GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
MODULE 6
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
I. INDUCTIVE REASONING
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general conclusion by examining specific examples.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
Example 1: Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number.
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus, we predict that the next number in the list is
3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ by 3. It appears that the difference
between any two numbers is always 1 more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict
that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
Inductive reasoning is not used just to predict the next number in a list. In Example 2, we use inductive reasoning
to make a conjecture about an arithmetic procedure.
Example 2: Use Inductive Reasoning to Make a Conjecture.
Consider the following procedure:
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about
the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number.
Solution:
Suppose we pick 5 as our original number. Then the procedure would produce the following results:
Original number: 5
Multiply by 8: 8 x 5 = 40 Let x be the number.
8𝑥+6
Add 6: 40 + 6 = 46 −3
2
Divide by 2: 46 ÷ 2 = 23 2(4𝑥+3)
Subtract 3: 23 - 3 = 20 2
−3
4𝑥 + 3 − 3
𝟒𝒙
We started with 5 and followed the procedure to produce 20.
Starting with 6 as our original number produces a final result of 24.
Starting with 10 produces a final result of 40.
Starting with 100 produces a final result of 400.
In each of these cases, the resulting number is four times the original number.
We conjecture that following the given procedure produces a number that is four times the original number.
Scientists often use inductive reasoning. For instance, Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) used inductive reasoning to
discover that the time required for a pendulum to complete one swing, called the period of the pendulum, depends on the
length of the pendulum. Galileo did not have a clock, so he measured the periods of pendulums in “heartbeats.” The
following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths.
For the sake of convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.
GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
Length of pendulum, Period of pendulum,
in units in heartbeats Galileo Galilei entered the
University of Pisa to study medicine
1 1 at the age of 17, but he soon realized
4 2 that he was more interested in the
9 3 study of astronomy and the physical
16 4 sciences. Galileo’s study of
25 5 pendulums assisted in the
36 6 development of pendulum clocks.
49 7 (Hulton Archive)
64 8
81 9
100 10
144 12
169 13
225 15
400 20
625 25
The period of a pendulum is the
time it takes for the pendulum
to swing from left to right and
back to its original position.
Example 3. Use Inductive Reasoning to Solve an Application.
Use the data in the table and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
b. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Solution:
a. In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus, we conjecture that a pendulum
with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats.
b. In the table, a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit.
A pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It appears
that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.
GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may be incorrect. As an illustration, consider the circles shown below.
For each circle, all possible line segments have been drawn to connect each dot on the circle with all the other dots on the
circle.
1 2 1 2
1 3
1
1 5
4 2 3 4
2 3 6 8
5 6 7
9 10 11
7 12 13 14
15
8
16
1
2
3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11
14 12 13
31 15
16 17 18 19 20
21 26 27 28
22 23 24 25
29
30
The maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle. For each circle, count the number of regions formed
by the line segments that connect the dots on the circle. Your results should agree with the results in the following table.
Number of dots 1 2 3 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 2 4 8 16 32
There appears to be a pattern. Each additional dot seems to double the number of regions. Guess the maximum number of
regions you expect for a circle with six dots. Check your guess by counting the maximum number of regions formed by the
line segments that connect six dots on a large circle. Your drawing will show that for six dots, the maximum number of
regions is 31, not 32 as you may have guessed. With seven dots, the maximum number of regions is 57. This is a good
example to keep in mind. Just because a pattern holds true for a few cases, it does not mean the pattern will continue. When
you use inductive reasoning, you have no guarantee that your conclusion is correct.
GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
COUNTEREXAMPLES
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for which a statement is
not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement. In Example 4, we verify that each statement is a
false statement by finding a counterexample for each.
Example 4. Find a Counterexample.
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:
a. /x/ >0 b. x2 > x c. √x2 = x
Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only find one counterexample to verify that the
statement is false.
a. Let x = 0. Then /0/ = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0, we have found a counterexample.
Thus, “for all numbers x, /x/ >0” is a false statement.
b. For x =1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1, we have found a counterexample.
Thus, “for all numbers x, x2 > x” is a false statement.
x=1
x2 > x
(1)2 >1
1> 1 False
For x =-1
x2 > x
(-1)2 > -1
1> -1 True
For x= -2
x2 > x
(-2)2> -2 22= 4
4> 2 True
For x =3
x2 > x
32> 3
9> 3 True
c. √x2 = x
Consider x = -3. Then √(−3)2 = √9 = 3. Since 3 is not equal to -3, we have found a counterexample.
Thus, “for all numbers x, √𝑥 2 =x” is a false statement.
For x =-3
√x2 = x x=2 x=-2 x=-1
2 2 2 2
√(−3) = -3 √x = 2 √(-2) = -2 √(-1) = -1
2
√9 = -3 √2 = 2 √4 = -2 √1 = -1
3 ≠ −3 False √4 = 2 2≠-2 False 1≠-1 False
2=2 True
GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
II. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive
reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and procedures.
Deductive reasoning is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general assumptions, procedures, or principles.
Example 5. Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture.
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number. n
Multiply the number by 8: 8n
Add 6 to the product: 8n + 6
8𝑛+6
Divide the sum by 2: 2
= 4n + 3
Subtract 3: 4n + 3 – 3 = 4n
We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given in this example produces a number that is four times the original
number.
INDUCTIVE REASONING VS. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
In Example 6, we analyze arguments to determine whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning.
Example 6: Determine Types of Reasoning
Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so
this year the tree will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home improvement would
cost $35,000. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than $35,000.
Solution:
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.
b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.
III. LOGIC PUZZLES
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us
to display the given information in a visual manner.
Example 7: Solve a Logic Puzzle.
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From
the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
Solution:
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the following chart, write X1
(which stands for “ruled out by clue 1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah
Brian
From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row. We know from
clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get home,
and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the Banker
column of Sarah’s row.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean
Maria X1 X1
Sarah X2 X2
Brian
From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this condition. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in
Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef. Place a / in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the other three people
can be the chef. Write X3 for these conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations in Maria’s row; therefore,
Maria must be the editor. Insert a / to indicate that Maria is the
editor, and write X3 twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3 X3
Maria / X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X3
From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this condition. Since there are three Xs in the Banker column, Sean must
be the banker. Place a / in that box. Thus, Sean cannot be the dentist. Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the
Dentist column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a / in that box.
Editor Banker Chef Dentist
Sean X3 / X3 X4
Maria / X1 X3 X1
Sarah X2 X2 / X3
Brian X3 X4 X3 /
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef, and Brian is the dentist.
Check your progress 7.
Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers (president, vice president, secretary,
treasurer) of the sophomore class at Summit College. From the following clues, determine which position each holds.
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
GE 4- Mathematics in the Modern World La Carlota City College
Activity 1: Check your progress.
1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25,30, 35, 40, 45?
b. 2, 5, 10, 17, 26, 37, 50, 65, 82, 101,122?
c. 5,11,17,23,29,35,41, 47, 53, 59, 65, 71?
d. 1,8,27,64,125,216,343, 512, 729, 1000?
e. 1,5,12, 22, 35, 51, 70, 92, 117, 145, 176, 210, 247?
f. 80,70,61,53,46,40, 35, 31, 28?
g. 1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, 97, 127?
2. Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the product, divide the sum
by 3, and subtract 5. Complete the above procedure for several different numbers. Use inductive reasoning to make
a conjecture about the relationship between the size of the resulting number and the size of the original number.
3. A tsunami is a sea wave produced by an underwater earthquake. The height of a tsunami as it approaches land
depends on the velocity of the tsunami. Use the table below and inductive reasoning to answer each of the following
questions.
a. What happens to the height of a tsunami when its velocity is doubled?
b. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 30 feet per second?
c. What should be the height of a tsunami if its velocity is 48 feet per second?
Velocity of Height of
tsunami, tsunami,
in feet in feet
per second
6 4
9 9
12 16
15 25
18 36
21 49
24 64
4. Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample for each.
For all numbers x:
𝑥 𝑥+3
a. 𝑥 = 1 b. 3 = 𝑥 + 1 c. √(𝑥² + 16) = 𝑥 + 4
5. Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three times the original
number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 6, add 10 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 5.
Hint: Let n represent the original number.
6. Determine whether each of the following arguments is an example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.
a. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel Twelve Sharp is a Janet Evanovich novel. Thus
Twelve Sharp is worth reading.
b. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries, because it has not paid out any money
during the last 45 tries.
7. Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers (president, vice president,
secretary, treasurer) of the sophomore class at Summit College. From the following clues, determine which position
each holds.
1. Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors