[Link]

8
Mustafa, Biryar Mohammed, and Najmaldin Ezaldin Hassan. "Water contamination
and its effects on human health: A review." Journal of Geography, Environment and Earth
Science International 28, no. 1 (2024): 38-49
[Link]
Humans. Contamination of water may lead to different kinds of diseases, such as

diarrhea and other waterborne diseases, because of the bacteria, viruses, heavy metals,

nitrates, and salt in polluted water. Physicochemical parameters such as temperature,

turbidity, nutrients, hardness, alkalinity, and dissolved oxygen have a vital role in the

growth of living organisms in the body of water. 9 The physicochemical properties of

water are affected through anthropogenic activities like agriculture, urbanization,

domestic sewage, and other catchment areas that may result in worse water quality. 10

Locals or indigenous people of the community who have built their homes around

rivers or natural bodies of water primarily rely on the resources found there and take

advantage of the opportunities that these bodies of water offer. For consumption, small

fish from the river are the easiest and most practical choice due to their abundance.

Additionally, the rivers significantly serve as a source of food security for various

regions as well.11Several scientific methods and instruments have been refined to assess

water contaminants. These methods include the examination of different parameters

such as pH level, turbidity, total suspended solids, total dissolved solids, total organic

carbon, heavy metals, and others.12 The presence of these physicochemical properties

9
Vasistha, Prachi, and Rajiv Ganguly. "Water quality assessment of natural lakes and
its importance: An overview." Materials Today: Proceedings 32 (2020): 544-552.
[Link]

10
Ewuzie, Ugochukwu, Nnaemeka O. Aku, and Stephen U. Nwankpa. "An appraisal of
data collection, analysis, and reporting adopted for water quality assessment: A case of
Nigeria water quality research." Heliyon 7, no. 9 (2021).
[Link]

11
Garcia, Marx Perfecto C., Annie Melinda Paz-Alberto, Tereso A. Abella, Chito F.
Sace, Eric G. Claudio, and Arneil G. Gabriel. 2018. “Assessment of the Diversity of Macro
Aquatic Species in Amburayan River in Kapangan, Benguet in the Philippines.” Open
Journal of Marine Science 08 (03): 323–54. [Link]
12
Saalidong, Benjamin M., Simon Appah Aram, Samuel Otu, and Patrick Osei Lartey.
"Examining the dynamics of the relationship between water pH and other water quality
parameters in ground and surface water systems." PloS one 17, no. 1 (2022): e0262117.
[Link]
Affects water quality if their computed values are considered to be higher

concentrations than the desirable limits prescribed by the World Health Organization

and other regulatory authorities.13

In the case of Aurora Province, it is evident that the province’s natural resources

serve as the source of income for the majority of its citizens. Aside from the agribusiness

and occupations that the natural environment offered the people, its flora and fauna

attract volumes of tourists, which also brings many jobs to the locals. Thus far, this

paper aims to study the water quality of the main river systems in San Luis, Aurora,

which would help draw the quality of life of all living organisms that depend on these

water systems, or the biodiversity, and its impact on all of the activities dependent on

it, including tourism and leisure of people, even its locals.

Objectives of the study

This study sought to test the Water Quality of Rivers located in San Luis,

Aurora.

Specifically, it aims to:

1. Describe the water quality of rivers in San Luis in terms of:

1.1. Total Dissolved Solids;

1.2. Temperature;

13
Jaffar, Azhar, Norashikin M Thamrin, Megat Syahirul Amin Megat Ali, Mohamad
Farid Misnan, and Ahmad Ihsan Mohd Yassin. "The influence of physico- chemical
parameters to determine water quality: A review." Journal of Electrical And Electronic
Systems Research (JEESR) 17 (2020): 116-121.
[Link]
 1.3. pH level;

1.4. Hardness;

1.5. Alkalinity;

1.6. Salinity; and

1.7. Electrical Conductivity

2. Formulate an effective inference or recommendation based on

the water quality of the river systems in San Luis, Aurora.

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study regarding the testing of the water quality of rivers

located in San Luis, Aurora, by measuring parameters like pH, hardness, and turbidity.

The study will significantly affect many, particularly the following:

The findings of this research may benefit agricultural activities, such as irrigation

and livestock farming, as these rely on clean and safe water. Testing the water quality

parameters like pH, hardness, and turbidity will help determine whether the river water

is suitable for agriculture.

And may be helpful to the following:

Fishermen: Testing for water quality can show whether contaminants like poisons

or too many nutrients harm aquatic life (eutrophication). The livelihood of local

fishermen and their families would be directly impacted by fish kills or ecological

collapse, which may be avoided with this aid.

Scholars: Their expertise focuses on marine life, and assessing the river's pH and

hardness is essential to determining if it is suitable for supporting aquatic life. For

instance, fish and aquatic plants can be harmed by excessively acidic or alkaline pH

values, which reduces biodiversity.

 Locals: Who mostly use the river’s water for bathing, drinking, and cooking. If

issues like harmful chemicals are detected, measures can be taken to prevent health risks

such as waterborne diseases.

Future Researchers: The results from the water quality tests will provide valuable

data for environmental research, helping scientists and researchers track long-term

changes in river health. This data could be used to assess the impacts of climate change,

urbanization, or deforestation on water quality.

Scope and Limitations

The research study aims to assess the water quality of three rivers in San Luis,

Aurora: the Real, Biklat, and Ditumabo rivers. The study sought to determine the water

quality of these rivers by analyzing physicochemical parameters such as total dissolved

solids, temperature, pH, hardness, alkalinity, and salinity. These indicators were chosen

because they are important in determining the safety and suitability of water for a

variety of applications, including domestic, agricultural, and ecological. Furthermore,

the study aimed to make suggestions based on the discovered water conditions, while

considering potential community and environmental consequences.

The river systems analyzed in the research were selected due to their significance to

the nearby community. The Biklat and Ditumabo Rivers are frequently used for tourism,

and the Real River is used in the daily life of the locals. These three rivers support a

community of livelihoods and boost the region's biodiversity, acting as crucial indicators

of water quality and ecological health in San Luis.

The limitations of this study are that it focuses only on a few water quality

indicators, such as Total Dissolved Solids, Temperature, pH level, Hardness,

Alkalinity, and Salinity, and does not include other important factors like bacteria,

heavy metals, or oxygen levels. Since the study is only conducted in the rivers of San
Luis, Aurora, the results may not apply to other places. Some parts of the rivers might

not have been easy to reach, which could limit the accuracy of the results. It also does

not include any biological tests, like checking the condition of fish or other organisms,

which could give a more complete picture of river health.

Furthermore, the scope of the physicochemical analysis was restricted by the

technical specifications of the CASTA Digital Tester. Specifically, the device’s

inability to measure certain parameters, such as water hardness, alkalinity, and salinity.

These parameters were instead estimated using alternative methods, such as using test

strips to determine the value of hardness and alkalinity; and estimating the value of

(𝐸𝐶)×(0.64)
salinity using the formula: 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝑝𝑝𝑡) = where the value of
1,000

Electrical Conductivity (EC) is determined by testing a water sample using the CASTA

Digital Tester and is substituted into the formula and 0.64 is the standard conversion

factor used for freshwater to estimate salinity in parts per million (ppm) from

conductivity.14 Lastly the product is then divided by 1,000 to convert the value of

salinity from parts per million (ppm) to parts per thousand (ppt). Overall, these may

affect the overall comprehensiveness of the water quality profile.

The study occurred in the final quarter of the academic year 2025–2026, involving

water samples gathered from the designated rivers and analyzed at Aurora National

Science High School.

Literature Review

Approximately 70% of the surface area is covered with water, and the remaining is

land.15 Water is an important chemical molecule containing a feature of life. It can be

14
Apera Instruments, (2020, May 18)."What Is Conductivity, Resistivity, TDS, Salinity and Their
Relationship?," May 18, 2020, [Link]
and-their-relationship/.
15
Aghsaei, Helen, Naghmeh Mobarghaee Dinan, Ali Moridi, Zahra Asadolahi, Majid
dissolved into organic compounds, salts, inorganic compounds, and gases that are

involved in metabolic processes because it is the universal solvent, and due to that, it

provides stability to the membrane system, macromolecules, homeostasis,

transportation, and thermal regulation of the body. 16

All cells of the body contain water as an essential component. The water content of

a single cell ranges from 45% to 95%. Microorganisms contain about 80% of their body

weight as water, while humans have approximately 70%. Water acts as a thermal

regulator for the human body, which normally contains about 42 liters of water. 17 Water

is equally vital for both humans and the environment, and is a critical issue in the form

of drinking water. Dams, canals, and wells demonstrate the importance of water and

how it is influenced by human activities, especially industrialization and modernization,

on the water cycle. Beyond human health, water supports ecosystems, agriculture,

industries, and energy production. However, only a small percentage of Earth's water is

suitable for human consumption, and pollution threatens this vital resource. Human

actions, such as industrialization and modernization, have disrupted the water cycle,

leading to problems like water scarcity and contamination. 18

Delavar, Nicola Fohrer, and Paul Daniel Wagner. "Effects of dynamic land use/land cover
change on water resources and sediment yield in the Anzali wetland catchment, Gilan,
Iran." Science of the Total Environment 712 (2020): 136449.
[Link]
16
Fenta, Ayele Almaw, Atsushi Tsunekawa, Nigussie Haregeweyn, Jean Poesen, Mitsuru Tsubo,
Pasquale Borrelli, Panos Panagos et al. "Land susceptibility to water and wind erosion risks in the East
Africa region." Science of the Total Environment 703 (2020): 135016.
[Link]
17
Drabińska, Natalia, Cheryl Flynn, Norman Ratcliffe, Ilaria Belluomo, Antonis
Myridakis, Oliver Gould, Matteo Fois, Amy Smart, Terry Devine, and Ben De Lacy
Costello. "A literature survey of all volatiles from healthy human breath and bodily fluids:
The human volatilome." Journal of Breath Research 15, no. 3 (2021): 034001.
[Link]
18
Asgharnejad, Hashem, Ehsan Khorshidi Nazloo, Maryam Madani Larijani, Nima
Hajinajaf, and Hamidreza Rashidi. "Comprehensive review of water management and
wastewater treatment in food processing industries in the framework of water‐food‐
environment nexus." Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 20,
no. 5 (2021): 4779-4815.
[Link]
 Environmental effects like migration of people and animals, land losses, change of

environmental factors, and depletion of biological resources show that these activities

are noticeable. Pathogenic contamination of water is also an important threat to living

organisms. To address these challenges, conserving water and reducing pollution are

essential for maintaining ecosystem balance and ensuring a healthy future for all living

organisms.19

In Asian regions, people who live near rivers are at high risk of their lives because

of sewage pollution, which is directly disposed of from chemical factories and septic

tanks that are the main reservoir of pathogens involved in waterborne diseases. 20 All

living organisms on Earth depend on water to survive and thrive. Freshwater that is

located around the habitats of humans should be maintained, as it is generally natural in

ecosystems that are suitable for water stagnation.21 Contamination of water may lead to

different kinds of diseases, like diarrhea and other water-borne diseases, because of the

bacteria, viruses, heavy metals, nitrates, and salt-polluted water.22 Physicochemical

parameters such as temperature, turbidity, nutrients, hardness, alkalinity, and dissolved

19
Xu, Li, and James S. Famiglietti. "Global patterns of water‐driven human migration." Wiley
Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water 10, no. 4 (2023): e1647.
[Link]
20
Jung, Yong-Ju, Naing Aung Khant, Heejung Kim, and Sim Namkoong. "Impact of
climate change on waterborne diseases: Directionstowards sustainability." Water 15, no. 7
(2023): 1298. [Link] 4441/15/7/1298
21
Gopal, Brij. "Freshwater ecosystems: Ecological characteristics and ecosystem
services." In Ecosystems and integrated water resources management in South Asia, pp. 13-
48. Routledge India, 2020.
[Link]
2/freshwater- ecosystems- ecological-characteristics-ecosystem-services-brij-
gopal
22
Ali, Nazish Mazhar, Muhammad Kamran Khan, Bushra Mazhar, and Madiha
Mustafa. "Impact of Water Pollution on Waterborne Infections: Emphasizing Microbial
Contamination and Associated Health Hazards in Humans." Discover Water 5, no. 1 (2025):
19. [Link] 025-00198-x
oxygen have a vital role in the growth of living organisms in the body of water. 23 The

physicochemical properties of water are affected through anthropogenic activities like

agriculture, urbanization, domestic sewage, and other catchment areas, which may

result in worse water quality.24 It is fundamental and critical to test water before it is

utilized for

Drinking, household, farming, or modern reasons. Water contains various kinds of

drifting, broken down, suspended, and microbiological contaminants, such as

bacteriological contaminations. 25 Some physical tests ought to be performed to test its

physical appearance, for example, shading, temperature, pH, turbidity, smell, TDS, and

so on, while synthetic tests ought to be performed for its BOD, COD, dissolved oxygen,

alkalinity, hardness, and other characteristics.26

pH Levels

Freshwater pH levels change globally, influenced by climate patterns, human

activities, and natural processes. Water with an exceptionally low or high pH can be an

indication of compound or overwhelming metal contamination. 27 Water that doesn't fall

23
Das, Sourav. "Basic Physicochemical Properties of Water." In An Introduction to
Water Quality Science: Significance and Measurement Protocols, pp. 39-69. Cham:
Springer International Publishing, 2023. [Link]
031-42137-2_3
24
Zhang, Han, Hongfei Li, Dongdong Gao, and Haoran Yu. "Source identification of surface
water pollution using multivariate statistics combined with physicochemical and socioeconomic
parameters." Science of the Total Environment 806 (2022): 151274.
[Link]

25
Jan, Saima, Awdhesh Kumar Mishra, Mujtaba Aamir Bhat, Mudasir Ahmad Bhat,
and Arif Tasleem Jan. "Pollutants in aquatic system: a frontier perspective of emerging
threat and strategies to solve the crisis for safe drinking water." Environmental Science and
Pollution Research 30, no. 53 (2023): 113242-113279.
[Link]
26
Wang, Si-Meng, and Bo-Qiang Qin. "Research progress on remote sensing
monitoring of lake water quality parameters." Huan jing ke xue= Huanjing kexue 44, no. 3
(2023): 1228-1243. [Link]
27
Chakraborty, Susanta Kumar, and Susanta Kumar Chakraborty. "River pollution and
perturbation: Perspectives and processes." Riverine Ecology Volume 2: Biodiversity
in the "protected" pH scope of 6.5 to 8.5, especially if it's antacid, isn't hazardous.

Be that as it may, extremely basic water can have an unpleasant smell or taste, and it

can also damage pipes and water-conveying systems. Acidic water with a pH of under

6.5 is bound to be debased with contamination.28 Numerous city water providers

willfully test the pH of their water to screen for contamination, which may be

demonstrated by an evolving pH. When toxins are available, water organizations treat

their water to make it safe.29

Salinity

Salinity is the measure of the number of dissolved salts in a body of water,

expressed in units like parts per thousand (ppt) or parts per million (ppm). The normal

level of salinity is about 100 – 600 ppm (0.1 – 0.6 ppt) in terms of general use, such as

drinking water, farming, and domestic uses. High amounts of salinity 10,000 – 35,000

ppm (10 - 35 ppt), can affect the growth and yield of crops by Salinity Intrusion. 30

Conservation, Conflicts and Resolution (2021): 443-530.

[Link] 2_5
28
Peng, Cheng, Yunying Huang, Xuchen Yan, Lei Jiang, Xuefei Wu, Wei Zhang,
and Xianyun Wang. "Effect of overlying water pH, temperature, and hydraulic
disturbance on heavy metal and nutrient release from drinking water reservoir
sediments." Water Environment Research 93, no. 10 (2021): 2135-
2148. [Link]
29
Kundu, Debajyoti, Deblina Dutta, Anuja Joseph, Ankan Jana, Palas Samanta, Jatindra
Nath Bhakta, and Maha Awjan Alreshidi. "Safeguarding drinking water: A brief insight on
characteristics, treatments and risk assessment of contamination." Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment 196, no. 2 (2024): 180.
[Link]
30
Loc, H. H., Lixian, M. L., Park, E., Dung, T. D., Shrestha, S., & Yoon, Y.-J. (2021):
2-3. How the Saline Water Wntrusion has reshaped the Agricultural Landscape of the
Vietnamese Mekong Delta, a review. Science of The Total Environment, 794, 148651.
[Link]
 Total Dissolved Solids

Total dissolved solids, or TDS, is the number of dissolved solids in water, which

includes but is not limited to salts, minerals, and other organic matter. This unit is

measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm). The normal level of

TDS in water is about 50- 250 mg/L (ppm), while a very high TDS is over 1,500 mg/L

(ppm).31 A high TDS in water makes it salty, while a low TDS can make it taste bland.

Having a high TDS can block water pipes. And can lead to several health issues if not

filtered appropriately.32

Temperature

Water temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness in water, which can be

measured in Celsius or Fahrenheit. Theoretically, pure water freezes at 32°F (0°C) and

boils at 212°F (100°C), but several factors affect this theory, such as sunlight, air

pollution, thermal pollution, shading from vegetation, and mixing.33 The temperature

of water can potentially affect the organisms living in it, which dictates which species

would thrive as temperature causes coral bleaching, which is also when coral expels

microscopic algae.

31
Setyobudi, Ranu. "Utilization of tds sensors for water quality monitoring and water
filtering of carp pools using IoT." EUREKA: Physics and Engineering 6 (2023): 69-77.
[Link] [Link]/engineering/article/view/2865
32
Wang, Bill B. "Research on drinking water purification technologies for household use by
reducing total dissolved solids (TDS)." Plos one 16, no. 9 (2021): e0257865.
[Link]
33
Amanullah, Shah Khalid, Imran, Hamdan Ali Khan, Muhammad Arif, Abdel Rahman
Altawaha, Muhammad Adnan, Shah Fahad, Azizullah Shah, and Brajendra Parmar. "Effects of
climate change on irrigation water quality." Environment, climate, plant and vegetation growth
(2020): 123-132. [Link] 49732-3_6
 Hardness

Water hardness is the quantity of dissolved calcium and magnesium in water.

It's measured in milligrams of calcium carbonate per liter (mg/L) or parts per million

(ppm). Water is considered soft when these elements are less than 75 mg/L (ppm),

moderately hard when it falls from 76 to 150mg/L (ppm), hard when elements fall from

151 to 300 mg/L (ppm), and very hard if it is more than 300 mg/L (ppm).34 While hard

water is not considered a health risk, as calcium and magnesium in water can contribute

to your daily mineral intake, the minerals in hard water can change the pH balance of

your skin, making it weaker against infections and Harmful bacteria.35

Alkalinity

Water alkalinity projects how well water can neutralize acids and bases, which

indicates how safe water can be for both humans and other organisms. Alkalinity

determines stable pH levels, which helps stream and neutralize acidic pollution from

other waters when mixed to the subject amount.36 Water is low in alkalinity when the

sample is less than 20 mg CaCO₃/L, it is said to have moderate alkalinity if it is 20 to 160

mg CaCO₃/L, and high alkalinity if it has greater than 160 mg CaCO3/L.37

34
Shariati-Rad, Masoud, and Saeideh Heidari. "Classification and determination of total
hardness of water using silver nanoparticles." Talanta 219
(2020): 121297.
[Link]

35
Swain, Sambid, Paramita Banerjee Sawant, Narinder Kumar Chadha, E. M.
Chhandaprajnadarsini, and Milind B. Katare. "Significance of water pH and hardness on fish
biological processes: A review." International Journal of Chemical Studies 8, no. 4 (2020): 330-
337
[Link]
36
Brauns, Jörn, and Thomas Turek. "Alkaline water electrolysis powered by renewable energy: A
review." Processes 8, no. 2 (2020): 248. [Link]

37
“Water Hardness - Water Quality Parameter Overview | Hach.” n.d. [Link].
[Link]
 Electrical Conductivity

Electrical Conductivity (EC) is a measure of how well water conducts electricity. 38 It

is typically measured in microsiemens per centimeter (μs/cm). Its ability to conduct

electricity largely depends on the concentration of conductive ions in the water.39

Additionally, the purity of the water can be assessed based on the measured conductivity

levels, with acceptable drinking water having a range of 30 – 1,500 µs/cm whilst

unacceptable water having around 10,000 – 55,000 µS/cm.

38
Helmenstine, A. M. (2020, January 29). Understand electrical conductivity. ThoughtCo.
[Link]

39
BYJU's. (n.d.). Conductivity Of Water - Definition, Units, Value, Formula for Specific
Conductance. BYJUS. [Link]
 METHODOLOGY

This part discusses the materials and methods pursued in the study, which includes

the conceptual framework that describes how the study conducted the collection of

samples, its testing, and the discussion of results.

Variables and Parameters to be Measured

The table below shows the depiction of how the study was conducted. The

analysis of the physicochemical parameters to describe the water quality of the river

systems of San Luis, Aurora was made possible through the effective establishment of

criteria on identifying which river systems’ water should be assessed. As previously

stated, the river systems were selected for the following reasons:

1) These are the river systems where tourism activities are held, 2) These river systems

play crucial roles in economic activities (water source farming, fishing, and other

agricultural activities, 3) These river systems are the sources of water for some

household, and 4) These river systems support biodiversity in their locality.

Electrical
Conductivity

Figure 1. The Schematic Framework of the Study

 The researchers used incidental sampling as a method of choosing the samples for

the experiment. With this sampling method, the researchers collected the samples on

the river systems all on the same day, which happened all on the span of 3 weeks. Water

samples from each river were collected in specific areas which were frequented by

locals and tourists alike, like small boarding ports for boats and stairs.

By the use of non-parametric statistics, which is mostly a graphical tool, specifically

a table, allows the researchers to summarize the data and to extract important

information to describe the water quality the river systems in San Luis, Aurora. To

reiterate, the water quality of the samples collected in four different weeks will be

described based on total dissolved solids, pH level, temperature, hardness, alkalinity,

and salinity.

I. Collection and Gathering of Materials

Week 1 River System Location
(Area 1, Area
2, and Area 3)
Real River Brgy. Real, San Luis, Aurora
December 21,
Biklat River Brgy. Zarah, San Luis, Aurora

2025 Ditumabo Brgy. Ditumabo, San Luis, Aurora

River

Week 2 River System Location

(Area 1, Area
2, and Area 3)
Real River Brgy. Real, San Luis, Aurora
December 28,
Biklat River Brgy. Zarah, San Luis, Aurora

2025 Ditumabo Brgy. Ditumabo, San Luis, Aurora

River

Week 3 River System Location

(Area 1, Area
2, and Area 3)
Real River Brgy. Real, San Luis, Aurora
January 3,
Biklat River Brgy. Zarah, San Luis, Aurora
2026 Ditumabo Brgy. Ditumabo, San Luis, Aurora
River
Table 1. Coding of Sample Collection
 A cooler was used to maintain the sample's integrity and prevent unnecessary changes

during transport to the designated water laboratory. The physical and chemical parameters, such

as electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, temperature of water, and pH levels and were

determined using a CASTA Digital Tester. While hardness and alkalinity were tested using

a test strip.

Water samples are collected and stored in 27

pieces of urine containers to ensure that the water

samples will not be at risk of contamination

whilst labeling them to their respective rivers

where they were tested such as D3, R1, B2, and

such.

Water samples are put in coolers to help preserve

the water and to minimize changes to their

physicochemical properties during transportation

and shipment to the testing areas.

The researchers used CASTA Digital Tester for

determining the values of the water parameters

such as pH level, electrical conductivity,

temperature, and total dissolved solids. This

digital tester is known for its reliability but

requires careful execution to ensure accuracy.

 Testing of the water samples' salinity and

hardness using test strips.

II. Actual Experimentation

The study began with the selection of river systems to be studied in this paper.

After the careful evaluation of the river systems, the collection of samples was

conducted. Samples were collected from the part of the river that is most exposed to

sunlight, free-flowing, and the clearest. This is because stagnation might affect the true

quality of samples, which cannot effectively describe the water quality of the river

systems.

The samples are then tested through the Casta Digital Tester, which is an

accurate laboratory initial assessor of water quality, to which the samples can be tested

for their TDS, salinity, pH level, EC, and temperature. This step is necessary to assess

case abnormalities or irregularities in the samples collected.

 Figure 2. Actual Process of the Conduct of the Study

After testing the samples in the laboratory, the results are analyzed based on the

standard values set forth by the international standards to determine the water quality

of the selected river systems. 40 To detail this process more, the processes were color-

coded in Figure 2.

Samples from the selected river systems were stored in a set of urine containers

to secure their quality even while being transported. Before doing so, these samples are

initially evaluated using the CASTA device to investigate whether there are

abnormalities in the samples collected. After checking, these samples will be labeled

based on where and the date it is collected, and then these are sealed and forwarded to

the laboratory. The water will then proceed to testing, which usually takes up to three

days.

40
Fituma Lemessa, Belay Simane, Assefa Seyoum, and Girma Gebresenbet. 2023. “Assessment of the
Impact of Industrial Wastewater on the Water Quality of Rivers around the Bole Lemi Industrial Park (BLIP),
Ethiopia.” Sustainability 15 (5): 4290–90.
19
 III. Experimental Design

Since the research does not involve experimental and control groups, the

researchers opt to divert and adopt a Quantitative Research Design to explicate the

variables being studied. Moreover, the researchers used this design to analyze and

observe the quality of the water. The Accidental sampling technique, is a non-

probability sampling technique where participants are selected based on their ease of

access or availability at the time of the study characterized by how easy or accessible it

was to get to these locations, was utilized in the study because the researchers set the

date and time to collect their samples, also the samples are in the time of completing

the study.41

41
“Accidental Sampling | EBSCO.” 2025. EBSCO Information Services, Inc. | [Link].
2025. [Link]
20
IV. Data Analysis

The table below shows the normal values of each attribute and their

interpretation. These attributes are based on the World Standard for Water Quality, the

existing standards adopted by the international network of water experts, for the clarity

of interpretation of water quality worldwide. This standard is what was used in the study

for a better appreciation of the data involved in this paper.

Electrical Drinkable water x<1,000 µS/cm

Conductivity
Unacceptable for x>1,000 µS/cm
drinking

Table 1. World Standard for Water Quality

It is worth noting that in this study, although it includes temperature as one of

the attributes to be investigated, there were no specific standards imposed to determine

whether there is an irregularity or regularity in water due to its temperature. Thus far, it

can only describe the possible biodiversity that can thrive in the water based on its

temperature, as there are organisms that can and cannot survive in low or high

temperatures.

21
 Also, the chlorine level is the quality of water to kill microorganisms. In this

study, since the waters were all collected in freshwater rivers, it is not expected that

these waters contain chlorine.

22
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This portion of the paper discusses the results of the testing of the water samples

collected from the river systems in San Luis, Aurora. For clarity, the tables are presented

by location – for San Luis, Aurora, Real, Biklat, and Ditumabo Rivers will be discussed.

Table 2. Result of Water Analysis – Real River (Area 1 Downstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical

(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 78 7.79 100 0.09 40 28.7° 156

Week 2 80 7.17 90 0.10 80 27.6 158

Week 3 78 7.8 100 0.10 42 25.5° 156

Table 2.1 Result of Water Analysis – Real River (Area 2 Midstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 87 7.55 110 0.10 40 28.7° 174

Week 2 88 7.33 95 0.11 40 28.3° 174

Week 3 85 7.92 125 0.11 60 26.2° 170

Table 2.2 Result of Water Analysis – Real River (Area 3 Upstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 70 7.00 100 0.11 40 27.5° 140

Week 2 71 7.24 92 0.09 40 29.3° 142

Week 3 68 7.81 85 0.09 80 25.0° 136

Table 2.3 Average Values

TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatu Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) re Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)

78.33 7.51 99.67 0.10 51.33 27.42° 156.22

The results of the water analysis from the Real River show that the water quality

is generally acceptable. The average pH level of 7.51 indicates a slightly alkaline

23
 condition, which is suitable for aquatic life and within safe limits for domestic use.

The hardness level of 99.67 ppm shows that the water is moderately hard, meaning

it contains enough minerals without being harmful.

The alkalinity value of 51.33 ppm suggests that the river has a moderate ability

to resist changes in acidity. Salinity remained low at 0.10 ppt, indicating that the

river water is fresh and safe for aquatic organisms. The average TDS of 78.33 ppm

is very low, showing that the water contains minimal dissolved substances.

The average temperature of 27.42 °C is normal for a river environment, while

the electrical conductivity of 156.22 µS/cm confirms the low amount of dissolved

ions. Overall, the river shows favorable water quality conditions. However, even if

the results are good, the water should not be consumed directly without treatment

because harmful microorganisms may still be present.

Table 3. Result of Water Analysis – Biklat River (Area 1 Downstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 80 7.05 85 0.10 40 27.8° 162

Week 2 79 7.42 70 0.11 50 29.2° 170

Week 3 70 7.52 82 0.09 40 26.4° 142

Table 3.1 Result of Water Analysis – Biklat River (Area 2 Midstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 74 7.68 65 0.09 40 28.6° 146

Week 2 78 7.35 70 0.10 45 27.6° 158

Week 3 70 7.83 83 0.10 42 25.4° 156

24
 Table 3.2 Result of Water Analysis – Biklat River (Area 3 Upstream)
Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 75 7.55 85 0.10 65 28.3° 150

Week 2 73 7.21 50 0.09 40 27.6° 148

Week 3 72 7.3 81 0.09 42 25.3° 144

Table 3.3 Average Values

TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatu Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) re Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)

41.2 7.43 74.56 0.10 44.89 27.36° 152.89

The results of the water analysis from all areas of the Biklat River show

generally acceptable water quality. The average pH level of 7.43 indicates a near-

neutral condition, which is suitable for aquatic life and human use. The water is

considered soft, with an average hardness of 74.56 ppm, showing low mineral

content.

The alkalinity value of 44.89 ppm suggests a moderate ability of the river to

resist changes in acidity. Salinity remained low at 0.10 ppt, indicating freshwater

conditions. The average TDS of 41.2 ppm is very low and favorable for drinking.

Water temperature and electrical conductivity were also within normal ranges.

Overall, the Biklat River shows a life-friendly condition in all areas. However,

despite the good results, direct consumption of river water is not advised without

treatment due to possible microorganisms.

25
 Table 4 Result of Water Analysis – Ditumabo River (Area 1 Downstream)
Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 39 7.73 70 0.05 35 26.9° 76

Week 2 42 7.79 70 0.05 40 26.6° 84

Week 3 43 7.3 80 0.06 40 22.5° 86

Table 4.1 Result of Water Analysis – Ditumabo River (Area 2 Midstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 38 7.81 70 0.05 35 25.7° 76

Week 2 42 7.93 65 0.05 45 26.4° 84

Week 3 41 7.8 80 0.05 34 22.5° 82

Table 4.2 Result of Water Analysis – Ditumabo River (Area 3 Upstream)

Week TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatur Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) e Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)
Week 1 39 7.83 85 0.05 35 25.4° 76

Week 2 42 7.74 55 0.05 40 26.2° 84

Week 3 45 7.2 80 0.06 40 22.9° 88

Table 4.3 Average Values

TDS pH Level Hardness Salinity Alkalinity Temperatu Electrical
(ppm) (ppm) (ppt) (CaCO₃) re Conductivity
(Celsius) (µS/cm)

41.22 7.68 72.78 0.05 38.22 25.01° 81.78

The water analysis results from all areas of the Ditumabo River indicate good

water quality conditions. The average pH level of 7.68 shows a slightly alkaline state,

which is favorable for aquatic organisms. The river water is soft, with an average

hardness of 72.78 ppm, indicating low mineral concentration.

The alkalinity level of 38.22 ppm reflects a moderate buffering capacity against

26
acids. Salinity was consistently low at 0.05 ppt, confirming freshwater conditions. The

average TDS of 41.22 ppm is highly favorable for drinking purposes. The water

temperature and electrical conductivity values were also within acceptable ranges.

Overall, the Ditumabo River appears clean and suitable for aquatic life. However,

further treatment is still necessary before using the water for direct human consumption

due to potential microbial presence.

Therefore, based on the results of this study, the Real River, Biklat River, and

Ditumabo River generally show good water quality in all areas. The rivers maintained

near-neutral to slightly alkaline pH levels and low total dissolved solids, which indicate

that the water is chemically stable and capable of supporting aquatic life. Low salinity

values further confirm that these rivers are freshwater systems.

However, despite the favorable physicochemical results, the rivers are not safe

for direct human consumption. This is because the study did not include microbiological

testing, and harmful microorganisms may still be present in open river waters. Thus,

proper treatment is necessary before the water can be used for drinking.

In general, the water quality study of river systems in San Luis, Aurora shows

that the rivers examined are suitable for agricultural and irrigation purposes, but not

recommended for direct consumption. Continuous monitoring is needed to ensure that

the water quality remains stable and to prevent possible future contamination.

The researchers recommend the following:

a. Conduct regular water quality testing to monitor changes in river conditions

over time.

27
 b. Include microbiological analysis in future studies to assess the safety of the

water for human consumption.

c. Maintain river conservation and protection programs through the support of

local government units and environmental agencies.

d. Promote environmental awareness among communities near the rivers to help

prevent pollution.

e. Future researchers are encouraged to seek laboratory analysis from accredited

agencies and include third-party measurements to improve data accuracy and reliability.

28
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