What are cells?
A cell is the smallest unit of a living thing. A living thing, whether made of one cell (like bacteria) or many
cells (like a human), is called an organism. Thus, cells are the basic building blocks of all organisms.
Several cells of one kind that interconnect with each other and perform a shared function form tissues;
several tissues combine to form an organ (your stomach, heart, or brain); and several organs make up an
organ system (such as the digestive system, circulatory system, or nervous system). Several systems that
function together form an organism (like a human being). There are many types of cells all grouped into
one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. For example, both animal and plant cells are
classified as eukaryotic cells, whereas bacterial cells are classified as prokaryotic.
Cells vary in size. With few exceptions, individual cells cannot be seen with the naked eye, so scientists
use microscopes (micro- = "small"; -scope = "to look at") to study them. A microscope is an instrument
that magnifies an object. Most photographs of cells are taken with a microscope; these images can also
be called micrographs.
At 0.1 to 5.0 μm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells, which have
diameters ranging from 10 to 100 μm. The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and organic molecules
that enter them to quickly diffuse to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes produced within a
prokaryotic cell can quickly diffuse out. This is not the case in eukaryotic cells, which have developed
different structural adaptations to enhance intracellular transport.
Small size, in general, is necessary for all cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Let's examine why
that is so. First, we'll consider the area and volume of a typical cell. Not all cells are spherical in shape,
but most tend to approximate a sphere. You may remember from your high school geometry course
that the formula for the surface area of a sphere is 4πr2, while the formula for its volume is 4/3πr3.
Thus, as the radius of a cell increases, its surface area increases as the square of its radius, but its
volume increases as the cube of its radius (much more rapidly). Therefore, as a cell increases in size, its
surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. This same principle would apply if the cell had the shape of a
cube. If the cell grows too large, the plasma membrane will not have sufficient surface area to support
the rate of diffusion required for the increased volume. In other words, as a cell grows, it becomes less
efficient. One way to become more efficient is to divide; another way is to develop organelles that
perform specific tasks. These adaptations led to the development of more sophisticated cells called
eukaryotic cells.
Cell Theory:
The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of his
now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protista (a type of single-celled
organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed "animalcules."
In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term "cell"
for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s, van
Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses, microscope construction, and
staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside cells.
By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying tissues
and proposed the unified cell theory. The unified cell theory states that: all living things are composed of
one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing cells. Rudolf Virchow
later made important contributions to this theory.
Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell origination, but
spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven. Rudolf Virchow famously stated
"Omnis cellula e cellula"... "All cells only arise from pre-existing cells." The parts of the theory that did
not have to do with the origin of cells, however, held up to scientific scrutiny and are widely agreed
upon by the scientific community today. The generally accepted portions of the modern Cell Theory are
as follows:
1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.
The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:
1. Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division
2. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells
Prokaryotic Cells:
All cells share four common components:
1. A plasma membrane: an outer covering that separates the cell's interior from its surrounding
environment.
2. cytoplasm: a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which other cellular components are found
3. DNA: the genetic material of the cell
4. ribosomes: where protein synthesis occurs
However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways. A prokaryote is a simple, single-celled
(unicellular) organism that lacks an organized nucleus or any other membrane-bound organelle. We will
shortly come to see that this is significantly different in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central
part of the cell: the nucleoid.
Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule. The cell wall
acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The
capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or
fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic material during a type of
reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to a host cell.
Eukaryotic Cells:
Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes. However,
unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have:
1. a membrane-bound nucleus
2. numerous membrane-bound organelles (including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
chloroplasts, and mitochondria)
3. several rod-shaped chromosomes
Because a eukaryotic cell's nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, it is often said to have a "true
nucleus." Organelles (meaning "little organ") have specialized cellular roles, just as the organs of your
body have specialized roles. They allow different functions to be compartmentalized in different areas of
the cell.
Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. Eukaryotic cells have a true nucleus,
which means the cell's DNA is surrounded by a membrane. Therefore, the nucleus houses the cell's DNA
and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes, the cellular organelles responsible for protein
synthesis. The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion
of the nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and RNA
between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is the semi-solid gel-like substance in the
nucleus where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus.
To understand chromatin, it is helpful to first consider chromosomes. Chromatin describes the material
that makes up chromosomes, which are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the
hereditary material. You may remember that in prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular
chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are linear structures. Every eukaryotic species has a specific
number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its body's cells. For example, in humans, the chromosome
number is 46, while in fruit flies, it is eight. Chromosomes are only visible and distinguishable from one
another when the cell is getting ready to divide. In order to organize the large amount of DNA within the
nucleus, proteins called histones are attached to chromosomes; the DNA is wrapped around these
histones to form a structure resembling beads on a string. These protein-chromosome complexes are
called chromatin. In prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes,
chromosomes are linear structures.
Other Membrane-Bound Organelles:
1. Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and
DNA. These organelles are often called the "energy factories" of a cell because they are
responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main energy-carrying molecule,
by conducting cellular respiration.
2. The endoplasmic reticulum modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids
3. The golgi apparatus is where the sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and
proteins takes place.
4. Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes; they carry out
oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. Peroxisomes also detoxify
many poisons that may enter the body.
5. Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in storage and transport. Other
than the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, there is a very subtle distinction
between them: the membranes of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma membrane or other
membrane systems within the cell.
All of these organelles are found in each and every eukaryotic cell.
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant
cells. Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. The centrosome is a
microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells while lysosomes take care of the
cell's digestive process.
In addition, plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized
plastids, whereas animal cells do not. The cell wall protects the cell, provides structural support, and
gives shape to the cell while the central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell's concentration of
water in changing environmental conditions. Chloroplasts are the organelles that carry out
photosynthesis.