Topi

c1:I
ntr
oduct
iont
oresear
chmet
hod

 Thewor
dresear
chi
sthecombi
nat
ionoft
wowor
ds:
Re+Sear
ch.
Wher
e-Re-means‘
onceagai
n’,
‘anew’
or‘
afr
esh’
and

Search-‘
Tolookforsomet
hingorexaminecl
osel
yandcar
eful
ly
’,‘
Tol
ookf
or
i
nfor
mat i
on’
,‘Tot
estandtr
y’,or‘
Toprov
e’.

Thus,r
esear
chmeanscloseandcar
eful
examinat
ionoff
act
sand
t
hei
rrel
ati
onshi
ptodi
scovert
henewknowledge.

 Resear
chi
sdef
inedast
hecr
eat
ionofnewknowl
edgeand/
ort
heuseofexi
sti
ng
knowl
edgeinanewandcr
eat
ivewaysoast
ogener
atenewconcept
s,met
hodol
ogi
es
andunder
standi
ngs.

 Defi
niti
on-Researchist
heprocessofdiscov
eri
[Link]
knowledgecanbeei t
herthedevel
opmentofnewconcept
sortheadv ancement
ofexist
ingknowledgeandtheor
ies,l
eadingt
oanewunderst
andingthatwasnot
prev
iouslyknown.

 Medi
cal
Resear
ch-Resear
chi
nthedomai
nofheal
th.

“
Wor
ldi
sful
loft
hequest
ionsandt
hehumanl
if
eist
ofi
ndt
heanswer
-Socr
ates”

Howt
odor
esear
ch(
Resear
chmet
hodol
ogyorst
epsofdoi
ngr
esear
ch)
Needandi
mpor
tanceofr
esear
chi
nmedi
calf
iel
d

 Everyt reatment,interventi
on,medi cat
ion,wayofcar e,and aftercareint he
medi calf i
eldorhealthcar esyst
em camef rom discover i
[Link] i
tyof
carewecanexper iencet odaywasnotdi scoveredovernight,butratherthrough
yearsofef f
ortbymedi calprof
essional
swhoi nvesti
gat
edt heri
skfactors,causes,
preventions,andt r
eatment [Link] nvesti
gati
oni sknownas
medi cal
/ healt
hresearch.

 The generaldef
ini
ti
on ofr
esear
ch is,'
an i
nvesti
gati
on t
hati
si nt
ent
ional
ly
designedtohelpdevel
oporcontri
butetoknowledge'
.Thegoal
sofmedi cal
researchar
e

 focusoni ncreasingmedicalknowledge
 impr ovingpat ientcar
e
 dev elopingnewmedi cinesorprocedur
es
 Andenhanci ngt healr
eadyexisti
ngmedici
nesandpr
ocedur
es.

I
mpor
tanceofr
esear
chi
nmedi
calf
iel
d

[Link]
elopmentofdi
agnost
ict
ool
sandt
echnol
ogi
es:
Breastcancerisoneofthemostcommoncancer swor
ldwi
[Link]
calresear
chl
edtot he
developmentofaneff
ect
ivescreeni
ngmethodknownasmammographywhichhasr
esul
tedin
earl
ierdet
ecti
onanda20%f al
li
nmor tal
i
tyr
ates.

[Link]
mpor
tanceofmedi
cal
resear
chi
ninnov
ati
vet
reat
ment
s
Medicalr
esear
chhasledtothedevel
opmentofnewtreat
ment
sforawi
der
angeofdi
seases,
suchascancer
,al
l
ergi
es,HI
V/AIDS,
heartdi
sease,
andsoon.

Researchisessenti
alt
ofi
ndoutwhattreatment
sworkbest,andwhattreat
mentsworkbestfor
whatpatient.I
tcanprovi
deimport
antinformat
ionabouthow ef
fect
iveamedi cali
nter
vent
ion
l
ikedrugs,vacci
nes,medi
cal
devi
ces,andsoonandi t
spossibl
eadver
seef f
ect
s.

[Link]
oleofmedi
cal
resear
chi
ndi
seasepr
event
ion
Medi
calr
esear
chhascont
ri
butedtot
heprevent
ionofdiseasessuchaspol
i
o,smal
l
pox
,and
measl
esbyinv
ent
ingnewvacci
nesorknowi
ngriskf
actors.

Recentl
y,fol
lowingtheCovi
d-19pandemic,medicalr
esear
chledt
othedev
elopmentof
v
accinesthatgradual
l
ysl
oweddownt hepr
ogressofthedi
sease.

[Link]
mpor
tanceofmedi
cal
resear
chi
npubl
i
cheal
th

Medicalr
esear
chhascont
ri
but
edt
oourunder
standi
ngofpubl
i
cheal
thi
ssuesandhow t
o
addr
essthem.

At y
picalexamplewasi n1854whent herewasanout br
eakofcholer
aintheGol
denSquare
[Link]
ologi
stknownasJohnSnowconduct edanepi
demiol
ogi
cal
study
andfoundt hatt
[Link]
nat
edpump
wasclosedf r
om publ
i
caccess,theoutbreakofchol
eraended.

Researchprov
idesi
mport
antinf
ormati
onaboutdiseasetrendsandri
skfactor
s,out
comesof
tr
eatmentorpubli
cheal
thint
erv
enti
ons,f
unct
ionalabil
i
ties,pat
ter
nsofcare,andheal
thcar
e
costsanduse.

[Link]
cal
resear
ch'
simpor
tancei
nimpr
ovi
ngt
heeconomy
Currentresear
chondiseaseprev
enti
onshowsthatprevent
iveser
vicesar
eabl
etosigni
fi
cant
ly
reducedeat hsandil
l
nessesatr easonabl
[Link]
ngshav
einformedand
i
nfluencednati
onal
budgetplanni
ngandpoli
cydecisi
ons.

Char
act
eri
sti
csofGoodResear
ch
[Link]
der
lyandsy
stemat
icpr
ocess
 [Link]
rentpr
ofessi
onali
ssue

[Link]
nwi
thcl
ear
lydef
inedpur
pose

[Link]
edgeoradv
ancementofpr
evi
ousknowl
edge

[Link]
ect
ive&l
ogi
calpr
ocess

[Link]
opr
iat
emet
hodol
ogi
es

[Link]
ali
d&r
eli
abl
edat
acol
lect
iont
ool
s

[Link]
elyandappr
opr
iat
elydat
aanal
ysi
s

Ty
peofResear
ch(
ont
hebasi
sofdat
a/Var
iabl
e/appr
oach)
Basi
cal
l
y,Resear
chiscl
assi
fi
edbasedonanappr
oachofst
udy
ingt
hev
ari
abl
e(quant
it
ati
veand
qual
i
tat
iver
esearch)

Quant
it
ati
veResear
ch-

 I
nt hi
stypeofr
esearch,datai
scoll
ect
edi
nnumer
ical
for
m andanal
yzedbyusi
ng
descri
pti
veori
nfer
entialst
ati
sti
cs.

 Quant
it
ati
ver
esear
chi
susedt
ogener
atenumer
ical
dat
aordat
athatcanbeconv
ert
ed
i
ntonumber
[Link]
udyt
ypest
hatar
eusedi
ntheheal
thandmedi
cal
fiel
dincl
ude:
  Caser
epor
torcaseser
ies-ar
epor
tononeormor
eindi
vi
dual
pat
ient
[Link]
eisno
"
cont
rol
group"sot
hisst
udyt
ypei
sconsi
der
edt
ohav
elowst
ati
sti
cal
val
i
dit
y

 Casecont
rolst
udy-t
hisst
udi
espat
ient
swi
thapar
ti
cul
arout
come(
cases)and
contr
olpati
entswit
houtt
heout
come.I
susef
uli
naet
iol
ogy(
causat
ion)r
esear
chbut
pronetocausati
onerr
or

 Cohor
tst
udy–i
dent
if
iesandf
oll
owst
wogr
oups(
cohor
ts)ofpat
ient
s,onehav
ing
receiv
edtheint
erventi
onbei
ngstudi
ed,andandonehav i
ngnot
.Usef
ulinboth
aeti
ologyandprognosisr
esear
[Link]
hegr oupsar
enotr
andomised,t
heymay
diff
erinwaysotherthani
nthevari
abl
eunderstudy

 Randomi
sedCont
rol
ledTr
ial(
RCT)-acl
i
nical
tri
ali
nwhi
chpar
ti
cipant
sar
e
randoml yallocat
edtoatestt r
eatmentandacont rol
.Thisisconsi
der
edthe“gold
standard”int est
ingt
heefficacyofaninterv
enti
[Link] ncl
udemethodol
ogies-
randomi sati
onandblindi
ng-t hatreducethepotenti
alf
orbiasandprovi
degood
evidencef orcauseandeffect.

ExampleofQuanti
tat
iveresearch:St
udyconduct
edtoknowabouthowmanypersons
suff
erfr
om mentaldi
sorders;
howmuchi stheesti
matedtr
eat
mentexpendi
tur
e;ext
entof
medicalf
aci
l
iti
esavai
lablei
naci ty
.

Qual
it
ati
veResear
ch

 I
nthi
stypeofresear
ch,
dataiscol
lect
edindescr
ipt
ivefor
mrathert
han
numer
ical
for
m andanalyzedbydescr
ipt
ivecodi
ng,i
ndexi
ngandnarrat
ions.

 Qual
it
ati
veResear
chi
nvol
vesanal
ysi
sofdat
a,suchaswor
ds,
pict
ures,
or
obj
ect
s.

 Qual
it
ati
veresear
chisconcernedwit
ht heopi
nions,
exper
iencesandf
eel
i
ngs
ofi
ndiv
idual
sproduci
ngsubjecti
vedata.

 Qual
i
tat
iver
esear
chdescr
ibessoci
alphenomenaast
heyoccurnat
ural
l
y.

Qual
it
ativ
er esearchisusedtoexploreandunderst
andpeople'sbel
ief
s,experi
ences,
at
ti
tudes,behaviorandinter
act
[Link]
atesdescr
ipt
ive,
non-numerical
data.
Qual
it
ativ
er esearchmethodsinclude:

 Documents-t
hestudyofdocument
aryaccount
sofevents,suchasminut
es
ofmeeti
ngs
 Passi
veobser
vat
ion-thesyst
emati
cwatchingandr
ecordingofbehav
iour
  Parti
cipantobservati
on–her e,
theresearcheralsooccupi
esar ol
eorparti
n
thesetti
ng,inadditi
ontoobservi
ng
 In-
depthintervi
ew-af ace-
to-
faceconv er
sati
ont oexpl
oreissuesort
opicsi
n
detai
l
 Focusgr oup-met hodofgroupinter
viewwhi chexpl
ici
tl
yincl
udesanduses
thegroupinteract
iontogenerat
edata.

[Link]
edtoknowaboutwhypeopl
esuff
erfrom ment
aldi
sor
der
;
howtheseaffectt
hepersonall
if
eofaper
son;
thedi
ffi
cult
ypeopl
efacewhi
le
avai
li
ngthesefaci
li
ti
es.

Mi
xedResear
ch

 Consi
derbot
hQuant
it
ati
veandQual
i
tat
iveaspect
s.

 Mi
xed-
Met
hodResear
chi
sdef
inedas:
"I
nquirythatcombinestwoormor emet [Link]
cul
arter
m usuall
yrefer
sto
mixingthatcrossesthequantit
ati
ve-
quali
tati
[Link]
,thatboundaryisnot
necessaril
ythemostdiffi
cul
tonet [Link],mixi
ngsurveysand
experiments(bothquanti
tat
ivemethods)mayr equir
emor eeff
ortf
ormanyr esearcher
s
thancombi ni
ngsurveysandf ocusgr
oups( thefi
rstquant
it
ati
veandt hesecond
qualit
ati
ve).
"
Compar
isonofQual
it
ati
veResear
chandQuant
it
ati
veResear
ch-

Ty
peofr
esear
ch

Qual
it
ati
ver
esear
ch Quanti
tat
ive
resear
ch
 [Link]
ch/ [Link]
ment
al
fundamentalresear
ch resear
ch

[Link]
ogy [Link]-
exper
iment
al
resear
ch resear
ch

[Link]
hnogr
aphyr
esear
ch [Link]-experi
ment al
resear
ch
[Link]
stor
icalr
esear
ch
(Descri
pti
ver es.,
[Link]
udyr
esear
ch explor
atoryres.,
Correl
ati
onalr es.)

Resear
chmet
hodol
ogy
St
epsofdoi
ngr
esear
ch:
-

Speci
fi
cprocedur
esort
echni
quesusedt
oident
if
y,sel
ect
,pr
ocess,
andanal
yze
i
nformati
onaboutat
opi
c.

1.I
dent
if
icat
ionofResear
chpr
obl
em
I
ntr
oduct
ion-
  Aresearchprobl
em i
saquest
iont
hatar
esear
cherwant
stoanswerorapr
obl
em
t
hatar esear
cherwantst
osol
ve.

 I
dentifi
cationandformulat
ionofar
esear
chprobl
em i
st hef
ir
stst
epofresearch
[Link] er
,iti
sconsider
edasoneofmostchal
lengi
nganddi
ff
icultphase
ofanyr esearchpr
oject
.

 I
tisbel
i
evedt
hatsel
ect
ionofagoodr
esear
chpr
obl
em i
sadi
scov
eryi
nit
sel
f.

Selectionofresear
chprobl
em dependsonsev er
al f
act
ors,suchasresearcher’s
knowl edge,ski
ll
s,i
nter
est
,exper
ti
se,motiv
ati
on,andcreativi
tywit
hrespecttot he
subjectofinquir
yanditshoul
dbeasui t
able,
feasibl
e,t
estableandsolvabl
er esear
ch
problem.

Exampl
e:

 Tounder
standanypar
ti
cul
arphenomenonandanal
ysi
siscauseandef
t fect
s.

 Toexami
nedi
ff
erentaspect
sofdai
l
yli
fe.

 ToConductaKAP( knowl
edge,
att
it
ude&pr
act
ice)st
udyofpr
egnantwomen
regar
dingi
ronf
oli
cacid.

Sour
cesofr
esear
chpr
obl
em-

Thecommonsourcesfr
om whi
char
esear
chermayf
indi
deast
oident
if
yandf
ormul
ate
aresear
chpr
obl
em incl
ude–

[Link]
sonalexper
iences:
-

Dayt odaypersonalexperi
encesofaresear chermayser veasgoodsour ceof
i
deast ofor
[Link] e,
aresearcherobserved
domest i
cvi
olencesuffer
edbywi [Link]
provideideastoidenti
fyseveral
resear
chpr oblemsr el
atedtodomest icviol
ence
[Link] emaybesomanysuchl ifeexperi
encesofar esearcher
whichcoul dbeusedt odeveloparesearchpr oblem.

[Link]
act
icalexper
ience–i
nmedi
calf
iel
d

[Link]
it
icalappr
aisalofl
it
erat
ure

[Link]
evi
ousr
esear
ch

5. Exi
sti
ngt
heor
ies
[Link]
eedback

[Link]
for
mancei
mpr
ovementact
ivi
ti
es

[Link]
ali
ssues

[Link]
ainst
ormi
ng

10.
Int
uit
ion

11.
Fol
klor
es

12.
Exposur
etof
iel
dsi
tuat
ions

13.
Consul
tat
ionwi
thexper
ts
Cr
it
eri
aforsel
ect
ingagoodr
esear
chpr
obl
em-

Resear
chpr
obl
em/
quest
ionshoul
dbe-

[Link]
gni
fi
cant

[Link]
igi
nal

[Link]
ble

 Ti
mebounded

 Costef
fect
ive

 NeededEqui
pmentandsuppl
i
esshoul
dbeensur
ed.

 Et
hical
-researchcannotbeconsi
der
edf
easi
bleunt
ilunl
essi
tisaccor
dance
wi
thethi
cal guidel
i
nes

[Link]
vabl
e/r
esear
chabl
e

[Link]
rent

6.I
nter
est
ing

For
mul
ati
onofr
esear
chpr
obl
em-

1.s el
ect ionofr esear charea- formul at
ionofr esearchpr obl
em beginswi t
h
selecti
onofabr oadr esear
cht opicfrom personal exper i
ence,
li
ter
ature,previ
ous
Resear chandt heoriesinwhichr esearcherisinterestedandhassi gni
ficancefor
medi [Link] ear esearchergetsani deatoconductast udyon
thement alstat
usofMBBSst udent [Link] nit
iall
ybegi
nswi t
hsuch
broadr esearcht opi
c.

[Link]
erat
ureandtheories-af
terget
tingabroadideaforresear
ch
heorsheneedstor
evi
ewthel
it
erat
ureandtheor
iesrel
atedtoresear
cht opi
c.

lit
erat
ureisrevi
ewedtoknowwhathasal r
eadybeendoneint
hisselect
edarea
ofresearcht
herefor
earesearchercanplanaresear
chtopi
ctofur
therexpand
theexist
ingbodyofknowledgeinrespecti
vear
eaofresear
ch

[Link]
imi
ti
ngt
her
esear
cht
opi
c-t
hisst
epr
esear
cherpr
oceedsf
rom aGener
al
r
esear
chareaofinteresttomorespeci
fictopicofresearchtoconductast udy
f
orexamplei
nit
ial
lyar esear
cherdeci
detoconductast udyonment alstatusof
MBBSstudent
s; l
aterinthi
sstage,
theresearcherl
i
mi tsittospeci
fi
edr esearch
 topi
c:“Determinantsofment alhealt
hofMBBSst udentsi
nBar ei
ll
ydi
str
ict
-a
cross-sect
ionalstudy”.I
nthisstage,t
heresear
chercl
earl
yidenti
fi
esv
ari
ables,
populati
on,andset t
ingofresearchstudy
.

[Link] aluatingther esear chpr obl em-oncer esearcheriscl earaboutthe

specifi
cresearchproblem, nextther esearchproblem mustbecar eful
ly
evaluatedfori
tssignif
icance,researchabi li
ty,
andf easi
bili
[Link]
li
tyof
researchprobl
em shoul dbeev aluatedf orti
me, cost,avail
abili
tyofsubject
sand
resources,admini
strat
iveandpeersuppor t,et
hicalconsiderati
onandr esearch’
s
i
nterest.

[Link] mulat
ingthef i
nalst
atementofr esearchproblem-Ast
atementof
resear
chprobl
em coul
dbei
ndecl
arat
iveori
nter
rogat
ivef
or .
mat

NOTE-I
dent
if
icat
ionofv
ari
abl
e-
 [Link]
ter
atur
eRev
iew
 I
nthisst
epresear
cherr
eadouttheoldresear
chpapers,ar
ti
cles,
jour
nal
sandso
ontogiv
eanideaaboutwhatal
readyknownabouthistopi
c,howt oadv
ancet
he
ol
dknowledgeandsoon.

 I
nthi
sst
epr
esear
cherl
i
sti
ngoutwhati
sal
readyknownaboutt
opi
c.

 Whati
sther
esear
chgapwhi
chnotconsi
der
edi
near
li
erst
udy
.

 Whatr
esear
cherwi
l
lcont
ri
but
etot
hef
iel
d.

[Link]
mul
ateResear
chHy
pot
hesi
s……
 Hy
pot
hesi
sist
ent
ati
vest
atement(
Assumpt
ion)

 I
tpr
ovi
desadi
rect
iont
other
esear
chbydef
ini
ngt
hev
ari
abl
e.

 St
atementt
hatconsi
der
sbei
ngt
ruet
il
li
tispr
ovedt
obef
alse.

 [Link]
ngi
sinj
uri
oust
oheal
th.

Conv
erti
ntopar
amet
er:

(
θ1=Av
eragel
i
feofnon-
smoker
s)

(
θ2=Av
eragel
i
feofsmoker
s)

St
ati
sti
calhy
pot
hesi
s:

Nul
lHy
pot
hesi
s(H0)
:θ1=θ2(
nodi
ff
erence)

Al
ter
nat
iveHy
pot
hesi
s(H1)
:θ1>θ2

Nul
lhy
pot
hesi
sexampl
e:

1)Nodi
ff
erencei
ndr
ugAanddr
ugB.

2)Ski
npr
obl
em ar
enotcausedbyt
hechemi
cal
sinmake-
uppr
oduct
s.

[Link]
chSt
udy
/Resear
chDesi
gn
Nowaft
er3steps,needt
ofi
nal
izewhatki
ndofdatat
aken,
time-
per
iod,
howwi
l
l
dat
abecol
lect
ed,samplesi
ze,
howdatabeanaly
zed.

 Obser
vat
ionalst
udi
es

I
nvest
igat
ormeasur
ebutdoesnoti
nter
vene.
  Exper
iment
alorI
nter
vent
ionst
udi
es

-I
nvest
igat
ori
nter
vene

-
Inv
olv
eanact
iveat
temptt
ochangeadi
seasedet
ermi
nant
sort
hepr
ogr
essofa
di
sease.

[Link]
dingonsampl
edesi
gn
Somet imesresear
chercannotcoll
ectt
hedataaboutallpopulat
ionduet
oexpensiv
e&
ti
met akenordestr
ucti
vecasesohe/ shetakeapartofpopulati
ontocompl
etethei
r
resear
[Link]
ati
veofpopul
ation.

I
nthi
sstepr
esearcherselectasampl
efrom popul
ati
onbyusingdi
ff
erentsampl
i
ng
t
echni
quesi
.[Link]
obabil
ityandnonprobabi
l
itysampli
ngmethod.

Andr esearcheral
socalcul
atesminimum sampl
esi
zeaccor
dingt
ohi
sst
udydesi
gn
(observati
onalorexper
imental)i
nthisst
ep.

Sampl
esi
zedet
ermi
nat
ion….
Sampl
esi
zef
orObser
vat
ionalst
udi
es:

Zα =1.
96(
at5%l
evel
ofsi
gni
fi
cance)

P=Li
kel
yval
ueoft
hepar
amet
er

Q=1-
P

d=Absol
uteer
rororpr
eci
sion

Exampl
e:

Thel
i
kel
y/ant
ici
pat
edv
alueofpar
amet
ert
obeest
imat
ed(
P)=0.
90

Q=1-0.
90=0.
10
d=0.
05

n=(
1.96)
^2*0.
90*
0.10/(
0.05)
^2 n=138

[Link]
lect
ingdat
a

Whati
sDat
aCol
l
ect
ion?

I
nSt
ati
sti
cs,
dat
acol
lect
ioni
sapr
ocessofgat
her
ingi
nfor
mat
ionf
rom al
lthe
r
elev
antsour
cest
ofi
ndasol
uti
ont
other
esear
chpr
obl
em.

I
thel
pst
oev
aluat
etheout
comeoft
hepr
obl
em.

 Thedatacol
lect
ionmet
hodsal
lowaper
sont
oconcl
udeananswert
othe
r
elev
antquest
ion.

 Mostoftheorgani
zat
ionsusedat
acol
lect
ionmet
hodst
oseesat
isf
act
ionl
evel
ofcust
omers,
toknowfut
uretr
[Link]
hedat
acol
lect
ionpr
ocess
pl
aysanimport
antr
olei
nallt
hestr
eams.

 Dependi
ngont
het
ypeofdat
a,t
hedat
acol
lect
ionmet
hodi
sdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wo
cat
egor
iesnamel
y,

 Pr
imar
yDat
aCol
lect
ionmet
hods

 Secondar
yDat
aCol
lect
ionmet
hods
Pr
imar
yDat
aCol
lect
ionmet
hods

[Link]
vat
ionMet
hod
Theobser
vati
onmethodi
sdescri
bedasamethodt
oobser
veanddescr
ibebehav
iorofa
subj
ect
,event
sornoti
ngphy
sical
char
act
eri
sti
cint
hei
rnat
ural
set
ti
ngs.
(wit
horwithout
mechani
caldevi
ce)
Thi
smet
hodi
spl
annedsy
stemat
ical
l
y
Exampl
e-Pr
eval
enceofpat
ientwi
thKI
DNEYSTONE.

St
epsofobser
vat
ionmet
hod:
-
 Det
ermi
neWhatneedst
obeobser
ved
 Sel
ectpar
ti
cipant
s
 Conducttheobser
vation(venue,
dur
ati
on,
recor
ding
materi
als,t
akephotographs)
 Compi
ledat
acol
lect
ed
 Anal
yzeandi
nter
pretdat
acol
lect
ed
 2.I
nter
viewMet
hod

Anint
ervi
ewisgener
alyaqual
l i
tati
veresear
chtechni
quewhichinvolv
esaskingopen-
endedquest
ionst
oconver
sewit
hrespondentsandcoll
ectel
i
citdataaboutasubject
.

Inthi
smet
hodofdat
acol
l
ect
ioni
ster
msofv
erbal
responses.I
tisachi
evedi
ntwoway
s,
suchas

 Per
sonalI
nter
view–I
nthi
smet
hod,
aper
sonknownasani
nter
vieweri
srequi
redt
oask
questi
onsfacet
of acetot
heot [Link]
sonali
nter
viewcanbest
ruct
uredor
unstr
uctur
ed,di
rectinv
est
igat
ion,focusedconver
sati
on,
etc.

 Tel
ephoni
cInt
erv
iew–I
nthi
smet
hod,
ani
nter
viewerobt
ainsi
nfor
mat
ionbycont
act
ing
peopl
eont
het
elephonet
oaskt
hequest
ionsorv
iews,
ver
bal
l
y.

[Link]
ionnai
reMet
hod

Aquest
ionnai
reisaresear
chi
nstr
umentconsi
sti
ngofaser
iesofquest
ionsf
ort
he
pur
poseofgatheri
nginf
ormat
ionf
rom r
espondent
s.

Questi
onnair
escanbeanef f
ecti
vemeansofmeasur i
ngthebehav
ior
,at
tit
udes,
pref
erences,
opi
nionsand,
intent
ionsofr
elat
ivel
ylar
genumbersofsubj
ectsmore
cheaplyandqui
ckl
ythanothermethods.
.
Thequest
ionsarepri
ntedi
nthedef
ini
teor
deront
hef
[Link]
veyshoul
dhav
ethe
fol
l
owingfeat
ures:

 Shor
tandsi
mpl
e

 Shoul
dfol
l
owal
ogi
cal
sequence

 Pr
ovi
deadequat
espacef
oranswer
s

 Av
oidt
echni
cal
ter
ms

 Shoul
dhav
egoodphy
sical
appear
ancesuchascol
our
,qual
i
tyoft
hepapert
oat
tractt
he
at
tent
ionoft
her
espondent

Ty
pesofQuest
ionnai
re:

[Link]
xedI
tem Quest
ionnai
re(
CloseEnded/
Opt
ional
)

[Link]
ionnai
re(
OpenEnded)
 [Link]
lQuest
ionnai
re(
bymai
l)

[Link]
nist
eredQuest
ionnai
re(
Likei
nter
view)

[Link]
es
Thismethodissimil
art
othequesti
onnai
remet hodwi thaslightdif
fer
[Link]
ati
ons
arespeci
all
yappoint
edfort
hepurposeoffi
ll
ingt [Link]
ainst
heaimsandobject
s
oftheinv
esti
gati
onandmayr emovemisunderstandings,
ifanyhav [Link]
s
shoul
dbet r
ainedtoper
formthei
rjobwit
hhar dwor kandpat ience.

Secondar
yDat
aCol
l
ect
ionMet
hods
Secondarydatai
sdat acol
lect
edbysomeoneot herthantheactualuser
.Itmeansthatt
he
i
nformati
oni sal
readyavai
labl
e,andsomeoneanalysesit
.Thesecondarydataincl
udes
magazines,newspapers,
books,jour
nal
s,et
c.I
tmaybeei therpubli
sheddataorunpubli
shed
data.
Publ
i
sheddat
aar
eav
ail
abl
einv
ari
ousr
esour
cesi
ncl
udi
ng

 Gov
ernmentpubl
i
cat
ions

 Publ
i
crecor
ds

 Hi
stor
ical
andst
ati
sti
cal
document
s

 Busi
nessdocument
s

 Techni
cal
andt
radej
our
nal
s
Unpubl
i
sheddat
aincl
udes

 Di
ari
es

 Let
ter
s

 Unpubl
i
shedbi
ogr
aphi
es,
etc.
[Link]
ing
Whydoy
ouneedsampl
ing?

 ToSav
emoney
,men-
powerandt
ime.

 Enti
resuccessofst
ati
sti
cal
tool
sdependsupontheout
comesand
theoutcomedependsuponthequal
i
tyofsampleusedi
ntheanal
ysi
s.
Thepurposeofsampli
ngi
stodrawinferenceaboutthepopul
ati
onfr
om
wherei
[Link] ti
sdesi
rabl
ethatsampleistruerepr
esent
ati
veof
popul
ati
on.

Ensur
ingr
epr
esent
ati
veness:

[Link]
posi
veorNon-
probabi
li
tySampl
ing

 Sampl
i
nguni
tent
ir
elydependsont
hei
nter
estofResear
ch
 i
nvest
igat
or.

 Usedi
ntar
get
edr
esear
ch.

Exampl
e:

St
udyonRai
kaCommunityi
ndeser
tpar
tofRaj
ast
hanwher
enocaseof
di
abet
eshasbeenr
epor
ted

[Link]
obabi
li
tySampl
ing

 Thesel
ecti
onofuni
tsinthesampl ef
rom apopulat
ioni
sgov er
nedby
thel
awsofchanceorprobabi
li
[Link]
obabil
it
yofselect
ionofauni
t
canbeequalaswel
lasunequal.

1SI
MPLERANDOM SAMPLI
NG
.

Howt
osel
ectSi
mpl
eRandom Sampl
e

• Lot
ter
ymet
hod

• Random numbert
abl
e

• Comput
ersof
twar
e
For
msofMedi
cal
Resear
ch

Ther
e ar
e sever
alf
orms ofmedi
calr
esear
ch bei
ng conduct
ed t
oday
.Her
e ar
e3
commonforms:

[Link]
corLabor
ator
y-basedr
esear
ch:
Thi
sisusual
l
yconduct
edi
nal
abor
ator
ywher
e
chemi
cali
nteracti
onsofbi
ologicalmat er
ial
sareobser
vedi
nacontrol
ledenvi
[Link]
mostr
esearchers,t
hisi
sthef i
rstst
ept owarddevel
opi
ngmethodsorproduct
sthatcanbe
usedi
notherformsofresearchstudies.

2. Cl
ini
calTrials:
Thisisperhapst hemostfamil
iarf
orm ofhealt
hcar
eresear
[Link],
pati
entsvolunteertopar t
ici
pat
ei nthesestudi
estotestt
heef fi
cacyandsaf
etyofnewmedi cal
i
nterventi
[Link]
vel
y ,
medicalinter
venti
onsonparti
cipant
smaynotbeused, butonly
observati
oninstead.

3. Epi
demiol
ogi
cal
Research:Anincr
easi
ngl
ylargepor
ti
onofheal
thresear
chi
snow
i
nfor
mati
[Link]
eatdealofresear
chent
ail
stheanal
ysi
sofdataandbiol
ogi
cal
sampl
es
thatwereiniti
allycol l
ect
edf ordiagnosti
c,treatment,orbil
li
ngpur poses,orthatwerecoll
ected
aspartofot herr esearchpr oject
s, andarenowbei ngusedf ornewr [Link]
s
secondaryuseofdat aisacommonr esearchapproachi nfi
eldssuchasepi demiol
ogy,heal
th
servi
cesresear ch, andpubl i
cheal thresearch,andincludesanalysisofpat t
ernsofoccurr
ences,
deter
minant s,andnat ur
al histor
yoft hedisease;evaluati
onofheal thcareinter
venti
onsand
servi
ces;drugsaf etysurveil
lance;andsomegenet icandsoci alstudies

TheI
mpor
tanceofResear
chi
nMedi
cine

[Link]
cal
resear
chi
mpor
tancei
ndi
seasedi
agnosi
s:

Medicalr
esear
chhasl
edtothedevel
opmentofdiagnost
ict
ool
sandt
echnol
ogi
est
hatal
l
owf
or
ear
li
erandmoreaccur
atedi
agnosesofdi
seases.

Forinstance,
breastcanceri
soneoft hemostcommoncancerswor
ldwi
[Link]
esear
ch
l
edt othedev elopmentofanef
fect
ivescreeni
ngmethodknownasmammographywhichhas
resul
tedinearl
ierdet
ecti
onanda20%f al
li
nmor tal
i
tyr
ates.

eff
ect
ivescreeni
ngmethodshav ebeendevel
opedasar
esul
tofmedi
calr
esear
chsuchas
genet
ictest
ing,
imagi
ngtechni
ques,
andsoon.

[Link]
mpor
tanceofmedi
cal
resear
chi
ninnov
ati
vet
reat
ment
s

Medicalr
esear
chhasledtothedevel
opmentofnewtreat
ment
sforawi
der
angeofdi
seases,
suchascancer
,al
l
ergi
es,HI
V/AIDS,
heartdi
sease,
andsoon.

Researchisessent i
altof i
nd outwhatt r
eat
ment swor kbest,and morespecifi
cal
lywhat
tr
eatmentsworkbestf orwhatpati
ent.I
tcanpr
ov i
deimportanti
nfor
mationabouthoweffecti
ve
amedi cali
nterv
entionisanditspossibl
eadverseeffect
[Link]
vent
ionsincl
udedr ugs,
vacci
nes,medicaldevi
ces,andother
s.

[Link]
oleofmedi
cal
resear
chi
ndi
seasepr
event
ion

Medi
calr
esear
chhascont
ribut
edtot hepr
eventi
onofdi seasessuchaspol
i
o,smal
l
pox,and
measl
esbyi
nvent
ingnewv
accinesorknowi
ngriskfact
ors.
Recentl
y,f
oll
owi
ngtheCov
id-19pandemic,medicalresear
chl
edt
othedev
elopmentofv
acci
nes
thatgr
aduall
ysl
oweddowntheprogressofthedisease.

[Link]
mpor
tanceofmedi
cal
resear
chi
npubl
i
cheal
th

Medicalr
esear
chhascont
ri
but
edt
oourunder
standi
ngofpubl
i
cheal
thi
ssuesandhow t
o
addr
essthem.

At y
picalexamplewasi n1854whent herewasanout br
eakofcholer
aintheGol
denSquare
[Link]
ologi
stknownasJohnSnowconduct edanepi
demiol
ogi
cal
study
andfoundt hatt
[Link]
nat
edpump
wasclosedf r
om publ
i
caccess,theoutbreakofchol
eraended.

Researchprov
idesi
mport
antinf
ormati
onaboutdiseasetrendsandri
skfactor
s,out
comesof
tr
eatmentorpubli
cheal
thint
erv
enti
ons,f
unct
ionalabil
i
ties,pat
ter
nsofcare,andheal
thcar
e
costsanduse.

[Link]
cal
resear
ch'
simpor
tancei
nimpr
ovi
ngt
heeconomy
:

Economist
shavefoundthatmedi
calr
esear
chcanhaveanenor
mousi
mpactont
hequal
i
tyof
heal
thcar
ewhichi
nturnaff
ect
shumanhealt
handlongev
ity
.

Healthyindiv
idualstendtobemor epr
oducti
veandthatcont
ribut
esgr eat
lyt
ot henati
onal
economy .Ifther esear
chent
erpr
iseisimpeded,ori
fitislessr obust,i
mport
antsoci
etal
i
nterest
sar eaffect
ed.

Covid-
19v acci
nedevel
opment,forexampl
e,cont
ri
but
edt
othel
i
fti
ngoft
hel
ockdowni
nmany
countr
iesandallowedi
ndi
vi
dualstoresumework.

Compar edt
ot r
eatment,currentr
esearchondiseasepr
eventionshowst hatpreventi
veser
vices
areabletosigni
fi
cantl
yr educedeathsandil
lnessesatreasonabl
ecost [Link]
ndi
ngs
haveinf
ormedandi nf
luencednational
budgetplanni
ngandpol i
cydeci
sions.

Concl
usi
on

Thesimplefactisthatcli
nicalresearchimprovesourlives.I
tleadstosigni
ficantdi
scover
ies,
i
mpr ov
eshealthcare,andensurest hatpati
entsrecei
vethebestcarepossibl
[Link]
thedevel
opmentofnewmedi ci
nesandt reatmentspossibl
e,wit
houti
twewoul dnotbeableto
moveforwar
di nthedev el
opmentofmedi ci
ne.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofGoodResear
ch
Ty
peofResear
ch(
ont
hebasi
sofdat
a/Var
iabl
e/appr
oach)
Basical
ly,
Researchi
sclassi
fi
edbasedonanappr
oachofst
udy
ingt
hev
ari
abl
e
(quanti
tat
iveandqual
it
ati
veresear
ch)

Quant
it
ati
veResear
ch-
  I
nt hi
stypeofr
esearch,datai
scoll
ect
edi
nnumer
ical
for
m andanal
yzedbyusi
ng
descri
pti
veori
nfer
entialst
ati
sti
cs.

 Quant
it
ati
ver
esear
chi
nvol
vesanal
ysi
sofnumer
ical
dat
a.

 [Link] udyconductedtoknowabouthowmanypersonssuff
erfrom mental
disorders;howmuchi stheest
imat
edtreat
mentexpendi
tur
e;extentofmedi
cal
facil
it
iesav ai
labl
einacity
.

Qual
it
ati
veResear
ch

 I
nthi
stypeofresear
ch,
dataiscol
lect
edindescr
ipt
ivefor
mrathert
han
numer
ical
for
m andanalysedbydescr
ipt
ivecodi
ng,i
ndexi
ngandnarrat
ions.

 Qual
it
ati
veResear
chi
nvol
vesanal
ysi
sofdat
a,suchaswor
ds,
pict
ures,
or
obj
ect
s.

 Qual
it
ati
veresear
chisconcernedwit
ht heopi
nions,
exper
iencesandf
eel
i
ngs
ofi
ndiv
idual
sproduci
ngsubjecti
vedata.

 Qual
i
tat
iver
esear
chdescr
ibessoci
alphenomenaast
heyoccurnat
ural
l
y.

 [Link]
erfrom ment
aldi
sor
der
;
howtheseaf f
ectthepersonalli
feofaper
son;
thedi
ffi
cult
ypeopl
eface
whil
eav ai
li
ngthesefaci
lit
ies.

Mi
xedResear
ch

 Consi
derbot
hQuant
it
ati
veandQual
i
tat
iveaspect
s.

Compar
isonofQual
it
ati
veResear
chandQuant
it
ati
veResear
ch-
Ty
pesofQual
it
ati
veResear
chandQuant
it
ati
veResear
ch

Qual
it
ati
veResear
ch
Quali
tati
ver esear
chi susedtoexpl
oreandunderstandpeopl
e'
sbel
ief
s,exper
iences,
atti
tudes,
behaviourandi nt
eracti
ons.I
tgener
atesdescr
ipt
ive,non-
numeri
cal
[Link]
ati
veresearch
methodsi nclude:

 Document
s-t
hest
udyofdocument
aryaccount
sofev
ent
s,suchasmi
nut
esof
meet
ings
 Passiv
eobservat
ion-thesy
st emati
cwatchi
ngandrecor
dingofbehav
iour
 Par
tici
pantobser
vati
on–her e,ther
esear
cheral
sooccupi
esar ol
eorparti
ntheset
ti
ng,
i
naddi
ti
ont
oobser
ving
 In-
dept
hinter
view-aface-
to-
faceconver
sat
iontoexpl
oreissuesort
opi
csindetai
l
 Focusgroup-methodofgroupint
ervi
ewwhichexpl
ici
tl
yincl
udesandusesthegroup
i
nter
act
iont
ogener
atedat
a.

Quant
it
ati
veResear
ch
Quant
it
at i
veresearchi
susedtogener
atenumeri
caldat
aordatathatcanbeconv
ert
edi
nto
[Link]
hatar
eusedintheheal
thandmedical
fiel
dincl
ude:

 Caser
epor
torcaseser
ies-ar
epor
tononeormor
eindi
vi
dual
pat
ient
[Link]
eisno
"
cont
rol
group"sot
hisst
udyt
ypei
sconsi
der
edt
ohav
elowst
ati
sti
cal
val
i
dit
y
 Casecont
rolst
udy-t
hisst
udi
espat
ient
swi
thapar
ti
cul
arout
come(
cases)andcont
rol
patient swi thoutt heout come.I susef uli
naet iology(causation)r esearchbutpr oneto
causat ioner ror
 Cohor tstudy–i dent i
fi
esandf oll
owst wogr oups( cohorts)ofpat i
ents,onehav ing
receivedt hei nterventionbeingst udied,andandonehav ingnot .Usef ulinbothaet i
ology
andpr ognosi sresear [Link] hegr oupsar enotr andomi sed, theymaydi fferin
way sot hert hani nthev ari
abl eunderst udy
 Randomi sedCont roll
edTr i
al( RCT)-acl inical tr
iali
nwhi chpar tici
pant sarerandoml y
all
ocat edt oat estt reatmentandacont [Link] sisconsideredthe“ goldstandard”in
testingt heef fi
cacyofani ntervent i
[Link] ncludemet hodologi es-r andomisat i
onand
bli
ndi ng-t hatreducet hepot entialforbiasandpr ovidegoodev idencef orcauseand
effect.

Mi
xedMet
hods
Pl
easenotethataresear
chst
udydoesnothavet
obeexclusi
vel
yquant
it
ati
veorqual
i
tat
ive.
Manystudi
eswilluseacombi
nati
onofbothty
pesofr
esearch.
I
ntheDi
cti
onar
yofSt
ati
sti
csandMet
hodol
ogy
,Mi
xed-
Met
hodResear
chi
sdef
inedas:
"I
nquirythatcombinest woormor [Link]
iculart
erm usuall
yref
erstomixingthat
crossesthequant i
tati
ve-qual
it
ati
[Link] er,t
hatboundar yi
snotnecessari
lythe
mostdi ff
icul
tonet [Link],mixingsurveysandexperiments(bothquant
itat
ive
met hods)mayr equir
emor eef
fortformanyresearchersthancombi ni
ngsurveysandfocus
groups( t
hefir
stquant i
tati
veandt hesecondqualit
ati
ve).
"
 Ty
peofr
esear
ch

Qualit
ati
ve Quanti
tat
ive
research resear
ch

[Link]
ch/ [Link]
ment
al
fundamental resear
ch
resear
ch
[Link]-
[Link]
ogy experi
ment
al
resear
ch resear
ch

[Link] [Link]-
resear
ch experimental
research
[Link]
stor
ical
(Descripti
ve
r
esear
ch
res.,
explorat
ory
10.
Casestudy res.,
resear
ch Correlati
onal
res.)

Resear
chmet
hodol
ogy
Speci
fi
cprocedur
esort
echni
quesusedt
oident
if
y,sel
ect
,pr
ocess,
andanal
yze
i
nformati
onaboutat
opi
c.
 1.I
dent
if
icat
ionofResear
chpr
obl
em
I
ntr
oduct
ion-

Aresearchpr
obl
em i
saquest
iont
hatar
esear
cherwant
stoanswerorapr
obl
em t
hata
r
esearcherwant
stosol
ve.

I
dent i
ficat
ionandf ormul
ati
onofaresear
chprobl
em i
st hef
ir
stst
epofresearch
[Link] er,iti
sconsi
der
edasoneofmostchallengi
nganddif
fi
cultphaseofany
researchpr oj
ect
.Itisbel
iev
edthatsel
ect
ionofagoodresear
chprobl
em i
sadi scov
ery
i
ni t
self.

Selectionofresear
chprobl
em dependsonsev er
al f
act
ors,suchasresearcher’s
knowl edge,ski
ll
s,i
nter
est
,exper
ti
se,motiv
ati
on,andcreativi
tywit
hrespecttot he
subjectofinquir
yanditshoul
dbeasui t
able,
feasibl
e,t
estableandsolvabl
er esear
ch
problem.

Exampl
e:

 Tounder
standanypar
ti
cul
arphenomenonandanal
ysi
siscauseandef
t fect
s.

 Toexami
nedi
ff
erentaspect
sofdai
l
yli
fe.

 Toanal
yzebehav
iorofst
udenti
nthecl
assort
hei
rgr
oups.

Sour
cesofr
esear
chpr
obl
em-
Thecommonsourcesfr
om whi
char
esear
chermayf
indi
deast
oident
if
yandf
ormul
ate
aresear
chpr
obl
em incl
ude–

14.
Personalexperi
ences:-Dayt odaypersonalexperiencesofar esearchermay
serveasgoodsour ceofi deastofor
mul at
ear [Link] e,a
resear
cherobserveddomest i
cviol
encesufferedbywi vesofalcoholichusbands.
Thisexperi
encemaypr ovidei
deastoidenti
fysev eralr
esearchpr obl
emsr el
ated
todomest i
cviol
enceagai [Link] emaybesomanysuchl i
fe
experi
encesofar esearcherwhichcouldbeusedt odevelopar esearchprobl
em.

15.
Pract
icalexper
ience–i
nmedi
calf
iel
d

16.
Cri
ti
calappr
aisalofl
it
erat
ure

17.
Prev
iousr
esear
ch

[Link]
sti
ngt
heor
ies

19.
Consumerf
eedback

20.
Per
for
mancei
mpr
ovementact
ivi
ti
es

21.
Soci
ali
ssues

22.
Brai
nst
ormi
ng

23.
Int
uit
ion

24.
Fol
klor
es

25.
Exposur
etof
iel
dsi
tuat
ions

26.
Consul
tat
ionwi
thexper
ts
Cr
it
eri
aforsel
ect
ingagoodr
esear
chpr
obl
em-

Resear
chpr
obl
em/
quest
ionshoul
dbe-

[Link]
gni
fi
cant

[Link]
igi
nal

[Link]
ble

 Ti
mebounded

 Costef
fect
ive

 NeededEqui
pmentandsuppl
i
esshoul
dbeensur
ed.

 Et
hical
-researchcannotbeconsi
der
edf
easi
bleunt
ilunl
essi
tisaccor
dance
wi
thethi
cal guidel
i
nes

10. Sol
vabl
e/r
esear
chabl
e

11. Cur
rent

12. I
nter
est
ing

For
mul
ati
onofr
esear
chpr
obl
em-

7.s el
ect ionofr esear charea- formul at
ionofr esearchpr obl
em beginswi t
h
selecti
onofabr oadr esear
cht opicfrom personal exper i
ence,
li
ter
ature,previ
ous
Resear chandt heoriesinwhichr esearcherisinterestedandhassi gni
ficancefor
medi [Link] ear esearchergetsani deatoconductast udyon
thement alstat
usofMBBSst udent [Link] nit
iall
ybegi
nswi t
hsuch
broadr esearcht opi
c.

[Link]
erat
ureandtheories-af
terget
tingabroadideaforresear
ch
heorsheneedstor
evi
ewthel
it
erat
ureandtheor
iesrel
atedtoresear
cht opi
c.

lit
erat
ureisrevi
ewedtoknowwhathasal r
eadybeendoneint
hisselect
edarea
ofresearcht
herefor
earesearchercanplanaresear
chtopi
ctofur
therexpand
theexist
ingbodyofknowledgeinrespecti
vear
eaofresear
ch

[Link]
imi
ti
ngt
her
esear
cht
opi
c-t
hisst
epr
esear
cherpr
oceedsf
rom aGener
al
researchareaofi
nter
esttomor especif
ictoptopicofresear
chtoconducta
studyforexampleini
ti
all
yaresearcherdecidetoconductastudyonmental
statusofMBBSst udents;l
ateri
nthisstage,t
heresearcherl
i
mi t
sitt
ospeci
fi
ed
 researchtopic:“
Det er
minantsofmentalheal
thofMBBSst udentsi
nBarei
ll
y
distr
ict-across-secti
onalst
udy”.I
nthisst
age,ther
esear
cherclear
lyi
dent
if
ies
vari
ables,populati
on,andsetti
ngofresear
chstudy.

Ev
10. aluatingther esear chpr obl em-oncer esearcheriscl earaboutthe
specifi
cresearchproblem, nextther esearchproblem mustbecar eful
ly
evaluatedfori
tssignif
icance,researchabi li
ty,
andf easi
bili
[Link]
li
tyof
researchprobl
em shoul dbeev aluatedf orti
me, cost,avail
abili
tyofsubject
sand
resources,admini
strat
iveandpeersuppor t,et
hicalconsiderati
onandr esearch’
s
int
erest.

11. For
mul
ati
ngt
hef
inalst
atementofr
esear
chpr
obl
em-A
st
atementofr
esear
chpr
obl
em coul
dbei
ndecl
arat
iveori
nter
rogat
ivef
or .
mat

NOTE-I
dent
if
icat
ionofv
ari
abl
e-
2Li
ter
atur
eRev
iew
 Li
sti
ngoutwhati
sknownaboutt
opi
c.

 Resear
chgap(
Notconsi
der
edi
near
li
erst
udy
).

 Whatr
esear
cherwi
l
lcont
ri
but
etot
hef
iel
d.

2-
For
mul
ateResear
chHy
pot
hesi
s……
 Hy
pot
hesi
sist
ent
ati
vest
atement(
Assumpt
ion)

 I
tpr
ovi
desadi
rect
iont
other
esear
chbydef
ini
ngt
hev
ari
abl
e.

 St
atementt
hatconsi
der
sbei
ngt
ruet
il
li
tispr
ovedt
obef
alse.

 [Link]
ngi
sinj
uri
oust
oheal
th.

Conv
erti
ntopar
amet
er:

(
θ1=Av
eragel
i
feofnon-
smoker
s)

(
θ2=Av
eragel
i
feofsmoker
s)

St
ati
sti
calhy
pot
hesi
s:

Nul
lHy
pot
hesi
s(H0)
:θ1=θ2(
nodi
ff
erence)

Al
ter
nat
iveHy
pot
hesi
s(H1)
:θ1>θ2

Nul
lhy
pot
hesi
sexampl
e:

1)Nodi
ff
erencei
ndr
ugAanddr
ugB.

2)Ski
npr
obl
em ar
enotcausedbyt
hechemi
cal
sinmake-
uppr
oduct
s.

[Link]
ch/
StudyDesi
gn
Nowaft
er3steps,needt
ofi
nal
izewhatki
ndofdatat
aken,
time-
per
iod,
howwi
l
l
dat
abecol
lect
ed,samplesi
ze,
howdatabeanaly
zed.

 Obser
vat
ionalst
udi
es

-
Inv
est
igat
ormeasur
ebutdoesnoti
nter
vene.

 Exper
iment
alorI
nter
vent
ionst
udi
es

-I
nvest
igat
ori
nter
vene
-
Inv
olv
eanact
iveat
temptt
ochangeadi
seasedet
ermi
nant
sort
hepr
ogr
essofa
di
sease.

Sampl
esi
zedet
ermi
nat
ion….
 Giv
enasuf f
ici
ent
lyl
argesample,
evenanextr
emel
ysmalldi
ff
erencewil
lbe
detect
edassigni
fi
[Link]
er,t
hedi
ffer
encemaynotbeofmedical
i
mpor t
ance.

 Conver
sel
y,pot
ent
ial
medical
l
yimpor
tantdi
ff
erenceobser
vedi
nsmal
lst
udi
es,
forwhi
chthep-
val
ueismorethan0.
05,ar
eignored.

 Themagni
tudeofp-v
aluedependsont
hesi
zeofsampl
e.

 Hencei
mpor
tanceofsampl
esi
ze.

 Sampl
esi
zedependsupont
het
ypeofst
udi
esorst
udydesi
gn&Obj
ect
ives

Sampl
esi
zef
orObser
vat
ionalst
udi
es:

Zα =1.
96(
at5%l
evel
ofsi
gni
fi
cance)

P=Li
kel
yval
ueoft
hepar
amet
er

Q=1-
P

d=Absol
uteer
rororpr
eci
sion

Exampl
e:

Thel
i
kel
y/ant
ici
pat
edv
alueofpar
amet
ert
obeest
imat
ed(
P)=0.
90

Q=1-0.
90=0.
10

d=0.
05

n=(
1.96)
^2*0.
90*
0.10/(
0.05)
^2 n=138
[Link]
ing
Whydoy
ouneedsampl
ing?

 ToSav
emoney
,men-
powerandt
ime.

 Enti
resuccessofst
ati
sti
cal
tool
sdependsupontheout
comesand
theoutcomedependsuponthequal
i
tyofsampleusedi
ntheanal
ysi
s.

Thepurposeofsampli
ngi
stodrawinferenceaboutthepopul
ati
onfr
om
wherei
[Link] ti
sdesi
rabl
ethatsampleistruerepr
esent
ati
veof
popul
ati
on.
Ensur
ingr
epr
esent
ati
veness:

[Link]
posi
veorNon-
probabi
li
tySampl
ing

 Sampl
ingunitent
ir
elydependsont
hei
nter
estofResear
ch
i
nvest
igat
or.

 Usedi
ntar
get
edr
esear
ch.

Exampl
e:

St
udyonRai
kaCommunityi
ndeser
tpar
tofRaj
ast
hanwher
enocaseof
di
abet
eshasbeenr
epor
ted

2.
Probabi
li
tySampl
ing

 Thesel
ecti
onofuni
tsinthesampl ef
rom apopulat
ioni
sgov er
nedby
thel
awsofchanceorprobabi
li
[Link]
obabil
it
yofselect
ionofauni
t
canbeequalaswel
lasunequal.

1SI
MPLERANDOM SAMPLI
NG
.

Howt
osel
ectSi
mpl
eRandom Sampl
e

• Lot
ter
ymet
hod

• Random numbert
abl
e

• Comput
ersof
twar
e