Cell Structure &

Function
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS OF LIFE

▪ All organisms are made of cells

▪ Organisms can be unicellular or multicellular
▪ All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells
– during the long evolutionary history of Earth, natural
selection has modified cells in billions of special ways
 PROKARYOTES & EUKARYOTES
▪ Cells are either prokaryotic (bacteria & archaea) or
eukaryotic (animals, plants, fungi, protista)
▪ Both have plasma membrane, cytosol, DNA, ribosomes
▪ All prokaryotes are unicellular.
▪ Eukaryotes can be multi or unicellular
▪ Nucleoid: Membrane-less region of cytoplasm that stores
prokaryotic DNA
▪ Nucleus: Membrane-bound structure that stores eukaryotic
DNA
▪ On average, eukaryotic cells are 10x larger than prokaryotic
cells
SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO

▪ There is a limit to how large cells grow

▪ For each square micrometer of cell membrane, a
limited number of molecules can pass per second
▪ If cells grow, the surface area of the membrane grows
proportionally less than the cell’s inner volume.
▪ Meanwhile, demand for cellular exchange of nutrients
and wastes goes up.
▪ Natural selection selects for smaller cells that have a
more ideal surface area to volume ratio.
 EUKARYOTIC CELLS

▪ Eukaryotes have internal membrane-bound organelles that compartmentalize different cellular processes
▪ Each type of membrane (plasma and organelle membranes) have a unique composition of lipids and
proteins suited to the membrane’s functions
▪ The following slide shows two major types of eukaryotic cells: animal and plants
▪ Keep in mind that protista (single celled eukaryotes) and fungi also share many of these eukaryotic cell
features
 EUKARYA: ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

Animal Cell Plant Cell

Major Differences: Plant cells have a cell wall, large central vacuole, and chloroplasts
Animal cells have centrosomes and lysosomes.
7.3 The Nucleus
THE NUCLEUS STORES GENETIC INFORMATION

▪ Nuclear envelope: double phospholipid bilayer

membrane
▪ Nuclear pores: channels in nuclear envelope for
transport
▪ Nuclear lamina: Proteins fibers lining inner envelope
that support internal nuclear structure
▪ DNA in the nucleus is organized into linear
chromosomes,
▪ The nucleolus: synthesizes ribosomes
CONNECTING DOTS

▪ Nearly all eukaryotic genes are stored in the nucleus.

▪ In eukaryotic gene expression, mRNA is transported
from the nucleus through nuclear pores that lead into
the cytoplasm
▪ This mRNA docks to a ribosome, which was produced
from the nucleolus.
RIBOSOMES

▪ Ribosomes: non-membrane bound protein building complexes

▪ Cells that makes lots of proteins have lots of ribosomes
▪ Ex: Pancreatic cells that secrete many types of digestive enzymes
▪ Ribosomes have two cytoplasmic locations
▪ Free-floating ribosomes build proteins that stay in cell’s
cytoplasm
▪ Rough ER bound ribosomes build protein that are shipped to cell
membranes, packaging within organelles, or for secretion.
The Endomembrane
System
THE ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM – REGULATION OF CELLULAR TRAFFIC

▪ The endomembrane system includes:

▪ Nuclear Envelope
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Golgi Apparatus
▪ Lysosomes
▪ Vesicles and Vacuoles
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

▪ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

▪ Composes over ½ of total cell membrane
area
▪ Membrane is continuous with nuclear
envelope
▪ Made of membranous tubules called
cisternae ER Lumen

▪ Two types, smooth ER and rough ER

SMOOTH ER

▪ The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)

▪ Functions: Steroid synthesis, carbohydrate
metabolism, detoxification of drugs and
poisons, and storage of Ca2+ ions
▪ Extensive in liver cells (for detoxification)
▪ Extensive in muscle cells (for Ca2+ storage)
ROUGH ER Lumen (s), Lumina (pl) = inside of

▪ The rough ER (RER)

▪ Post-transcriptional modifications may occur here
▪ Produces phospholipids
▪ Has ribosomes bound to outer surface
▪ Protein products have 1 of 3 destinations:
cell/organelle membranes, organelle lumina, or cell
secretion (export)
▪ RER lumen provides unique environment for proteins
to fold in
▪ RER sends lipids and proteins to Golgi via vesicles
THE GOLGI APPARATUS

▪ The Golgi receives vesicles from the ER

▪ Sorts, modifies, and ships these products to
diverse destinations via vesicles
▪ May be involved in post-translational protein
modifications
▪ Like the ER, composed of membranous cisternae
▪ All substances secreted from the cell must first go
through the Golgi
▪ Cis face: Receiving end
▪ Trans face: Shipping end
THE GOLGI APPARATUS

▪ Cisternal maturation model:

▪ Products are modified (“matured”) as they
move from cis to trans face of Golgi
▪ Trans face produces vesicles for transport
of material to cellular destinations
▪ Vesicles may be secreted
▪ Components of plant cell wall are
produced this way.
 LYSOSOMES: DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS

▪ Lysosome: Membranous sac full of hydrolytic enzymes

▪ Produced by RER and Golgi
▪ Fuses to vesicles and vacuoles to breakdown matter in the cell
for recycling
▪ May be used in defense (white blood cells)
▪ May also be used to recycle cellular materials (autophagy)
LYSOSOMES: ASSOCIATED DISEASES
▪ Tay-Sachs disease is caused by the malfunctioning of certain hydrolytic enzymes in human
lysosomes
▪ The enzymes breakdown lipids. When absent, lipids accumulate in the brain and damage neurons
VACUOLES: DIVERSE
MAINTENANCE COMPARTMENTS

▪ Vacuoles: large, diverse vesicles derived from the ER and

Golgi
▪ Food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes to break down matter
▪ Contractile vacuole pumps excess water out of protist
cells
▪ Large central vacuole helps plants store water and
maintain water balance
 STUDY THIS IMAGE!

STUDY
THIS
IMAGE!
BELL WORK 9/6

▪Starting with a bound ribosome, trace the pathway of organelles a protein will go
through before becoming embedded in the cell membrane
▪How do food vacuoles and lysosomes interact?
▪How does the organelle content of a white blood cell help it fulfill its function of
killing bacterial cells?
Energy Conversion
Organelles
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS

▪ Mitochondria: found in all

eukaryotes, are the sites of
cellular respiration.
▪ Chloroplasts: found only in plants
and algae, are the sites of
photosynthesis
EVOLUTION OF MITOCHONDRIA AND
CHLOROPLASTS

▪ Both mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved

according to the endosymbiont theory
▪ This theory also explains the origin of
eukaryotic cells
EVOLUTION OF MITOCHONDRIA AND
CHLOROPLASTS

▪ This theory is widely accepted and is backed up by

strong scientific evidence
1. Shared anatomy with bacteria
2. Genetic similarities with bacteria
3. Semi-autonomous reproduction
MITOCHONDRIA

▪ Mitochondria are found in animals, plants, fungi, and protista

▪ Structure to function example: Muscle cells have lots of
mitochondria
▪ Mitochondria have a specific structure:
 A smooth outer membrane
 Inner membrane with infoldings referred to as cristae
 Intermembrane space
 Mitochondrial matrix
CHLOROPLASTS

▪ Found in plants and algae

▪ Structure:
▪ Fluid filled stroma
▪ Contain membranous stacks of thylakoids called granum
▪ Inside thylakoid = thylakoid lumen or thylakoid space
The Cytoskeleton
SUPPORT AND MOTILITY

▪ Cytoskeleton: Network of protein fibers extending

throughout cytoplasm
▪ 1) provides structural support & maintains cell
shape
▪ 2) provides anchorage for cell organelles
▪ 3) helps produce cell movement in conjunction with
motor proteins
▪ Can be broken down and reassembled to provide
movement
MICROTUBULES
▪ Hollow tubes made from protein subunits called
tubulin
▪ Maintains cell shape by acting as compression-
resistant “girders” (supports weight of cell)
▪ Diameter = ~25nm
▪ Produce movement as the primary component
of cilia and flagella (along with motor proteins)
▪ Allow for chromosome movement in cell
division
▪ Anchor organelles in the cytoplasm
▪ In animal cells, originate from structure called
the centrosome
MICROFILAMENTS (ACTIN FILAMENTS)

▪ Microfilaments: thin rods of actin proteins subunits

▪ Maintains cell shape, helping to bear tension
▪ Diameter = ~7nm
▪ Makes up the cortex, found just inside the cell membrane
▪ Helps produce cell movement by changing the shape of
the cell membrane (pseudopodia)
▪ Primary component of muscle cells - allow for contraction
with motor protein called myosin
▪ Involved in the division of cytoplasm during cell division
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

▪ Diverse set of protein fibers, coiled into cables

▪ Keratin is the most common protein subunit found in
intermediate filaments
▪ Like microfilaments, they help to bear tension in the cell
▪ Diameter = 8-12 nm
▪ Fix the position of organelles in cell, especially the nucleus
▪ Primary component of the nuclear lamina
▪ More permanent fixtures than MTs and MFs – tend to be
preserved even after cell death
▪ Hair and skin are made of dead cells, retaining their
intermediate filaments
The top layer of skin cells are dead, but their intermediate
filaments persist, providing protection to living cells
beneath
COMPONENTS OF THE
CYTOSKELETON
BELL WORK 9/8

▪A drug, Z, interferes with polymerization of microfilaments. If a cell is treated with

Z, name one cellular process that may become disrupted.
▪The motor protein ___ is to microtubules and the motor protein ____ is to
microfilaments
Extracellular Components
EXTRACELLULAR COMPONENTS OF CELLS

▪ Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are bound to the membrane extracellularly
▪ These materials are involved in a great many important cellular functions
▪ These extracellular structures include:
▪ The cell wall of plants
▪ The extracellular matrix of animals
▪ Cell junctions
PLANT CELL WALLS

▪ Plant cells secrete polysaccharides that embed with

proteins extracellularly to form the cell wall
▪ These polysaccharides and proteins are assembled in the
Golgi
▪ Young plant cells first secrete an outer primary cell wall
▪ The middle lamella glues adjacent plant cell walls together
▪ Some plant cells secrete a woody secondary cell wall
between plasma membrane and primary cell wall
ANIMAL EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX

▪ Animal cells have an elaborate

extracellular matrix (ECM) made mostly
of glycoproteins
▪ Let’s identify some components:
▪ Collagen (Common glycoprotein)
▪ Proteoglycan fibers
▪ Glycoproteins and proteoglycans are
assembled in the Golgi
▪ Fibronectin
▪ Integrins
▪ Integrins may transmit signals from
the ECM to the cytoskeleton (and
vice-versa) through these
connections
ANIMAL EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX
CELL JUNCTIONS: PLASMODESMATA

▪ Neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and communicate

via sites of direct physical contact
▪ In plants, cell walls are perforated by channels called
plasmodesmata.
▪ Cytosol passing through plasmodesmata join the internal
chemical environments of adjacent cells
CELL JUNCTIONS: TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, GAP JUNCTIONS

▪ In animals there are 3 types of junction

1. Gap junctions: Analogous to plant plasmodesmata
2. Desmosomes: Also called anchoring junctions, these fasten cells together into strong sheets.
3. Tight Junctions: Similar to desmosomes, tight junctions seal neighboring cell membranes together at their
surface, preventing any leakage of extracellular fluid between cells.
CELL JUNCTIONS: TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, GAP JUNCTIONS
THE CELL: MORE THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS

▪ A white blood cell (WBC) defends the body against infection by ingesting bacteria into phagocytic vesicles
▪ The WBC crawls along a surface and reaches out to bacteria with pseudopodia via actin filaments of the
cytoskeleton.
▪ After ingesting the bacteria, the WBC destroys the bacteria using lysosomes produced by the
endomembrane system
▪ The digestive proteins of the lysosome and proteins of ECM and cytoskeleton are produced by ribosomes
and the synthesis of these proteins are directed by DNA in the nucleus
▪ All of these processes require energy, which mitochondria supply in the form of ATP
▪ Cellular function arises from cellular order - a structure greater than the sum of its parts