Module 2

Basic tool of system analysis

Identification codes – definition

Identification code is defined as a group of characters used to identify a
record of data. When large volumes of data are handled, it is needed to identify
records that form a database. By using a code, we can easily manipulate that data.
Identification codes are unique and smaller than descriptions of the data. Codes can
also be used to show the relationship among similar records.
Eg: employee_id which is used to identify an employee, PIN to identify postal areas
etc.
Need for codes
A knowledge of codes and coding techniques is essential to the system analyst.
The system analyst is responsible for selecting codes during the various phases in the
life cycle of a system. So he should have the ability to interpret codes, evaluate
coding schemes and devise new coding schemes. In order to verify the need of a
code, the system analyst must work with users to find answers to questions related to
the items to be coded. The questions may be any of the following
1. The users of the coded items and records-Different users will require
different types of code.
2. The frequency of code usage -There is difference between the codes
used regularly and infrequently.
3. The purpose of codes
4. The amount of data needed to be contained in the code. If the code is
needed only to retrieve data from a computer, a unique identification is
the only requirement. But if the user has to get some information from
the data, relationship data has to be included in the code.
5. The method of code usage- There is difference between code that are
handled manually and that are processed with computer.
6. The flexibility of allowing more number of coded records- There
should be provision for allowing more data.
7. The system characteristics that need to be accommodated- If there
are special hardware or software usage, it will require special
requirements on the data
Code plan

The Code plan identifies the particular characteristics that need to be

contained within the code. It should contain only items that helps in the identification
and retrieval of coded items.
Eg: In the code plan for a form, form title, responsible department, revision number
and date of issue may be included. Characteristics that seem similar may be coded
differently for unrelated items. The system analyst recommends an appropriate
coding method after preparing a code plan. The method must be
 1. Expandable
2. Precise
3. Concise
4. Convenient
5. Meaningful
6. Operable

Code dictionary
A code dictionary is needed to help people to work with the code. A code
dictionary is a listing of codes and their corresponding data descriptions. The
dictionary can be used to translate a code to corresponding data item

Common type of codes

There are five categories of codes. They are
1. Sequence Code
2. Group Classification Code
3. Significant digit Code
4. Alphanumeric Code
5. Self Checking Code

1. Sequence Code
There are two types of sequence codes
(1) Simple Sequence Code
In this code, there is no relation to the characteristics of an item. Eg: 1,2,3,….
We can also use the alphabetical order. This can be helpful. The order aid in decoding
Assignment of consecutive numbers to a list of items is an example.
Advantage
This code can be used to code a large number of items
Disadvantage
It also need limited amount of information

(2) Block Sequence Code

A series of consecutive numbers and /or letters is divided into blocks, each one
reserved for identifying a group of items with a common characteristic. List of items
is prepared and block of numbers is assigned to items with a specific characteristic.
For example : 1-10 for names staring with ‘A’
11-20 for names with ‘B’ and so on.

2. Group Classification Code

Group classification code designates major, intermediate and minor data
classification by successively lower order of digits. It is useful when the code can be
divided into sub groups
Eg : PIN code (Postal Index Number is a 6 digit code of Post Office numbering.
3. Significant digit Code
Here, the numbers describe a measurable physical characteristic of the

item. The characteristics may be height, weight etc. The figure gives an example
code plan for tyre size.

4. Alphanumeric code
This code is described by the use of letter and number combinations.
Two categories are :
(1) Mnemonic Code
(2) Alphabetic Derivation Code
(1) Mnemonic Code
Mnemonic codes are letter and number combinations obtained from
descriptions of the coded form. A mnemonic is a reminder of the name or description
of an item. Usually it is an abbreviation of an item's name.

(2) Alphabetic Derivation Code

Alphabetic derivation codes are made up of characters taken or derived from the
name or description of the coded item according to a set of rules
5. Self Checking Code

• Uses a check digit to check the validity of the code

• Used to control the validity of data
 FORM DESIGN-Introduction

Data that enters and leaves a system is recorded on forms. The task of
producing a detailed layout for a form is the responsibility of a form specialist. Form
specialists are experts in types and size of form, sizes and styles of print, and details
of preparing a form layout for reproduction. The specialist are available to the system
analyst for the design of form
The analyst must help users develop their form requirements and guide
them in the development of cost effective forms. The coordination of ideas between
the user and the form specialist is the responsibility of the system analyst. The analyst
verifies the proof copy of the form and checks whether details needed for the user are
available.
Basic parts of form
A form has 5 main parts
1. Title 2. Instructions 3. Heading [Link] 5. Conclusion
Title
It identifies the form and must be as descriptive and as brief as possible. The title
is usually centered at the top of the form.
Eg: SALES ORDER
Instructions
It tells how to complete or use the form. General instructions should be placed at the
beginning of the form. Form may also include instructions specified near certain
fields. Instructions should be seen before the form is completed. If there are more
sections., separate instructions should be given for each section
Heading
It contains all the general identification of data. The heading data is not the
information the form was designed to collect. It is used for record identification. The
heading data is usually separated from the remainder of the form by ruled lines or by
a box around it
Body
The body contains the data the form was designed to collect. The body of the form
should be read from left to right and top to bottom. As many of the data collected by
the form is of numeric form, the body is usually set in a columnar form. The
appropriate use of columns group similar data and is an aid in filling out the form
Conclusion
It contains approvals, signatures and summary data. It appears at the bottom of the form.

Styles of form
There are basically two styles
1. Open Style
2. Boxed Style
1. Open Style
It is simple and consist of headings and open areas in which unrestricted amount of
data can be entered. Open style can be predominantly open in which major parts of
the form contains open areas and minor part contains boxed style entries. Pure open
style form has all entries in open areas
2. Boxed Style
It allocates space to each data item. Each box is identified by a name or a
brief [Link] style can be predominantly boxed or purely boxed
Predominantly Boxed Type
Predominantly Open Style

Open Style Form

Combination of boxed and open style

Types of Form
Type of form is a classification determined by the complexity of its manufacture.
Common types are
1. Cut Forms
2. Specialty Forms
1. Cut Form
Cut forms are printed single sheets of paper. Cut forms are designed by the
user and printed in-house or by a local printer. Cut forms are sometimes made into
note pads for convenience and several copies can be made in one writing by the use
of carbon paper. Cut forms makes up 90% of the forms

2. Specialty Form
Specialty forms are complex forms that require special equipment for their
manufacture and use. Examples include multiple copy forms, forms with special
binding and forms designed to be completed with the use of a machine. Specialty
forms are usually custom designed by a forms manufacturer. There are four principal
types of specialty forms
(1) Forms bound into books
(2)Continuous Forms
(3) Detachable stub sets
(4) Mailers
(1) Forms bound into books

These forms are similar to padded cut forms except for a stronger binding. They are
designed to be completed manually. Receipt book is an example

(2) Continuous Forms

Continuous forms are forms that are a series of pages attached end to end in
a long continuous string. They are used in computer printers. They can be single part
or multi part. Forms to be completed by computer will be blank continuous forms.
All form parts in the above case will be completed as a function of the computer
program. Preprinted computer forms are used whenever there are special
requirements. These forms must be designed by the analyst

(3) Detachable stub sets

This can be filled in by hand or by machine where the original one and one or
more carbon copies bound together. The set may either use carbonless paper or be
bound complete with carbon paper. Binding may be at any edge, preferably top or
left. The bound portion may be perforated
(4) Mailers

It is a version of computer forms designed to be filled with computer

printer. Mailers are blank forms sealed inside envelopes that are attached end -to-end
as continuous forms and covered by a cover page. Selected areas of the cover page
and the front of each envelope are backed by carbon paper. All the data to be printed
including the name and address is printed on the cover page. Because of the
positioning of carbon paper behind the cover page, only the mailing name and
address print through on the envelope .Because of the carbon paper on the front
inside of the envelope, form inside the envelope also is printed. Cover page is usually
retained as a file copy.
Principles of form design
Well-designed business forms can increase clerical efficiency , improve work flow
and lower costs. Analysts should observe four principles for a good form design
0. The form must be easy to fill
1. The completed form must be easy to use in the system
2. The form should not collect data that will not be used in the system
3. The form should not be unnecessarily expensive
Ease of data recording
Analysts should avoid errors induced by form’s design. Data should be
grouped in a logical pattern. All data entry areas must be clearly labeled. Leave
adequate space for response
Ease of use
Sequence the data in the order in which it is to be [Link] analyst should be aware
of the effect of ink and paper combinations on the legibility and readability of the
[Link] of ink and paper color combinations must be [Link] paper
can be used to distinguish between various copies of a form
Le Courier’s Legibility Table :

Required Data
Analyst should verify that all data items requested on a form are [Link]
unnecessary information , waste the time of the person collecting data, clutter the
form and adds unwanted clerical work
Cost Considerations
The costs of using a form are far greater than the cost of producing [Link]
on an in-house or out-of-house production must be [Link] complex or high quality
forms , in-house production may be expensive.
Design forms in a standard size , such as 8 ½ ” X 11” or 5 ½ X 8 ½ ”.Avoid
forms larger than 8 ½” X 11 ”
Print forms in reasonable quantities. Bid for printing charge include setup charge
which is almost constant regardless of the number of copies
 Tools for structure analysis and design
Tools for structure analysis include
1. Charts ( Bar Chart, Line Chart, Pie Chart, Step chart)
2. Decision tables
3. Decision trees
4. Structured English
5. Data Flow Diagrams
6. Data Dictionary
7. System Flowcharts
8. Structure Charts (HIPO charts, Warner-Orr Diagram)

1. Types of basic charts

Charts are visual representations of data, or information, using symbols, colors, and
graphics to convey meaning and relationships. They are used to inform, compare,
emphasize and predict. Charts inform by displaying relationships or changes in
relationships. Charts are graphical or pictorial expressions of relationship or
movement. Four types of basic charts are
(1) Bar Chart
(2) Line Chart
(3) Pie Chart
(4) Step chart
(1) Bar Chart
Bar charts show relationships among elements. They are Easy to understand. When
bar charts are separated, the chart displays relationships. When the bars are closely
spaced, the charts create an impression of movement.
The individual bars may be shaded.

(2) Line chart : Line charts are the most common type of chart. Line Charts Shows
data points connected by straight lines. Line charts are often called graph because they
usually are constructed by connecting a set of previously plotted points. Line charts
communicate movement better than any other type of chart. Two or more lines may be
used to compare trends. If more than one "line" is shown on a line chart, different
types of lines (solid, broken, dotted, and so forth) or colors may be used to provide
contrast However, care must be taken not to display too many lines. If the lines
overlap, the chart may confuse the viewer.

(3) Pie Chart : Pie charts are excellent charts for presenting relationships as
percentages. A single pie is divided up into slices of various sizes. Since the total
number of degrees in a circle is 360°, each slice represents a percentage that is the
ratio between the angle of its arc and 360°.
The following pie chart shows a slice of 47 percent as rent, the slice of 13 percent of
the total as Savings and so on.

This pie chart is produced from the following expense data.

(4) Step Charts :
Shep charts often can be used in the place of line charts to convey patterns of motion
when relatively few points are plotted. This chart, is also called a "staircase chart," is an
alternative to the line chart for showing movement. It can display even minor differences
in relationships between small increments.
In many cases step charts can be used effectively in lieu of line charts. An interesting
example, which brings together the step and line charts, is the histogram. The histogram
is used by statisticians to plot the relative frequency of the occurrence of events over
definite intervals. The histogram can be used to develop a mathematical approxi- mation
to a continuous distribution. This is illustrated by the "equivalent" normal distribution
curve that is superimposed on the pictured histogram.

2. Decision tables
Decision table is a tabular technique for describing decision-making [Link] are means of
expressing the logic of administrative rules and procedures.
The decision table has four parts
• Condition stub – lists all conditions to be considered
• Condition Entries – Make up the rules to be followed
• Action entries – points to actions that may be taken
• Action stub – Identifies the action to be followed
Condition Stub − It is in the upper left quadrant which lists all the condition to be
checked.

Action Stub − It is in the lower left quadrant which outlines all the action to be
carried out to meet such condition.

Condition Entry − It is in upper right quadrant which provides answers to questions

asked in condition stub quadrant.

Action Entry − It is in lower right quadrant which indicates the appropriate action
resulting from the answers to the conditions in the condition entry quadrant.
Decision Table – format

Example :

3. Decision trees:
A decision tree is a network type chart that describes logical rules, showing all of the
actions that result from various combinations of conditions. Less compact than a
decision table. Sometimes less suitable for representing complex branching
relationships.
4. Structured English
Structured English is a method for displaying logical processes in an outline
format. It uses an accepted structured design terminology for describing the logical
operations that computers can perform .When the logic of a program is expressed in
structured English, the logic is said to be expressed in pseudocode

5. Data flow diagram

Data flow diagram(DFD) is a network that describes the flow of data

throughout a system, data stores and the processes that change or transform data
flows. DFD is a formal, logical abstract of a system that may have many possible
physical configurations. A set of symbols is used to represent data sources, data
flows, data transformations and data storage. But there is no standardized set of
symbols for data flow diagrams.

DFD Symbols

Square is labeled to identify a source or destination of a data flow

Circle or Bubble represents a transformation process and the label inside the bubble
describes the process using an active verb

Data Storage is represented by an open-ended rectangle with a label

Data flows are represented by directed lines that identify input data flows and output
dataflows at each at each process bubble.
A sample data flow diagram:
Dataflow diagram Transformations and Decomposition

Three types of data stream transformations take place at the processing bubbles
• Combining data stream
• Splitting data stream
• Modifying data stream

● First prepare a DFD that shows the overall picture of what is

occurring.
● Then break the picture down into a hierarchy of smaller
pictures.
● That means, high level DFDs are subdivided or partitioned
into a hierarchy of lower level DFDs through a procedure
called decomposition.
● The big picture DFD that is prepared before decomposition
identifies the domain or boundaries.
● It is called Context Diagram.
● It identifies net input and output data flow between system
and the external entities.
● When processes are partitioned into sets of subprocesses,
there is a link pin relationship between successive levels of
detail.
● This linkage is like parent-child relationship and all processes
must be labelled in that manner
Example:
Guidelines for Drawing Data Flow Diagrams

There are 8 guidelines or rules to be observed while drawing dataflow diagrams

Rule 1: Establish the context of the data flow diagram by identifying all of the net
input and output data flows
Rule 2: Select a starting point for drawing the data flow diagram
from inputs to outputs
Or Backwards from outputs to inputs
Or from the center out
Rule 3: Give meaningful label to all data flow lines
Rule 4: Label all processes with action verbs that relate input and output data flows
Rule 5 : Omit insignificant functions routinely handled in the programming proces
Rule 6: Do not include control or flow of control information
Rule 7: Do not try put too much information in one data flow diagram
Rule 8 : Be prepared to start over

6. Data dictionary
A data dictionary is a central repository that defines and describes all of the data
structures within a system .A data dictionary entry should contain at least one of the
four elements
• Name of the data structure
• Identification of the data structure as a data flow, a data store or a data
element
• Other names by which the data structure is called
• Definition of the content of the data structure
• Significant Comments

Data Elements and Data Structures

All activities that a system analyst does in a system relates to data. Before
designing a new system, all of the data elements used by the system and the
relationships between them must be defined and explained. A data element is defined
to be the smallest unit of data that is meaningful to the system in which it is used.
There are structural relationships between data elements and these relationships are
called data structures. Data structures are characteristic of the data streams and data
stores that appear on data flow diagrams. Data structures are composed of data
elements and other data structures. Data flows are considered to be data structures in
motion and data stores are data structures at rest
Data Dictionary Entries:
Data dictionary entries should be complete, correct and concise. Certain
symbols are used which include +,{}, _, () etc.+ (plus) is used to link the data
structure components.
 ● Braces indicate that an item may be repeated.
● Underlines identify the item as a key field by which a record may be accessed.
Parenthesis indicate that an item is optional.
Appropriate comments might relate to data flow sources and destinations and to the
frequency and volume of transaction. All data flows and data stores are made up of
data elements. Same data element may be repeated in data stores and data flows. We
need to prepare a data dictionary entry for each data element encountered. Processes
that transform data need to be specified and form a part of data dictionary. The items
from the data dictionary could be retrieved by information system
Data Dictionary- Example

Processes Specification
DFD can be viewed as a network of processes. Process specification is one in which
the rules by which processes transform input data flows into output data flows must
be stated without any possibility of misunderstanding and ambiguity. The creation of
process specification marks the transition from the study phase to design phase.
7. System Flow Chart

Flowchart is a pictorial representation that uses prescribed symbols to describe

data flow and processing in either a business system or the logic of a computer
program. Symbols in flowchart are predefined. The words within each symbol
provide additional information about each step.
Use of flowcharts
Flowcharts help the analyst to describe and communicate complex sets of data in 3
ways
• Analyze existing systems
• Synthesize new systems
• Communicate with others
Flowcharting Symbols
The meaning of the symbols should be understood by all users.
A standard set of symbols need to be used. Efforts for standardization started in
1960’[Link](American National Standards Institute) created a set of symbols with the help of
ACM and DPMA. ISO produced another extensive list of symbols. IBM developed some
symbols that added to the set of symbols created by ISO.
Basic Symbols (Common to both system and programming flowcharts)
IBM Flowcharting Symbols:

Symbols related to Systems

It can be divided into 3 categories
• Symbols for equipment
• Specialized input/output symbols
• Specialized processing symbols
Symbols for equipment
Specialized input/output symbols:

Specialized processing symbols :

Symbols Sets
The basic symbols, symbols related to systems and the symbols related to
programming are combined in two ways. System flowcharting is performed using
both the basic and system-related symbols. Computer program flowcharting is
performed using both the basic and programming related symbols

(i) Information oriented System flow charts

Information oriented flowcharts use a grid structure to trace the flow of data.
They identify input data and follow its flow until its subsequent appearance as output
information. They do not identify processing operations. Document and display
symbols are predominant in information-oriented flowcharts. The storage of hard
copy data is indicated by use of offline storage symbols. A narrative description is
given along with information-oriented flowchart. It is done by giving numbers to
major information flow steps and to describe them by a narrative on an
accompanying sheet of paper.
Guidelines for drawing information-oriented flowcharts
(a) Identify all groups or departments that are involved with the system
(b) Draw a symbol for each output of the system in the column under the name of the
group/department that creates the output
(c) Draw a symbol for each of the system inputs
(d) Show where groups/departments use the information

Narrative
(ii) Process Oriented System Flow Charts
Process oriented flowcharts are referred to as system flowcharts. They show
which data processing operations are converting inputs to outputs. These flowcharts
can be drawn to any level of detail. Least detailed levels are called high level system
flowchart. Lower levels are called intermediate level and detailed level

Structure of system flowcharts

System flowcharts have a sandwich structure. Process oriented flowcharts must be
accompanied by a narrative. Sometimes flowcharts are too complex and too detailed
which makes it difficult to accommodate the narrative on the same page

Life cycle phases of a process-oriented flowchart

(a) High Level process-oriented flowcharts - - Study Phase.
(b) Intermediate Level process oriented flowchart - - Design Phase
(c) Detailed level system flowcharts - - Development Phase

(a) High Level Process Oriented Flowchart with narrative

(b) Intermediate-level Process-oriented System flowchart and Narrative

8. Structure Charts

Structure charts are design tools for describing a system according to its functions.
Description of a system by functions lead to the identification and design of basic
system modules. Two common types of structure charts are
1. HIPO charts
2. Warner-Orr Diagram

HIPO charts.
HIPO stands for Hierarchy Plus Input Processing Output. There are two charts in
HIPO chart. One shows hierarchy. Other depicts the input, processing and output

First shows the functional modules of a system as a hierarchy of functions. Second

is a detail chart showing the inputs, processing steps and outputs of the functional
module of the hierarchy chart which is called IPO chart. One IPO chart is prepared
for each function shown on the hierarchy chart
Hierarchy Chart

IPO for edit Function

Warner-Orr Diagram

This chart emphasizes the functions of a system just as the hierarchy chart portion
of the HIPO chart. It is a hierarchy chart drawn from left to right. It uses brackets to
group sub-functions and relate them to their higher level function

It should be noted that both the hierarchy charts and Warnier Orr diagrams may
be used for program module design as well as describing functions of a system. In the
case of program modules, each function shown is a logical function of the computer
program. These structure charts are commonly used in designing structured
programs.