enockmosomi

@gmai
l
.com

COMPUTERNOTESFORM 1
(
enockmosomi
1@gmai
l.
com)
ByMr
.Mosomi
FORMOREE-
MATERI
ALS
What
sApp(
+254)0748842695
CHAPTER1

I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOCOMPUTERS

Thi
schapteri
ntr
oducesthest udenttowhatacomput eris,cl
assi
fi
es
comput
ersint
odiff
erentcategor
ies,comparest
hediff
erentcl
assesof
comput
ersandal
sointr
oducesthekeyboardasabasi
cinputdevi
ce.

1.
1 Def ini
tionofacomput er
1.
2 Cl assif
icati
onofcomput er
s
1.
2.1Physicalsize
1.
2.2Thewayt heyprocessdata
1.
2.3Bypur pose
1.
2.4Byuse
1.
3 Acqui siti
onofKey boar
dskill
s
1.
3.1Layoutofkey board
1.
3.2Summar y
1.
3.3Questions

Page|
1
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

1.
1 DEFI
NITI
ONOFACOMPUTER

Before we at
temptt o defi
ne a Comput er
,ther
e ar
e a numberof
associat
edtermi
nologi
est hatthelearnerneedstoknow bef
orehand.
Theseare:Dat
a,I
nformati
on,andPrograms.

Dat aist henamegi ventof act

[Link] e,inaschool,thenumberof
student sinacl ass,t
henumberoft eachers,namesofst udents,thename
ofcust omer si nabusiness.
Informat i
oni sr esul
tf r
om pr ocesseddat [Link] eaddi ngsome
numer icalv aluesli
kethenumber s14and17i nt
othecomput erwi l
lgi
ve
yout her [Link] at
erisinformationy ourequi
[Link]
mat ioncan
bedef i
nedasdat acomput edint
oamor eusef ulf
ormthanr awf orm.

Program is a ser
ies ofinst
ruct
ions wr
it
ten i
nt he l
anguage oft
he
computerforthem toobeyandperfor
m speci
fi
ctasksasoutli
nedbyt
he
i
nstruct
ions.

A Comput ercant her

eforebedefi
nedas“anelect
roni
cmachi
nethat
takesindata(facts)i
nt her
aw f
orm,pr
ocessest
hedatatogi
veoutin
anotherf
orm call
edinf
ormati
on”
.

Whenacomput erisfedwi thdat a,itpassest hroughfourbasi csteps

beforethedat acanbedi spl
aced;
(i
)I nputPr ocess–t heuserwi l
ltypet hedat af rom sayt
hekey board( t
o
bei nt
roducedl aterint hechapt er)andt hecomput erwillacceptthe
dameandst orewi t
hi nit
.
(i
i
)St oragePr ocess–t hedat athatisf edi ntot hecomputeratt hesame
timeishel d,evendur ingthet i
meofpr ocessi ngandafterprocessing;
itcanf ur t
herbest oredforfur therrefer [Link] aar eheldin
comput ermemor y.
(i
i
i)Processi ng–t hecomput erwi l
lmani pulat ethedataheldwi t
hinitt
oa
mor eusef ulf
orm –r esults(i
nfor mation) .
(i
v)OutputPr ocess–t heuseri sgi venthei nf ormationhedesired.

Thef ourbasi
cpr ocessescanbesummar izedint hefoll
owingwayby
l
ookingatthesamet ermsofinf
ormati
onprocessingcycl
e.
Organizi
ngdataforprocessi
ng–t ogetquali
tyresult
s(i
nformati
on)y
ou
Page|
2
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

musthav equali
tydat
atostar
twit
[Link]
iabl
eor i
ginaldat
agenerat
es
unrel
iabl
eresul
[Link]
ougi
veacomput ergarbage,yougetgarbagein
ret
[Link]
scal
ledGIGO–Gar
bageIn–GarbageOut.

Inf
ormationProcessi
ngCycle-I
nfor
mat
ionPr
ocessi
ngCycl
eincl
udesa
seri
esofst epsf ort
ransf
ormi
ngdatai
ntomeaningf
uli
nfor
mati
onf or
people.

Acycl
eisdefi
nedasasequenceofact
ivi
ti
esper
for
medi
nanor
dert
hati
t
pr
oducesexpect
edandmeaningf
ulr
esult
s.

APr ocessi ngCy clei srepeat ed, itmeans, i

fthesamer esourcesar eused
i
nt hesameway ,t hesameout comewi l
lr esul
[Link] andard cycle
f
ollowedt opr ocessdat aanddel iv
eri nformat i
oncompr i
sesof4maj or
f
unct ions:
(
i)I nputFunct i
on -t hei nputf unctiongat hersandcol lectsstoreddat a
i
temsandent ert hem int ot hesy stem forpr ocessi
[Link]
fr
om manysour ces, f
orexampl ef r
om f i
leskeptint heof f
ice,
banking
i
nst it
uti
onsandaccount s.
(
ii
)St orageFunct ion–t hisf unct i
onal lowst heusert ost oredatabeing
processedi nt hememor yoft hecomput eraswel last ostorethe
i
nf ormat i
onf orf utureuse.
(
ii
i)Pr ocessi ngFunct ion–t hedesi r
edoper at i
onbyt heuseri scarri
edout
ont hedat akey edi nandst oredi nt hememor ysoast ot ur
ni ti
nt o
meani ngf uli
nf ormat ion.
(
iv)Out putFunct ion–t hedat ast oredi sprocessedandt henout puti
nt o
fi
l
es, printedashar dcopi esordi splayedont hescreenf ortheuser.

Note:Foranyinf
ormationprocessingsyst
em torunsmoot hlyonaday -
to-
daybasis,t
heprocessingacti
vit
iesmustbeor gani
[Link] stem hasli
ttl
e
workifitpr
ovi
deshelpfuli
nformationononedayandusel essi nfor
mation
[Link]
dbeusef ult
hefi
rstti
meandev er ytimeforthe
syst
em.

1.
2 CLASSI
FICATI
ONOFCOMPUTERS

Therear
ef ourbasi
cwaysbywhichcomputerscanbecl
assi
fi
ed:
(i
) Physical
sizei
.ehowl
argethecomputeri
s.
Page|
3
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

(
ii
)Byt hewaytheypr
ocessdat
a
(
ii
i)Bypurpose
(
iv)Byuse

1.2.1Phy sical Si ze
Thef ollowi ngcomput ersy stemsar ecat egor izedbyhowl arget heyar e:
a)Monst erComput er
Somet imesi ti sr ef er redt oasSupercomput ersorMaxicomput er s.
Thesear ecomput erofenor mouspowerandar ev eryl argei nsi [Link] s
i
nst al lat i
onr equi resspeci alf l
oor st ocar ryi tswei ght sandi tal soneeds
speci al plumbi ngt ocar ryaf luidknownasf luor ocar bonneededt ocool i
t .
Oneuni quef eat ureofmaxi comput ersi st hatwheny oupur chasei t,the
pur chasepr icewi lli ncl udet heser vicesof2per manentengi neer st o
mai nt ai ni tf orev er .Theyar et ypicallyusedf orsci entifi
cr esear chand
mi l
itar y appl i
cat i
ons, pet roleum engi neer i
ng, nucl ear phy sics and
met eor ol
ogy .
Exampl esofmonst ercomput er
si ncludeCYBERandCRAYcomput er s.
Forexampl e,t hewhol egl obeneedsonl yonemonst ercomput ert o
forecastweat heratonce.
b)Mai nf r
ameComput er s
Mai nf r
amecomput ersar esecondi nsi zet omonst ercomput er [Link]
comput ersper f orm mor edat apr ocessi ngwor kt hananyot hert ypeof
comput [Link] hisr easont heyf orm al argepor tionofi nst allationi n
mostor gani zat i
on.
Asdoest hemonst ercomput ers,mai nf ramecomput ersal sohav e
somespeci alr equi r
ement s,fort her eason,t heyar ehousedi nspeci al
roomsbr oughtaboutbyt hespeci alpowert hatt heypossest oget herwi th
env ironment alcont rol requi rement s.
Mai nf r
amecomput erscanbeusedbymor et hanoneper sonatat ime
sincet heycansuppor tal argenet wor kofot hercomput er sor gani zations
thatempl oymai nf ramecomput ersal ongsideot hercomput ersar ebanks,
gov er nmentagenci es, commer cialandi ndust rialagenci es.
c)Mi ni comput er
Al socal l
edMedi um si zedcomput [Link] erscompar edt o
mai nf r amear esmal ler,sl owerandl essexpensi ve.
Ami ni
comput erhasanadv antageov ert hepr evioust woi nt hesense
thati tdoes nothav e any speci alpowerorenv ironment alcont r
ol
requi r ement [Link] hisr eason, themedi um si zedcomput ercanal way sbe
Page|
4
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

l
ocat
edanywherewi
thi
ntheorgani
zat
ion.
Mi
nicomput
erscandot heworkthatthemai
nfr
amedoesbutona
smal
lscal
e.

d)Microcomput ers
Ofthet ypesofcomput ers,micr
ocomput er
saret [Link] er
,
theycount eractt hisdi sadv antagebecauset heyareeasyt ouseandt he
costofpur chasei salsol ow.
Ami crocomput erget si tsnamef rom thefactthatit
smai ncomput i
ng
component ,themi cropr ocessor( t
obei nt
roducedlater
)islocatedinone
i
ntegratedci rcui
t( IC)orwhatwecal laChi [Link]
ocomput er
sfitnicel
yon
deskt
ops,f ort hatr eason t hey are somet imes known as Deskt op
Comput [Link] eal sor eferr
edtoasPer sonalComput er
ssi ncemany
i
ndivi
dualspur chaset hem f orpersonal use.

1.2.2Ty peofdat apr ocessed

Classificationofcomput er sbyt hewayt heypr ocessdat afallsinto2
mai nty peswi ththet hi
r dbei ngacombi nat i
onoft het wo:
(i
)Anal ogand ( i
i)Digital Comput er
s
(i
ii)Hy brid
(i
)Anal ogComput ers
Thesecomput erspr ocessdat athatv arycont i
nuousl y,forexampl e
var i
ati
onsi ntemper ature, amountofcur r
entf l
owi ngt hr
oughanel ectrical
conduct [Link] low ofsuchdat aisi nt hef orm ofwav el i
ke
mov ementi .
[Link] edictabl [Link] comput ersar eused f orawi de
var i
etyofi ndustri
alandsci entifi
cappl icati
onst hatr equir
et heprocessi ng
ofdat at hatar emeasur edcont inuously.
Inconcl usi
on, wesayt hatanal ogcomput ersmeasur ethings.
(i
i) Di gitalComput ers
As opposed t o anal og comput ers,t hese t ype countt hi
[Link] a
passedt oadi gi
talcomput eri susual lyoper atedoni nstepsi .
e.f orm of
discretenumber s,0,1,2,3,( adi screteoper ation) .Itislikecount ingon
one’ sfinger s( 1,
2, 3,4…) .Mostcomput er
si nuset odayar edi gi
[Link]
becauset herear emor ecount ingappl icationst hant her
ear eappl i
cations
thant her ear eappl i
cationst hatr equir
econt i
nuousmeasur ement s.
(i
ii) Hy bridComput ers
These comput ers possess f eatures ofbot h di gitaland anal og
Page|
5
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

comput
ersmeani
ngbot
hcount
ingandmeasur
ementoper
ati
onsi
none
comput
er.

1.2.3ByPur pose
Classifi
cationbypur posef allsi
nto2cat egories:
a) Speci alPur poseComput ers
Thesear ecomput erst hatar esi nglet askor iented.I notherwor ds,
theyar edesi gnedt osol veonl yapar ti
culart ypeofpr [Link] es
i
ncl udeembeddedcomput ersi nourcommondi gi
tal watches.
b) Gener alPur poseComput ers
Thesear ecomput erst hatcanper form av astnumberofoper at
ions
orsol vepr oblemsofdi fferentv ari
eti
[Link] hecomput er
sinuse
todayar egener alpur [Link] er,iti swi set o not et hatgeneral-
pur posecomput erscanal way sbeadapt edwi thspeci alprogramst odoa
j
obspeci f
iedhencebecomi ngspeci alpur posecomput er .
c)EmbeddedComput er s
These ar e comput ers at tached t o ot hercomput erst hathelpi n
oper ati
ngt hem.E. [Link] ersembeddedi nlif
ts,pet rolpumps,digital
wat chesandsoon.

1.2.4ByUse
I
tiswor t
hynot i
ngthatwecategori
zethesecomputer
saccordi
ngto
whati tisusedf [Link]
scategor
y,t
helisti
s
[Link]
sreasonwewil
ll
imitoursel
vest
oonlyf
ivemaint
ypes.

(i
)Per sonalComput ersorDeskt opComput ers
Thesear eal soknownasMi crocomput [Link] rom the
factthattheyfitnicelyont hedeskt [Link] sobeusedont hedesk
i
nt heofficeenv i
ronmentorf orpersonal useathome.
(i
i)HomebasedComput ers
Thesecomput ersarethosedesi gnedt [Link] ndiv
idual
mayi nstallonl
ygamespr ogram ini torawor dpr
ocessort oenablethem
wr i
telet
ters,sti
llsomewoul dinstallaccount i
ngpackagest oenablethem
budgetandcont rolthei
rfi
nancesathome.
(i
ii
) Lapt opComput ers
Thesecomput ersgett heirnamef rom thefactt hatyoucanpl ace
them ony ourlapswhi l
eusi [Link] ev erysmallcomput er
sthathav e
Page|
6
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

thestr
uctureofabr i
efcasei.
[Link] hesameway .These
haveakey boardat t
achedt othem andaf l
atscr eentoget
herwitha
mousebal landchar geablebatt
eri
[Link]
smeanst haty oucanusethem
i
nt her
uralareaswher et hei
snoelectr
ici
ty.
Laptopcomput ersalsohav eport
s(smallsl
ots)throughwhi
chyoucan
att
achanext ernalkeyboard,
mouseorext er
naldri
velikedri
veA:
.

1.
3 ACQUI
SITI
ONOFKEYBOARDSKI
LLS

There are manyway sto enterdat ai ntothe comput [Link] er,

key boardstil
lremainsthepredomi nantinputdeviceforthemanyuser s.
A comput erskey boardisusedmuchl ikeat ypewriterkey boar
d.A
key boardhasal phabeti
c,numer i
c,andspeci alcharactersf oundona
typewr i
[Link] ydiff
erenceist hatdat akeyedi n,isrecor dedinthe
comput ersystems’datacodingschemeandi sstor
edi nthememor [Link]
tr
adi t
ionalf ormatofa comput erort er
minalkey boar df oll
ows the
organizationpr escr
ibedbyt het [Link] si sknownas
QWENTYkey boardbecauseoft hesequenceoft hesi xlettersont he
upperl eftcornerofthealphabetpositi
onoft hetypewrit
erkey board.

1.3.1Lay outofKey boar dandFunct ionsofKey s

At ypicalkey boar dt akest hef orm ofanor malt y
pewr it
erkey board.A
key boar dusual lyhasst andardkey s;thati slettersoft heal phabetpl us
speci alchar acterse.g.? ,‘
,@ e.t.
c.
I
naddi ti
ont ot hest andar dkeys,onef indsanumer i
ckey padwhi chi s
essent ialforappl i
cat i
onst hatrequireentryofl argeamount sofnumer i
cal
i
nf ormat ion.
Funct i
on Key s ar ei denti
fi
ed as F1 t hrough F12,t hey can be
progr ammedt o easet hewor koff requent l
yusedoper [Link] sor
cont rolkey sofdi recti
onkey s ( )t heoneswi t
har r
ows, movet he
cur soront heCRT( screen) .
Otherspeci alkey si nclude:Del etekey sandbackspacekey swhi ch
deleteschar [Link] etekeydel etesachar act erthatisinf rontoft he
cur sorwher easbackspacekeydel etecharact ersbef orethecur sor.I
nsert
keywi l
linser tchar acter sfrom [Link]. ghomekeywi l
ltakey out o
Page|
7
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

thetopoft hedocumentandendkeyt ot heendoft hedocument .

Comput erkey boardempl oyoneormor econt r
olkey [Link] r
olwor ks
j
ustl i
ket heshi f
tkeyonakey boardint hatt heycauseot herkey sto
perfor
mf unctionsdiff
erentf rom theirnormaloper at
[Link] e,ifyou
holdshiftkeydownandpr esst hel et
ter“e”,yougetadi ff
erentchar act
er
“E”.Holdingdownt hecont r olkeywhi leyoupr essanyoft heotherkey s
causesst il
lanothercharact ertobesentt omemor y.
Likethecont rolkeys,theescapekeyi susedt ocauseot herkey sto
perfor
m speci alfuncti
[Link] i
ket hecont rolkeys,howev er,iti
snothel d
downwhi lepressinganotherkey .Oncesendi ngasi gnaltot hecomput er
system, f
ort [Link] oupr essanot herkeyf ol
lowingEscape, itwil
l
causethecomput ertoexecut eaf uncti
onest abli
shedbyt hepr ogram in
use.

Fi
g.1.
3.1Lay
outoft
heKey
boar
d

1.
3.2SUMMARY

 Acomputeri
sadevicethattakesdat
ainonef
orm andpr
ocessesi
tto
gi
veouti
nanotherf
orm cal
ledinf
ormati
on.

 Dat
aist
henamegi
vent
ofact
s.

I
nfor
mat
ioni
spr
ocesseddat
a.

 Progr
am is a setofinstr
ucti
ons wri
tt
en i
nt he l
anguage oft
he
computeri
ndi
cati
ngwhatthecomputeri
stoper
form.

Page|
8
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

 4basi
cfunct
ionsofacomput
er:
Input
,St
orage,
Processi
ngandOut
put
.

 Comput
erscanbeclassi
fi
edby
:Si
ze,Thewayt
heypr
ocessdat
a,By
Pur
poseandbyuse.

 Typicalkey
boardisthesameasat ypewri
terkey
boar d,has:st
andard
keys,NumericKeypad,Funct
ionkeys,Cur
sorControlkeysorDirect
ion
keys,Contr
olKeys,Al
ter
natekeys,
Escapekeyse.t
.c.

1.
3.3QUESTI
ONS:

i
.Def
ineaComput
er.

i
i
.Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenDat
aandI
nfor
mat
ion.

i
i
[Link]
saComput
erPr
ogr
am.

i
[Link]
ethe4basi
cfunct
ionsaComput
erwi
l
lper
for
m ondat
a.

v
.Di
scussi
ndet
ail
howcomput
erscanbecl
assi
fi
ed.

v
[Link]
hel
ayoutofat
ypi
calkey
boar
dandf
unct
ionsoft
hedi
ff
erent
keys

Page|
9
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

CHAPTER2

COMPUTERCOMPONENTS

Thischapt erintroducesthest udenttot hecomput erhardwaresy stem.

Attheendoft hechapt er,thest udentshouldbeabl et o:diff
erentiate
betweenhar dwar eandsof t
war e,identi
fyt heelement sofacomput er
systems’har dwar e,expl
ainthef uncti
onalorganizat
ionoft heelement sof
acomput ersy stem,descr i
bet hecent ralprocessi
nguni t
,describert he
ty
pes ofi nputand out putdev ices,describe the ty
pes ofsecondar y
stor
agedev icesandmedi aandf inal
lybeabl et odistingui
shbet ween
system softwareandappl i
cationsof t
ware.

2.
1 Di agrammat icRepr esent at i
onofDi visi
ons
ofaComput erSy stem.
2.
2Di sti
nctionbetweenHar dwar eandSof twar
e.
2.
3TheCompl eteComput erSy stem.
2.
4Element sofaComput erHar dwareSy stem.
2.
5Funct ional Or
ganizationoft heElement s
ofaComput erSy stem.
2.
6Descr iptionofCent r
al Processi ngUni t.
2.
7Descr iptionoftypesofI nputDev ices.
2.
8Descr iptionoftypesofOut putDev ices.
2.
9Descr iptionoftypesofSecondar y
StorageDev icesandMedi a.
2.
9.1Disti
nct i
onbet weenSy st em Soft ware
andAppl i
cati
onSof twar e.
2.
9.2Summar y
.
2.
9.3Quest i
ons.
Fi
g.2.
1

2.1DIAGRAMMATI CREPRESENTATIONOFDIVISIONSOFACOMPUTER
Thef ol
lowi
ngdiagr
am showst hebasicphy
sicalcomput
erbr
eakdown
thatwil
lser
veasarefer
encet
hroughoutt
hechapter
.

Page|
10
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Fi
g.2.
1

KEY:
C.
P.U - Cent ralProcessingUni
t
A.
L.U - Ar i
thmet i
cLogi cUni
t
DOS- Di
skOperati
ngSy stem
Page|
11
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

ROM- ReadOnlyMemory
RAM- Random AccessMemory
DBMS- Dat
aBaseManagementSyst
em

2.
2DI
STI
NCTI
ONBETWEENHARDWAREANDSOFTWARE

AComput erhar
dwarefrom thesimplestpointofv iewisthephy sicalor
tangiblepartsofacomput erwhereassof twarear et heintangiblepar ts
thathel pthecomputert
odoi tst
[Link] om at echnicalstandpoi nt,t
he
foll
owi ngaretheval
iddefi
nit
ionsandhencet hedi stinct
ionbet weent he
twot erms.
A har dwareisanamet hatdescribesal ltheel ectroni
c,electri
caland
mechani calcomponents ofa comput ert ogetherwi t
hi ts peripheral
devices.
Asof twareisthenamet hatdescri
besal ltheprogr amst hatareusedt o
runthecomput erordoaspecifict
asktoget herwithitsdocument ation.

Explanati
onoft heterms
Peripher
aldev ices referredto abovear e:i nputdevi
cese. gkey board,
mouseorout putdev icese. gmonitor
,pr i
[Link] i
cesthatare
usedatt heperipheryoratt hesideoralongsidet hecomputer.
Document ati
onr eferst o,init
ssimplestf orm,themanualt hathelpsthe
usertoknowhowt hedi ff
erentpart
soft hesof t
warework,howt oinstal
lit
,
uninstal
l
, t
roubleshootorasar ef
[Link] i
nit
ionofsof t
ware
i
snotcompl eteuntildocument ati
onisincluded.

2.
3THECOMPLETECOMPUTERSYSTEM

Becauseoft her ecentadv ancesi nhardwar et echnol ogy ,peopl ehav e

thoughtofcomput er sashardwar edev i
cesonl [Link] sfarf rom t het rut
h.
Thef actis,t
hehar dwar eisonlyonepar toft
hecompl etesy [Link] thout
programst ot el
lthecomput erwhatt odo,t heyr emai ni mmobi l
eand
unproduct i
ve,j
ustlikeanaut omobi lewithoutf uel.
A comput ersy stem ist herefore defined as a combi nation of
hardwar edevicesandpr ogr
amsassembl edtoaccompl ishspeci fi
ct asks.
Thebr oadcat egoriesofpr ogr amsar eof tenempl oyedbycomput er
’s
[Link] egor yofpr ogram i sknownasOper atingsy [Link]
thenamesuggest s,t heoperatingsy st
em cont r
olst hebasi caspect sof
Page|
12
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

thecomput er’
soper ation.I
tist hedr i
veroft hecomput er.
The ot hercat egor y consist s oft he Appl i
cati
on pr ogram which
i
nstructsthecomput ertoper formt hosepr ocedur
esnecessar ytoget
somej obsdone;f orexampl eWor d-processing,Accounti
ngpr ograms;as
agroupar eof t
encal ledSof twar [Link],thethreecomponent sofa
completecomput ersy st
em ar e:Hardwar e,t heOper at
ingSy st
em and
Appli
cation Softwar [Link] f ol l
owing di agram ( f
ig.2. 3) shows the
rel
ati
onshipbetweent heset hreecomponent s.

Fi
g.2.
3

2.
4ELEMENTSOFACOMPUTERHARDWARESYSTEM

Thehar dwarecomponentsofacomput ersystem consi

stofasetof
i
nterconnected el
ect
ronic and mechanical dev i
ces. Al
l comput i
ng
machinesbei tacal
culat
or,ami cr
ocomputeroramai nfr
amehast he
samepar ts.
Thepar tsofahar dwaresy st
em are:Inputdev i
[Link] board,
Outputdev i
cese.
gMonitor,Pr
int
erandtheCentralProcessi
ngUnitwhich
Page|
13
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

compri
sesofCont
rolUni
t(CU)andt
heAri
thmeticLogi
cUnit(ALU)and
Memory.
Thefi
gur
e2.
5showsthepart
sofacomputerhar
dwaresy
stem.

Fi
g.2.
5:Component
sofaComput
erHar
dwar
eSy
stem

Page|
14
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

2.
5Funct
ional
Organi
zat
ionoft
heEl
ement
sofaComput
erSy
stem

Fi
g.2.
6bel
ow showst
hemaj
orphy
sicalcomponent
sofacomput
er
sy
stem

Fi
g.2.
6

2.
6DESCRI
PTI
ONOFTHECENTRALPROCESSI
NGUNI
T

TheCent r
alProcessingUni
tisthemaincomponentofacomput er
hardwar esyst
[Link]
yref
err
[Link]
stsofthr
ee
[Link] npartoftheCPUisthememoryorprimaryst
orage,
wher e
databei ngprocessedandt heprogramscontr
oll
i
ngt hecomputerar e
contained.

Page|
15
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Ar it
hmet i
cLogi cUni tf ormst hesecondpar toft [Link]
performst hecalcul ationsandmakescompar isonsbet weenuni tsofdat a.
Thel astcomponenti st heCont rolUni t( CU),t hewor kofwhi chi st o
controlt heoper ati
onsoft hehar dwar ef orexampl ebyi ssui ngcommands
toal lelement soft hecomput eraspert hedi ctati
onsofmemor y .(e.g
fr
om t hei nputdev icest omemor y,from memor yt oout putdev i
ces, et c).
TheCent ralPr ocessi ngUni tdet er mi nest hepowerofacomput er
hardwar esy stem whi chi sdescr i
bedi nt ermsof:
(i
) Si zeofMemor y,whi chi smeasur edbyt henumberofchar act ersof
dat ai tcanst ore
(i
i)Speedoft heCont rolandAr i
thmet i
cLogi cUni t
,whi chi smeasur edi n
mi l
l
ionsofi nst r
uct ionspersecond( MI PS) .
Thewor koft hev ar i
ousi nputdev icessuchast ermi nalkey boar d, disk
storage uni tsand t ape st orage uni tsi st o send dat ai nt ot he CPU,
wher east hewor koft heout putdev i
cessuchaspr inter s,v i
sualdi splay
unit
s,di skandt apeuni tsi st ogi v
eoutt her esul t
sf rom t hepr ocessi ng
operat i
ons.
TheCent ralPr ocessi ngUni tal so“ houses”Regi [Link] atteri sa
smal lpar tintheCPUt hathol dsdat abef orepr ocessi ngorpr obabl yaf t
er .
Theyst oredat at obepr ocessedandt hereaf t
erpar tialr esul t
[Link] ster s
areofdi ff
erentkindsper formingdi fferentf unctions:
() Or
i dinar yCount erRegi ster( OC)– Thi sr egisteraddr essest henex t
inst ructi
ont obeexpect edorwecoul dsayi tcont ainst headdr esses
oft henexti nst ruct i
ont obeexecut ed.
(i
i)Inst ructi
onRegi ster( IR)–Thi sr egist ercont ainst heact ualinst r
uct ion
underexecut i
on.
Page|
16
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

(i
i)Accumul
i atorRegister–Thi sr egisterstoresdatatobeprocessedor
theresultsofapar ti
al execut ion.
The processorcommuni cat es wi tht he main memor yt hrough 2
regi
ster
s:
(a)Memor yAddr essRegi ster( MAR)
(b)DataAddr essRegi ster(DAR)
Whenr eadingawor df rom thememor y,
theCPUst or
estheaddr essof
thatwordinMARandsendsar eadsi gnaltoamai nmemor [Link] t
erone
memor ycy cl
e,thev alueoft hewor di sinDARf rom wheretheCPUwi l
l
searchfori
t .
Whenr eadingawor d, t
heCPUst oresi nMARt headdressofwher ethe
writ
eoperat i
onwi l
ltakepl [Link] aluetobewr i
ttenwil
lbestoredinthe
DARandt heni tsendst hewr itesi gnal tothememor y
.

Executi
onofanI nstruction
The execut ion ofan i nst ruction oft he cent ralprocessing uni
tis
perf
ormedt hrought hef ollowi ngst eps:
(i
) Storageoft henexti nst ructiont obeexecut edf r
om t hemainmemory
totheinst ructionr egist er(IR);
(i
i
)Modi f
icat i
onoft hecont ent soft heOCr egisterstheaddr essoft
he
nextinstruct i
on;
(i
i
i)Recordingoft hei nstruct ionr ecent l
ystored;
(i
v)Locali
zat ionoft hedat aneededbyt heinstr uct
ionsint hememory;
(v
)St orageofdat ai fnecessar yintot hei nternalregistersoftheCPU
generallyt heaccumul ator ;
(v
i)Executionoft hei nstruct i
on;
(v
ii
)Storageoft her esultsi nt heappr opr i
ateplace;
(v
ii
i)Returnt ost ep( i)fort heexecut ionoft henexti nst
ruct i
on.

ThePr ocessor
TheCont r
olandAr i
thmet i
c/LogicUni t
sar eusual
lyconsideredasa
hardwar edeviceseparatef r
om t hememor [Link]
sbecauset hesi zeof
the memor y may v ar
y i ndependent l
y f rom t he Cont rol and
Ar i
thmetic/
[Link] atedevicestheyareknownasPr ocessor
.
Processor
susedi nmi crocomputersar eknownasmi croprocessors
(refertochapter1),butconcept ual
lytheyarethesamepr ocessor sfound
i
nl argercomput ersyst
ems.

Page|
17
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Memor y
Acomput er’
smemor yst oresdatabef ore,duri
ngandaf terprocessi ng
aswel last heappl icationpr ogram i nuseatt het [Link] aar e
stor
edi ncel l
soft hememor [Link] ycellcont ainsoneby teof
data(abyte=8char act ers:achar acterissayal etteroft heal phabet,ora
number )
.Ther ef
ore,onecel lwill
containei ghtcharact erscal ledaby te.
Thesizeoft hecomput ermemor yismeasur edi nt ermsof“ Kil
oby tes”
or“Megaby tes”or“ Gigaby tes”.Since“ Ki
lo”standsf or1, 000and“ Mega”
for1,000,000,comput ermemor yi s measur ed by t he t housands or
mill
ionsofby testhatcanbest oredinmemor yatonet i
me.
Incomput erusage,t hepr efix“Kil
o”act uall
yst andsf or1024by tes
and“ Mega”f or1,048, 576by t
es( explanat i
onlateri nf or m 2–Number
systems).
Comput ermemor yissomet imesknownasPr i
mar ymemor ySt orage,
MainMemor yandRAM ( Random AccessMemor y).

Pri
maryMemor y
Pri
marystorageorRAM ist hecomputer’
swor ki
[Link] o
beprocessedmustfirstberecordedinitandalloutputofresul
tsdraws
dat
afrom it
.Pri
maryst or
agehas2cr uci
alchar
acteri
sti
[Link]
stisthat
dat
acanonl ybestoredtemporaril
y,andtwo,i
tcannotstoreagr eatdeal
ofdat
a.

Secondar ySt or
age
Thesechar acter i
sticsofprimarystoragegi v
er iset other equir
ement s
tostorelar gequant iti
esofdat ainmachi nereadabl ef ormt hatcanbef ed
i
ntoRAM i nsmal lsegment [Link] tst hatdot hisarecal l
ed
secondary st orage dev i
ces also refer
red t o as Auxi l
iary Stor
age or
BackingSt orage.( Descr i
pti
onofthesedev i
cesl at t
erint hechapt er)
.
Thet womostpr evalentofthesear edisksandmagnet [Link]
mediaof fert heabi l
it
yt ost or
edat aoffl i
ne,meani ngt hatdat acanbe
processedf r
om t i
met ot i
mebyt hecomput ersy stem andar enotst ored
permanent lyaspar toft hehardwar econf i
gur [Link],t hey
aremount edondat ar eadingandwr it
ingdev ice, call
eddr ops, asrequired
bytheirappl i
cationpr ograms.
(i
) Thepr ocessorr ecei v
esdat afr
om mai nst orage,per formsoper ations
ont hem, thent her esulti
sgivenbackt ot hesame.
(i
i)Datat hengoest ot hemai nmemor ycomesf r
om i nputdev i
cesor
Page|
18
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

secondar
ydevi
ces,anddatafrom t
hemai
nmemor ygoest obacki
ng
stor
ageorout
putdevices.
(
ii
i)TheALUandCUcombi netof
ormthepr
ocessorasdi
scussed.

2.
7DESCRI
PTI
ONOFTYPESOFI
NPUTDEVI
CES

I
nputdevi
cesinwhat
everfor
m asthenamesuggestsar
edev
icest
hat
hel
ptheusertocommunicat
ewiththecomput
erbyissui
ngcommandsin
di
ff
erentwayswhicht
hecomputerobeys.

2.7.
1Key board
Please referto 1.4f orfullkeyboard explanat
[Link] t
he
keyboardisamat t
erofknowingwhichcommandy ouwantt oissuet
othe
machineorwhatent ri
esintheform ofchar
acter
sy ouwantt omake;t
hen
si
mpl ytypeintheri
ghtchar
actersfr
om thekeysofthekey boar
d.

2.7.
2Mouse
Thisisanot hert y
peofi nputdevicebutasopposedt othekeyboar d,i
t
doesn’ thavekey [Link] lytwobut t
ons( butnotal way s)
.
Wheni nstal
ledi ny ourmachi ne,apoi nt
erisalway sseenont hescr een.
Under neatht hemousei sar otati
ngbal lwhichwitht hesl ightmov ement
oft hedev i
ceonapad,t hepoi nterwi l
lcorrespondi nglymov eont he
screenbyt hesamedi st
anceandt ot her i
ghtdi r
ect [Link] ssuean
i
nstruct i
ontot hesy stem,theusersi mplyneedst oclick( pressthemouse
buttononce–usual l
ytheleft)amenuandchooseacommandhewi shes
toissueorcl i
ckacommandhewoul [Link]
alsot odr aw differentshapesofy ourstyl
eapar tfrom si mplycl i
cking
commands.A mouse( mice– pl ural)isusuall
yempl oyedi nWi ndows
Appl i
cations withoutwhi ch t he Wi ndows Oper ati
ng Sy stem become
i
ncompl ete.

Fi
g.2.
7.2Mouse
2.
7.3Li
ghtPens
Page|
19
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Looksl i
keanor dinarypenbuti t
st i
pisal ightsensiti
vedetector.
Wheny outoucht hetipoft hepent othedispl
ayscr een,t
hecomput er
l
ocateswhatar ecalledt hex-y-raycoordi
natesofthatpoint
.Bytouching
thescreenatv ar
iouspoi nts,orbymov ingthepenacr ossthesurf
aceof
thescreen,youcanwr iteanddr aw.
Nor mall
yusedwi t
hpal mt [Link] mtopsar everysmallli
ght
pensreplacemouse.

Phot
oel
ect
ri
cCel
l Cablel
inkt
ocomput
er
ter
minal

Fi
g.2.
7.3Li
ghtPen

2.7.
4JoySt i
ck
Thi
si sadevicet
hatper
mit
sy outomov eapi ct
ure,l
i
ne,wor
d,or
cursorfrom poi
nttopoi
nti
nadisplayscr
[Link]
yinpl
ayi
ng
comput ergames.

Fi
g.2.7.4JoySti
ck
Youoper at
eajoyst
ickbymov ingi
tinvari
ousdir
ecti
ons.I
tcar
iesout
thesamef uncti
onsasthelocatekeys(cur
sorcontrol
)onthekeyboar
d.
Butiti
sfasterandl
etsyoumov ein8dir
ecti
onsinst
eadoffour
.

2.
7.5 Gr
aphi
cTabl
et

Page|
20
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Itletsyoudraw adesignjustasy
[Link]
specialpenoryourfingert
odot hedr
awi
ngonaf l
at,t
abl
eli
kesurf
ace.
Yourdr awi
ngappearsimmediatel
yont
hedi
spl
ayscr
een.

Fi
g.2.7.
5Gr aphicTablet
2.7.6LaserScanner
Thisinputdeviceisusedt oscanapi ctureorot herdocumentsfrom
printont ot hescreenandhencecanbeav ailabl
ef orstor
agei nt he
comput ermemor yf orprocessing orf uturer efer
[Link] pr i
nters
comewi thinbuil
[Link] er,wehav esmal lscanner
s( manual)
thatarehel dinthehandwhi l
escanni nganobj ecttothemonitorint
ot he
memor [Link] orexampl eyourphot ograph,
signature,andlogoonotherdocument [Link] l
at
bedwhi chi susedbyplaci
ngt hedocumentt obescannedoni t
.

Fi
g.2.
7.6LaserScanner

2.7.7Voi ceInput
Voi cei nputsyst emsrequirethattheuserpr onouncet hev ocabular
yof
voicecommandsev eraltimeswhilethesy stem doest he“l
isteni
ng”and
anal ysest hev oicepatternsofthev ari
ouswor [Link] t
erthis,usingan
airplayoft hevoicepatterns,t
hesystem wil
l r
espondt othecommandsas
[Link] hecomput erhasbeeninit
iali
zedwi t
ht hevoi
cepat ter
nof
Page|
21
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

t
heperson,
suchsy
stem wi
llal
waysnotr
espondt
oany
oneel
[Link]
e
i
svoi
cedial
ingi
namobilephone.

2.7.8Voi ceInput
Voi ceinputsyst emsr equirethattheuserpr onouncet hev ocabulary
ofv oicecommandsev eraltimeswhi l
et hesy stem doest he“li
stening”
andanal ysesthev oicepat ter
nsoft hev ariouswor [Link] hi
s,usingan
airplayoft hevoicepat t
erns, t
hesy st
em wi l
lrespondtot hecommandsas
[Link] hecomput erhasbeeni nitial
izedwiththev oicepat t
ernof
theper son,suchsy stem wi l
lalwaysnotr espondt oany oneel [Link] e
i
sv oicediali
nginamobi l
ephone.

2.
7.9OpticalCharact
erReader(OCR)
Thi
sdev icealongwi thotherstobedi scussedshor
tl
yaf t
er,havebeen
devel
opedt omakedat ainputtocomput ersyst
emsindependentofany
humanoper at
[Link]
calCharacterReaders(OCR)acceptdatainput
opt
icall
yorwi thmachinest hatr
espondt omagneti
cinkormagnet i
cInk
Charact
erReader( MICR).

2.
7.10 OpticalMarkReader
s(OMR)
Thi
sdevi
cewil
lplacemarkspl
acedonfor
msfordat
agather
ingpur
poses.
Suchmarkswil
lthenbet r
ansl
atedi
ntothecomputerbyt
hedev i
ceas
i
nputdat
a.

2.7.11BarCodeReaders(orLineCodeReader s)
BarCodeReader swillr
eadpr i
ceandi nvent
orycodespri
ntedonproduct
s
thatar efr
equentl
ypur chasedsuchasi nsupermar
[Link]
usuallyref
erredto asUni ver
salPr oductCode( UPC).SuchBarCode
Readersempl oyedinsuper market
sar eonetypeofremot edateentr
y
terminal
[Link] nt
-Of-Sal
e(POS)ter
[Link]
edata

Page|
22
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

entr
yt erminalspromot eent r
yofdat adi r
ect
lyintothecomput ersystem
forthepur poseofupdat ing,i
nvent
ingf i
lesandpr epar
ingcustomer’sbill
s
and ot hersimilart [Link] e often used in manuf act
uri
ng and
dist
ributi
oni nwar ehouses,retai
lstores,bankt ell
ercountersandot her
businessof fi
[Link] kersandexecutorsi nthefiel
dusuall
yusepor t
able
dataent ryterminaltoent erandretri
evedat adirectl
yint
oandf r
om t he
maincomput ercontrolviatel
ephonelines.
Fig.2.
7.10 BarCode

2.7.
12Keyt oTape/Keyt oDisk
Thi
si sasy st
em ofdataentrynormal lyempl oyedwhenpr ocessing
spir
aldocument susuallyinbatches.I nanykeyt odisksy stem,t here
mustbeami crocomputerthatisusedast hepr ocessi
ngcomput eror
[Link] llbeaspecialcomputert ermi nals,eachwithadi ff
erent
operatorinfr
ontofi [Link]
ovisi
onforaf i
xeddi skdr ivewher edatai sstored
whenkey edini smade,andf i
nall
yt herei sat apedrivewher eafter
compl et
ingagi venbatchofdata,theny oure-locat [Link] erminals
i
susual lydedi catedforasuper vi
sort ot hesy stem thatov erseest he
wholeoper at
ion.

2.7.13Keyt oDiskOper ati

on
Eachoper atorloadst hepr ogram usuallyempl oyedt oenabledat aent r
y
ofbat ches.
,thenkey si nthedat af r
om t heoriginaldocument susual l
y
sour cedocument [Link] ogram inusewi l
lvalidatethedat aent r
yand
i
ncaseofanyer ror;thiswi l
lbegi venont hescreenandt henwillenable
theoper at
ortocor [Link] hisiscorrected,thedat aisstoredondi sk
andt hesecondoper atorisgi v
ent hesamesour cedocumentt ov er
if
y
usingt hesamepr ocesst othet erminalandpr ogr [Link] chis
verifi
edascompact ,t
hedat aist r
ansferredfrom thedisktot hetapedr i
ve
and f i
nall
y phy sicallyt ransferr
ed tot he serv er(minicomput er)for
processi ng.

DESCRI
PTI
ONOFTYPESOFOUTPUTDEVI
CES
Page|
23
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Therear esev eraloutputdevicesthatareavai

labl
ewithi
nthecurr
ent
technologi
caladv [Link]
,wewi l
lli
mitour
sel
vestothe
foll
owing:Pr i
nters,Monitors,Plot
ters,Sound Out
putand Micr
ofi
che
/Microfi
lm devi
ces.

2.7.14 Pr inters
Printersar enecessar ywhenhar dcopiesofdi spl
ayedwor kont he
moni tor hav et o be sent t o customers,r epor
t prepared by t he
Managementandt heBoar dofDi r
ectorsandsoonmustbepr inted.I t’
s
notdi sput ablet he factt hatotherel ectr
onic means oft ransmi tting
i
nf ormat i
onar enow av ail
[Link]
nted-paper,however
,stil
lremai nst he
mostpopul armeansofcommuni cati
ngt hesamei nf
[Link] inters
fallintot hreemai ncat egor i
esclassif
iedbyt heamountofpr i
ntedwor k
thedev i
cei sabl etoproducei noneoper ati
on.
a) PagePr i
nters
Thesepr inter
spr inta whol [Link] esomet imes
known as i mage pr int er
[Link] pr oduce the images by l aser or
electrostatic [Link] qual i
ty of out put f
rom such pr intersi s
suffici
ent lyhighf orbusi nesscor r
[Link] onersjustl ikea
phot ocopy .

Fi
g.2.
8.1(
a)

b) LinePr i
nters
Theset ypeofpr inter
sproduceawhol eli
neofat [Link]
veryfastbutthequal it
yoftheoutputisalway sl
ow.
Itisimpor tanttonot ethatt
hel engthofal ineisnotstandardasit
dif
ferswi t
ht her equirementoftheappl icat
[Link] er,mostof
thepr i
nter
swi llprintbet ween120and144char acter
sperl i
[Link]
l
requi
re appr oximat ely paper widt
h of about 14 i nches so as to
accommodat et hesai dcharact
erscal e.132char actersareoftenthe
mostcommonwi [Link] t
r i
dges.
Page|
24
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

c) Char act
erPr i
nter
s
Form orpr i
ntonechar acterasat imeont hepaper .Thisrat eof
printi
ngv ar
iesbetween20and600char actersperseconddependi ngon
themechani sm orusei nthedi fferentmakesempl oy [Link]
makeuseofr i
bbons.
Therearemanydi ffer
enttypesofchar acterpri
[Link]
sti
scal led
Dai syWheelPr i
nter
,whi ch cr eates ful
lyf ormed letter
s much like a
typewrit
ersomet i
mescal l
edLet terQual i
tyPr i
nter
.Theout puti
sof ten
goodenoughf orbusinesscorrespondence.

a)TheWhol
e

b)Det
ailoftheDaisy
Dai
syWheel wheelSpokes
Fi
g.2.
8.1(c)(
i)Dai
syWheelPri
nter

Page|
25
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Thesecondi sDotMat rixPr i

nter,whichcr eat eschar actersasspool s
ofdot sinar ectangularmat [Link] hedotmat ri
xpr i
nteris
muchhi ghert hanthatofadai sywheelbutt hequal i
tyoft heformeri snot
suf fi
cientenoughf orbusi nesscor r
[Link] rixpri
nterhasa
printhead consi sti
ng ofanumberofsmal lpi nsbet ween 9 and 24
dependi ngont [Link] interwi t
ha9pi npr intwi l
lgiveapoorqual it
y
printcompar edtot hatofa24pi npr intheadsi ncet hedot sinthef ormer
arewi delyspacedapar t
.I fadotmat ri
xist opr oduceabet terqualit
y
out put,somet imesr eferr
edt oasNearLet t
erQual it
y(NLQ) ,t
henal ineis
printedt wicewi ththepr intheadbei ngmov edal ongv eryslightl
yi nthe
secondpr inti
ngsot hatt hosemov edspacesbet weent hedot saref i
ll
ed
i
nt oensur econt inui
[Link] antagewi tht hedotmat r
ixpr i
ntersisthat
theycanpr i
ntfrom eithersi de,meani ngthepr intheaddoesnothav eto
mov esayt ot heleftsideoft hepaperi nordertobegi npr inti
ngbutbegi n
from t her ightaswel [Link] t
ht hedotmat r
ixpr i
nt ery ousi mplyneedt o
changet her i
bbonofdi f
fer entcol ourtogetacol or edoutput .

Fig.2.
8.1( c)(ii
)DotMat ri
xPri
nter
HowChar acterpr
interoper ates:
Apaperi spassedt hr
oughapr i
nterthathasamov i
ngbeltorachai n
contai
ningacompl etecharact erset– asseenf r
om thekeyboard.A
paperisthenhitfrom behindbyasetofhammer s,whichar
eali
gnedf or
eachprint
ingpositionont hel [Link] l
lthenpassapaperagainstan
i
nkedribbonbehindwhi chist hechar actertobeprint
ed.

Anot
herwayt ocategorizeprint
ersi
sbywhetherornottheprinthead
str
[Link]
tdoes,i tiscal
ledI
mpactPri
nterandifitdoesnotit
i
scal l
edaNon- I
mpactPr [Link]
xandDaisywheelprint
ersfalli
n
theformercat
egor y;
allst
rikethepaperwhil
epr
inti
ng.
Page|
26
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Non- i
mpactpr i
nt er
s are usual
lyt he f astestsince theymi nimize t
he
amountofphy sicalmov ementr equired dur i
ng the pr i
nting pr ocess.
Exampl esofnon- i
mpactpr i
ntersi ncl
udeTher malPr i
nters,I nkjetand
Electr
ostati
cPrinters.
ImpactPr int
ers areusual l
ynoi sygi v
en t hephysicalmot ion involv
ed
duringtheprint
ingpr ocesswhent hepr i
nt i
ngdevicest r
ikest hepaper .To
getmul ti
plecopiesf r
om impactpr i
nters,allyouneedt odoi si nterl
acea
carbonpaperbet weent hepapers.

HowNon- I
mpactPr i
nter
swork
a)ThermalPri
nter
s
Theslowestofallnon-i
mpactpr
int
ers,for
m char
act
ersbyburni
ngthem
on speci
all
ytreat
ed paper
.Theyoper ateatabout30 char
acter
sper
second.

Ther
malPr
int
er

b)Electr
ost at
icPri
nters
Theyf or
m char act
ersbychargingthepaperelectr
ical
l
y .Thepaperisthen
passedt hroughat onersol
uti
[Link]
clesofthetonersoluti
on(ink)sti
ck
totheelect ri
cal
lychargedareasofthepaper .Whent hepaperisheat ed,
thepar t
icl
esmel tthusproducingthechar acter
[Link] equi tefast;
somepr intabout300pagespermi nute.
Page|
27
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

c)InkJetPrinter
s
Thesepr i
nters“spit
”str
eamsofi nktothesurfaceoft [Link] nk
thendripsalmosti mmediatel
[Link] ai
rl
ysl [Link] oducef rom
about50t o100char act
[Link] i
nter
sof f
settheirrel
ative
disadv
antageofsl ownessbytheirlowcostandmul ti
plecolourprinti
ng.

2.7.15 Voi ceOutput

Computervoi
ceoutputi
scommonpl [Link] er
could be progr
ammed t o off
ert elephone inf
ormation ser
vice,l
i
ke
di
r ect
oryhel
[Link]
sletyouknowi fyoudialedawr ongnumberorift
he
numbery ouarecal
li
ngisoutoforderorbusyandt heli
ke.

2.
7.16 Pl ott
er
Thisi sanout putdeviceusedtopr oducegraphicalout
putlikedr awing
graphs,charts,mapsorelect
ricci
rcuit
[Link],circui
tis
doneont hecomput erthentheoutputissenttot hepl
ott
[Link]
oft wot ypes:onet hathasasi nglesheetsomet i
mescal l
edFl atSet
Plott
erandt hesecondusesacont i
nuoussheetwhi chrol
lscontinuously
ondr um l
ikecy l
i
nders:al
soknownasDr um Pl
ott
ers.

2.7.17 Mi crofi
che/ Microfil
m
Mi crofi
cheandMi cr ofil
m ar ebot hbetterknowncol lect i
velyasmi crof orm.
The l ateri s a documentphot ogr aphed and hence st ored i
naf il
m.
Mi crofi
chei sasheetoff ilmt hatmeasur es105mm x148mm wher easa
mi crofi
lm isact uallya16mm r ollf i
lm.A t ypi
cal16mm wi llhol dt he
equi val
entof3, 000 A4 [Link] t y pi
calmi cr of i
che wi l
lhol dt he
equi val
entofabout98A4Pages.
Usual l
yt hist echniqueofgi vi
ngout puttoami cr ofil
m/ microficheor
mi croform i s usual lyr eferr
ed t o as COM ( Comput erOut putt oa
Mi croform) .The t echnique i s si mple,a machi ne cal led a mi crof i
l
m
Recor derr eadsout putt hati sr elayed onto a magnet ictapef ort he
comput er,oncer ead,t heout puti scopi edoutonmi crof i
lm/microf i
che.
Theappl icationofCOM i ssui tablewher eanor gani zationhast ost ore
dat aov eral ongper iodoft imeorwher ebackupcopi esneedt obemade.
Recor dst hatneedt obeoutal ongt i
mewoul di nclude:r eceiptsand
i
nv oicesofanor gani zati
onorsaycat aloguesinal ibrar yorabookst or e.
Page|
28
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

2.
8DESCRI
PTI
ONOFSECONDARYSTORAGEDEVI
CESANDMEDI
A

As ment i
oned ear
li
er,secondarystorage orbacki
ng storage prov
ide
supplementarymemorytomai nmemor yofthecomputer
.Thef oll
owing
auxil
iar
ymedi aanddeviceswi l
lbediscussed:Magnet
ictapeDr i
veand
Magnet i
c Tape,Magnet i
c Disk Driv
e and Magnetic Disc,Magnet i
c
Diskett
eUni tandMagneticDisket
te,Opti
calDiskUni
tandOpt icalDisk,
MassSt orageDevi
cesandMedi a.

2.8.1Magnet icTapeDr i
veandMagnet i
cTape
Theconceptofst oragei nmagnet ict apedev iceusedbycomput er s
i
si dent icalt ot apesy oumayhav ei ny ourhomev ideooraudi otapes
recorder .Asamat teroff act,mostmi crocomput erscanuseexact ly
thesedev icest ost oredat [Link] ict apeconsi stsofal ar gest ri
pof
plastict hathasbeencoat ed wi thi r
onoxi decompound t hatcanbe
magnet [Link] sst r
ipist y picallywoundona10½ i nchf ormai nfr
ame
and mi cr ocomput erappl i
cat [Link] cr ocomput er s empl oy audi otape
casset [Link] ai sr ecor dedonandr eadf r om t hetapeusi ngat apedr iv e.
Thel at t
erhasa“ readhead”f orreadi ngt hei nformat ionst or edont he
tapet hat ’sf ortransf ormi ngdat afrom t het apei ntomai nmemor y .I
talso
hasa“ wr itehead”f orr ecor dingt hei nfor mat i
[Link] l
y,tor eadf rom,
wr i
tet oani ndi v
idual tape, youhav et omounti tonat apedr i
v e.
Inpr ocessi ngdat ai sr eadf r
om t het apei ntomai nmemor y( orRAM)
wher epr ocessi ngt akespl [Link] esultsar egivenoutonl yasawr it
t en
reportorasanot hert apef i
lewr i
ttenonanot herdr [Link]
capaci tyi slimi t
ed, onlyasmal lamountofdat aisusedf orthei nputt ape
orwr itt
ent ot heout putdev iceatonet i
me.
Dat at hati sst oredonmagnet i
ct apeaswel lasot herauxi l
iar y
storagedev icesar eusual lyor ganizedi nt or ecords.A r ecor df ornow
shoul dbeunder stoodasauni tofdat aconsi sti
ngofchar act ersabout
someoneorsomet [Link] apr ocessi ngusesr ecor dsisamat terof
l
oadi ngoneormor er ecor dsi nt oRAM f oranout putdev i
[Link] ocessing
thoser ecor dsandsendi ngt her esulttoanout putdev i
ce.
Thi st echni queofsor tingr ecordsont apei nthef orm ofgr oupst hat
arer eadi ntoorwr i
t t
enf r om RAM al latoncegi vingr iset oanumberof
technicalt ermst hatar eusedi nallt ypesofsecondar yst oragemedi a.
Seef ig.2. 9.1bel ow.
Page|
29
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

I
R 100Logical
G Records

Fi
g.2.
9.1:
Magnet
ict
apewi
thaBl
ocki
ngFact
orof100

Agr oupofr ecor dsi scal l

edPhy si
calRecor dsorBl [Link] ecor din
thegroupi sknownasaLogi calRecor [Link] ogi calrecordsi n
aphy sicalrecordi sr eferredt oast heBlockingFact [Link] ockingf actor
oftenwi l
li
ndicatet hatt enl ogical recordsmakeuponephy sicalrecordor
[Link] erm blockr eferst oagr oupofl ogicalr ecords, allofwhi char e
readont oorwr itt
enf rom RAM [Link] sicalrecords, orblock, are
suspendedf rom eachot herbybl ankspacesont het apeknownasI nt er
-
recordGap( I
RG) .Somet i
mesknownasI nterl
ockGap.
Magnet i
ct ape i s a sequent ialmedi um,t his means t hatr ecor ds
appearoni tinsequent i
alor derforexampl eper sonalr ecordswi llappear
by:empl oyeenumber , [Link] aisst ored
ont apesequent i
all
y ,theymustal sobepr ocessedsequent iall
[Link] ape
fi
lehasonl y60,000r ecor ds,accesst or ecordnumber50, 747canbehad
onlybyr eadingt hroughal loft hepr oceedi ng50, 746r ecor [Link] si s
usuallyav eryslowwayofaccessi ngdat a.

2.8.
2Magnet icDiskDr iv eandMagnet i
cDi sk
Magnet icdiskst or ageist hepr ef
erredmedi um f ormostsecondar y
datastoragetoday .Asopposedt omagnet i
ct apef i
l
es, diskfilesneednot
bepr ocessedsequent iall
y,althoughtheymaybei ftheappl icati
oncall
s
[Link] ecordst or edondi skmayber etri
evedwi t
houthav i
ngtop
processt hr
oughal loft hepr oceedingrecordsont hef il
[Link] hi
sreason,
adiski susuall
yr eferredt oaDi rectAccessSt orageDev ice( DASD) .Thi
s
factoriswhatmakesamagnet i
cdiskf asterandmor ef l
exiblethanthe
tape.
Phy si
call
y a magnet ict ape consists ofci rcularpl atters ofnon-
magnet icsuchasal umi ni
um andpl astic,whi chiscombi nedwi t
hthe
same sor tofnon- oxi de coating used on magnet i
ct [Link] wi th,
Page|
30
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

charact ersar er ecor dedbymagnet i

zingmi croscopi cmagnet i
cf luidson
thedi sksur faceusi ngt heusualdat acodi [Link] i
zat ioni n
onedi rect i
onr epr esent sazer oi nt heot herdi r
ect ionaone.
Touseadi skonehast omounti tonaspi ndlet hatcausesi ttor otate.
Ar ead/ wr i
tehead, simi l
art ot hatofmagnet ictape, mov esbackandf orth
across t he di sk r adi us r otating and st or i
ng dat a as r equi r
[Link]
read/ wr ite head can mov et o di fferentsect ionsofa r ecor d wi thout
necessar i
lyhav ingt owr iteorr eadt hissect ion;onl ywhent hei nst ruct i
on
waspr ompt ed!
DiskDr ivei st hedev i
ceonwhi cht hedi ski smount edwhenusedt o
storeandr etriev edat [Link] icecanposi ti
ont her ead/ wr iteheadi na
numberofpor t
ionsal ongt hedi skr [Link] hedi skr ot atespastt he
read/ wr itehead, datai sr ecordedi naci rculart [Link] smeanst her efore,
thatt her ear easmanyconcent rict r
acksdi splay edont hesur faceoft he
disk,ast her ear eposi ti
onsf orr ead/ [Link] sisi l
lust ratedi nFi g.
2.9.2( a)
Eacht racki sdi videdi ntosect ionsorbl ocks,si mi l
art ot hebl ocksof
datai nmagnet i
ct [Link] orhasanaddr [Link] ore/ retr i
ev edat a,
thesy st em f indst hedi skaddr essusedt ocont aindat abymov ingt he
read/ wr iteheadt ot heappr opr iat et r
ackwher ei twai t
sunt ilt hedesi r
ed
sectorpassesby .
Fig.2. 9.2( b)showshowat r acki sdi videdi nt osect or sandhowt he
sectorcont ainsanaddr essusedt ol ocat ewher edat ai sst or edont he
disk.A har ddi skwi thacapaci tyof300kf orexampl econt ainsf orty
tracks( 40)ofni nesect orseach;hav i
ngat otalof360sect orsav ailable
oneachsi de;ofat wo- sideddi skf orat otalof720sect or [Link] or
cont ains512by tesor4096( 512x8) char acters, sot hedi skof fer sat otal
datast or agecapaci tyof368, 649- [Link] skissai dt obea360k
diskf ollowi ngt heconcept iont hat“ k”equal s1, 024( 360x1024=368640) .

Page|
31
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Fi
g.2.
9.2(
a)

Fi
g.2.9.2(
b)
Di
skst oragemedi atakedif
[Link] ddisksareri
gidinnature.
Theycont aint hemostdat [Link] sksmaybef i
xedintheirdevi
cesor
mayber emov [Link] eusually14”indi amet er,alt
houghitisunusual
tothesmal l
erhaddi sksinmi crocomput [Link] stem isknown
asWi nchester,sonamedbecausei t
spr ototypemakesuseoft wodrops
ofthir
tymi ll
i
onby t
eseachhasef fecti
velythe“ 30-30”.I
tusesa14”plot t
er.
Laterversionscal l
edMi ni-
WinchesterorMi ni-winns”used8”or6”and
one-quarterinchplott
ers,whichar estoredint hedr i
vesandcanst oreup
to85,000,000by tes.

Page|
32
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

2.8.3Magnet i
cDisket
teUni tandMagnet i
cDiskette
Thisisanotherform ofdi skst oragemedi [Link]
exibledi sksorsi mply
diskettesoftencall
edf loppydi sksorf l
oppiesbecauset heyuseat hi
n
sheetofpl asti
c as [Link] e an impor tantdat a storage
medi um formicroandmi ni
comput ers.
Diskett
esrangeinsi zefrom 3½”t o8”.Theyof fertheadv antagesof
easeoft r
ansportand l ow [Link] eencased per manentlyi na
protectiveenvel
ope,whi chisinsulatedi nthedi skdr i
[Link] rancet o
thedr iveisanarrowsl otinf r
ontoft [Link] lf l
ap
overit,whichmustbecl ippedshutoncet hedi skisinserted.

2.8.
4Opt icalDi skUni tandOpt i
calDisk
Opt i
caldi ski saki nt oaudi
ocompactdi skorCDt hatyoumi ghthav e
i
ny [Link] i
cei smadeofpl asticcov er ,
whi chhast r
anspar ent
mat [Link] incipleofwor kist hesameast hatoft heCD;soundi s
recordedi nthem i ndi gitalf
orm.
Dat aisr ecor dedbeneat hthetranspar entl ayerthatcov erthesur face
oftheCDbybur ni ngaper manentpat ternint ot hesur faceofthedi skby
meansofal [Link] ngt hedat ai sal sobyal aserbeam i nan
optical diskr ecor der.
Thecapaci tyofaCD i susuallyabout( 600– 750MB) .1Gi gaby te,
whichi smadeupof40, 000t r
actseachdi videdi nto25sect ors.1GBi s
equal to1mi lli
onchar act er
s-(
1GB) .
Oneadv ant ageofCDst omagnet i
cdi sksi st hatloosingofdat aisnot
asr ampantaswi ththel at
ter
.Onedi sadv ant agei st hatsome( i
.eCD- R)
CDsar enotr eusabl [Link] eusual l
yr eferredt o asWORM,whi ch
standsf orWr i
teOnceReadManyt i
[Link] ngf rom theCDst endst o
besl owert hant hatoft hemagnet i
cdi [Link] er,withtheadv ertofCD
-RW ( Re-wr itableCDs)y oucanuseaCDwr itertodel et
eobsol etewor k
andwr itenewdat a.

2.
8.5MassSt orageMedi a
A gr eatneedf ormachi ne-
readabledatast orageinindustr
ieshas
prompt ed comput er equipment manuf acturer
st o develop storage
devices with even highercapaci t
[Link] t op ofthe t
ime disk unit
manuf acturedbyI BM doeexampl e,storesmor ethan2.5bil
li
onby t
esof
[Link] aCar-tri
dgeSy stem storedatai nser i
esof50MBcar tri
dges.
Thesedev i
cesprov i
deupt ohalfami l
li
onby t
esofonl i
nestorage.
Page|
33
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Theoperati
onissimi l
artothatofothersecondarystoragedev i
ces.A
cartri
dgeisloadedintother ead/
writemechanism,thedat aisprocessed
andt henthecartri
dgeisreplacedinitshoneycomb-t
hest [Link]
ther ead/
writemechani sm mov esont of i
ndt henextcat al
oguet obe
[Link]
idgesystemsar eslowerthandisksyst
emsbecauset hey
i
nv olvemorephysicalmov ements.
2.9SYSTEM SOFTWAREANDAPPLI CATION SOFTWARE

2.9.1Sy st em Sof twar e

Sy stem Sof t
war ear epr ogr amswi ththei rassoci at eddocument ations
thatcont rolt heent i
reoper ati
onoft hecomput er.I ti swhatt ellst he
comput erwhatt odowheny oui ssueacommandorwheny ouswi tchon
the comput [Link] thint he setofsy stem sof tware,we f ind a setof
progr amscal ledOper ati
ngSy [Link] atterisusual lydef inedasaset
ofpr ogr amst hatst andardizet hewayacomput er’sr esour cesar emade
availablet ot heuserandt oappl i
cati
onssof twar [Link] esour cesher e
refert ot hehar dwar ecomponent soft hecomput er.
Thesy stem sof twar ecommandi mpr intedonat y peofmemor ycal l
ed
ROM ( ReadOnl yMemor y).Suchmemor i
esar eusual lyreser v edforsuch
data oft he oper at ing sy stem t hatt he usermustnotmodi fy or
i
nadv ertent l
ydel ete.I tisusual l
ypr otectedbyt hemanneri nwhi chi tis
manuf act [Link] i susedt ost orepr ogr amsanddat athatar eessent ial
fort hepr operoper at i
onoft hecomput ersy stem andoft heappl ication
progr am t hatar eint egralpar tsoft heoper ati
[Link] i snon–v olati
le;
thismeanswhat ev eri sstor edi nsuchmemor yremai nswhet herornot
thepoweri son.( RAM –di scussedear l
ieri sv olatil
e) .Progr amssuchas
oper atingsy stemsandappl icationpr ogr amsst oredi nROM ar eof ten
calledFi rmwar e,meani ngsof twar et hati sengr ained/f ixedi nt ot he
hardwar e.
Sy stem sof twar eal sohaswhatwer efert oasUt ilityProgr amsf orFi l
e
management ,edi ti
ngf il
es,managementofdi [Link] e
commandsr esi denti nsy st
em sof tware.

2.9.
2Applicati
onSoft
war e
Thisisapr ogr
am thatisusuallyappli
edononear eaofoper
ati
ononly
–notasal lencompassingassy stem soft
[Link]
cat
ionsoft
wareis
usuall
ydividedint
o2cat egor
ies:
(i
)Standard Packages orAppl ication Packages (
GeneralAppli
cat
ion
Page|
34
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Soft
war e)
Thesear epackagest hataredesi gnedt obeusedt osol
veapar t
icul
ar
typeofpr oblem f orexampl eLotus123,MsExcelar eallspreadsheet
packagesmeantt obeappl i
edi naccount ingoperati
ononly
.Wordper fect
,
Ms- Wor dar eallwor dpr ocessors.D- base4,MsAccessar edat abase
packagesandsoon.
(i
i)UserDev elopedSof t
war e(orSpecialistAppli
cati
onPackages)
Thesear esuitesofpr ogramswi ththeirassociateddocumentationthat
aret ai
lormadet osol vespeci fi
ct asksonl [Link]
y,auserwi l
lgivea
specifi
cationt oapr ogrammeroft hesui tehewant stobedevelopedt o
meethi sbusi nessori ndi
[Link] skindofsof twar
ei sonly
restri
ctedt osolvingproblemst owhi chi tisprogrammedt [Link]
or
madesof twareissomet imesknownasBespokePackages.

2.
10SUMMARY

 ComputerHar dwareisdefi
ned asal
ltheelectr
ical
,electr
oni
cand
mechanicalcomponentsofthecomput
ertoget
herwi t
ht hei
rdevi
ces
usedattheperipher
al.

 Soft
wareareprogramsthatareusedt
orunt
hecomput
ert
oget
herwi
th
theassoci
ateddocumentat
ion.

 Computerhar
dwar ecomprisesofI
nputdev
ices,Out
putdev
icesand
theCent
ral
ProcessingUni
t.

Page|
35
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

 Acomplet
ecomputersyst
em compri
sestheoper
ati
ngsy
stem,
syst
em
sof
twar
e,appl
i
cat
ionprogr
am andhardware.

 CPU is consisted ofAr i

t hmet i
c and Logic Unitwhi ch perf
orms
ari
thmeticandl ogi
ccompar i
sons,t hecontr
olunitwhichcoor di
nat
es
theacti
vit
iesofthehardware( I/Ooperati
ons)asperthedi ct
atesoft
he
memor y,memor ywhichst oresdat abeingprocessed,resul
tsandthe
appli
cat
ioninuse, r
egist
erswhi char esl
am areasintheCPUt hathol
ds
databeforeprocessi
ngandpr obablyaft
er.

 St
orageDev
icesareintwoforms:Pri
marySt
oragedevi
ces,t
heMai
n
MemoryandSecondarySt
oragedevi
ceswhi
chsupplement
sthemai
n
memory.

I
nputdevi
cesincl
ude:Keyboar
d,mouse,paperscannerandmagneti
c
i
[Link]
emet hodsincl
ude:speech,magnet
ic,
opt
ical
charact
erreader
sandopti
cal
mar kr
eader.

 Outputdev ices i
nclude:Printers – which coul
d be li
ne,page or
characterpri
nter
s,theyarealsocat egori
zedbywhetherthepri
nthead
str
ikest hepaperwhi l
eprinting – impactand non-i
mpactprint
ers,
vi
sualdi spl
ayUnit,(ormoni tor)– displ
aysthetext
/graphi
csforthe
usertoseeandpl ott
ersforpl ot
ti
nggr aphi
calout
put,el
ectr
icci
rcui
ts,
chartsetc.

 Secondar
ystoragemediaanddev i
cesincl
ude:Magnet
ict
apesand
di
sks,opt
ical
disksandmassst
oragemedia.

 System softwarear
epr ogr
amst hatcont
rolt
heenti
reoperat
ionofthe
comput ertoget
herwiththeassociat
eddocumentat
[Link]
cati
on
program issoft
warethatisusuall
yappli
edononear eaofoperati
ons
[Link]
dpackagesoruserdevel
opedpackages.

Page|
36
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

2.
11QUESTI
ONS

[Link]
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenhar
dwar
eandsof
twar
einacomput
er.

[Link]
erhar
dwar
econsi
stof
:

[Link]
scusst
hef
unct
ionsofcomponent
sofacomput
erhar
dwar
esy
stem.

[Link]
etecomput
ersy
stem compr
isesofwhi
chcomponent
s?

[Link]
scussany4i
nputdev
ices.

[Link]
scussany4out
putdev
ices

[Link]
ouunder
standbysecondar
yst
oragedev
ices?

[Link]
scussanyt
hreebacki
ngst
oragemedi
aanddev
ices.

[Link]
sti
ngui
shbet
weenSy
stem Sof
twar
eandAppl
i
cat
ionSof
twar
e.

10. Whati
sanOper
ati
ngSy
stem?

11. Whatar
eUt
il
it
ies?

12. Whati
sFi
rmwar
e?

13. Whatar
ethet
wot
ypesofAppl
i
cat
ionSof
twar
e?Di
scuss.
Page|
37
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

CHAPTER3

SAFEUSEANDCAREOFCOMPUTERS

Thischapterletsthestudenttobeawar eofthecomput er,i

tssafet
yrules
andhowt [Link] etyrulestobeobservedr egardpersonnel
,
mat er
ial
sandequi pmentinthecomput erl
aborat
[Link] udentisalso
expectedtost atecorr
ectl
ysaf et
ypr ecauti
onsrequi
redi nthelabandbe
abletoident
ifypossibl
ecausesofl ossofdat aandtheirprecauti
ons.

3.
1Behav i
ouri ntheComput erLab.
3.
2Handl ingofMat eri
alsandEqui pment.
3.
3FireandAcci dent s.
3.
4Chemi calsandCombust i
bleMat eri
als.
3.
5Vent i
lati
oni nt heComput erLab.
3.
6Saf etyPr ecautionsandPr actices.
3.
7Possi bleCauseofLossofPr ogramsandDat
a.
3.
8Pr ecautions.
3.
9Summar y
3.
9.1Quest i
ons

3.
1 BEHAVI
OURI
NTHECOMPUTERLAB

Comput erlabf ormsav eryimportantsect i

onofanor ganizati
onor
school and t herefore st ri
ct r ul
es i n t erms of behav i
our of
personnel/studentswor king/studyi
ngi nthelabneedst obeputi nplace
andadher edt o.
Onef actort o bet akeni nto considerat
ioni sthecosti nv ol
vedi n
setti
ngupt hel abincludingt hecostofequi pment .Thisshouldnotbe
takenf orgrantedandcomput er
sandot herperipheralsdamagedi nt he
shortruncoul dresultingreatlossestot heorganization.
Cl
eanlinessisaf actort hatstandsouti [Link] sonnelneed
Page|
38
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

tobecl eanwhi lei nt hel [Link] nt hehands, oi lonf i

nger si snotal l
owed
amongper sonnel /student [Link] uffst ot hel abi snotal lowedast he
brokenpi ecesf rom suchwi llultimat elyfindt hei rwayi ntot heper i
pher als
[Link] boar ds, diskdr i
veandsoon.
Dependi ngonwhatmat erialcov erisont hef loor ,cer tainshoest end
tocauseal otofdi stractionbymaki ngnoi set ot her estoft heseat ed
per sonnel .Thi ssl owsdownt hewor kpr ocessasat tentionwi l
ldef i
nitely
beshi [Link] er naldi sksi ntot hel abar enotr ecommendedast hi
smay
resultinv irusi nf ect iont othesy st em i nt hel abf r om out sidesour ces.
Inter naldi sks shoul d notbe al lowed t ol eav et he r [Link]
stringentpr ocedur esshoul dbel ai ddownt ocheckt heper sonnelwho
i
gnor et her ule.I ft hisi snotobser ved,itmayl eadt odat af rom t he
organi zat ionbei ngexposedt or ival sorwoul dbe“ hacker s”–t hosewho
gai naccesst ot hesy stem wi thoutaut hor i
ty.
Anymechani calort echni calf aul t
snot edshoul dal way sber eported
tot he t echni calper sonneli mmedi atelyf orat tent i
[Link]- t
echni cal
per sonnel shoul dnev erattemptt odeal withsuchaf ault
!
Itisi mpor t antal sot hatev er yper sonnelmaker out i
nebackupcopi es
ofev erywor kdonei nthel abast hiswi llsav et heor ganizat i
onf rom any
dat alossi nt heev entofdi sast er.
Shut ti
ngdownandboot i
ngofcomput er si sv eryi mpor t
ant .Strict
procedur esdependi ngont heoper at i
ngsy st em speci ficat ionshoul dbe
adher ed t o,ot her wi se damages t ot he di sk i nt he l ong r un and
fragment ationoff ilesandst or agei nthest oragel ocat ionwi l
lhappen.
Thi swi llcausedel ay si nreadi ngandwr iti
ngt ot [Link] lequipment
shoul dnotbemov edar oundt hel abr athert heyshoul dal way sbeused
wher et heyar ei nst alled!
Changi ng ofper ipheralsf rom one machi ne t o anot heri snotan
encour aged pr act [Link] ormachi neA r emai nt he
machi ne; ifitdoesnotwor k, pleaseaskat echni calper sonnelt oat t
endt o
i
t, butdonoti nt erchangei twi thanot her !

3.
2 HANDLI
NGOFMATERI
ALSANDEQUI
PMENT

Handli
ngofsomemat er
ial
sandequipmentsinthelabshouldbea
pri
vil
[Link]
herwords,somedisksandspeci
almachineslikeaserv
er
(i
nt he case ofa net
work)should notbe forever
yone,onlythose
authori
zedshoul
dbeallowedforexampletokeepinst
all
ati
ondisksand
Page|
39
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

soon.
Gener al
lyt hecomput ersand per i
pheral sint hel aboratoryshoul d
alway sbehandl edwi thcar esinceal loft hem hav esol deredel ectr
onic
par t
swi thint hem t hatwhenpoor lyhandledandper hapsdr oppedt hen
suchpar tswi llalwaysei therbreakorbedi sl
[Link] swi llmeant he
equi pmenti sdamaged.I tisr ecommended t hatev erymov ementt o
machi nesi nt hel abbedoneusi ngat roll
ey .Noequi pmentshoul dever
l
eav et helabunl esswi thdi r
ectaut hori
tyfr
om t her i
ghtper son.
Comput ercabl esshoul d,i
fdet ached,bepr operlyr eturnedeacht othe
ri
ghtmachi [Link] caloper ationsi nthel abshoul dbel eftf oronly
techni calper sonnel .Ifev eryTom,Di ckandHar r
yi nt hel abassumet o
repai rev erydamagedequi pment ,thenmor ewi l
lbewor seof fthant hey
wer e.
Di sks shoul d be kept f rom nat ur al hazar ds l i
ke excessi ve
temper atures,wat eranddustpl acesandawayf rom magnet si fdata
i
nt egrityistobemai ntained.

3.
3 FI
REANDACCI
DENTS

Fir
eandot heracci dentsi nthelabar epossi bil
iti
[Link] dents
wouldincludeelectrocut i
onofanempl oyee/student,sli
ppingandf all
ing
onaslipperyfl
oor .
Fir
ei sabi gthreatt odat alossandequi pment .Everylabshoul d
alwaysoffertrai
ningofhow t ohandlef i
rintheeev entofsuchcal ami t
y
andofcour sef ir
-fi
ghtingequi pmentl i
kef ir
eext inguishersforexampl e
handheldCO2andBCFext inguisher
sshoul dalway sbeav ail
able.
Datashoul dalsoal waysbekepti nf i
reproofsaf est oavoidlossof
datalossi n such ev ent.I nsuri
ng ofequi pmentand sof t
warei nt he
organi
zati
onwi t
hinsur ancef ir
mswi llhelpsinceaf tersuchanacci dent,
thefi
rmispaid.

3.
4 CHEMI
CALSANDCOMBUSTI
BLEMATERI
AL

Chemi calsandcombust i
blemater
ial
sshoul
dalwaysbelocatedon
speci
alpl [Link]
sef l
oor
sandceili
ngsshoul
dalwaysbeavail
ablefor
chemicalslikefl
uorocar
bonfl
uidusedasacooli
ngagentf
ormainframe.
Suchpi pesandduct sshouldpasseit
heruponf al
secei
l
ingsorbelow
fal
sefloors.
Page|
40
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Combust i
blemater
ialsl i
kef i
reexti
ngui
shersshouldbel ocat
edi n
placesv i
sibl
etoever
yonebutwi t
hstri
cti
nstr
ucti
onstobet ouchedonlyin
theev entofaf i
rebr
eakout .Othermater
ial
sthatcouldbehar mfultothe
environmentshouldbetransmi t
tedthr
oughproperl
ylocat
edduct s.

3.
5 VENTI
LATI
ONI
NTHECOMPUTERLAB/
WORKI
NGAREA

Windowspr ovi
deadequatev ent
il
ationi
nl [Link] ndowsmust
notbev erywideassuchwi l
lalwaysbev ul
nerabl
et oentr
ybyi nt
ruders.
Anyv enti
lat
ionapartfrom thewindow shouldalway sbehi gherupand
ver
ysmal [Link]
yventil
ati
onagain,mostl
ywi ndows,shouldhav ea
well
-droppedcurtai
nsoast okeeppriv
atetheoperationsi
nt helab.

3.
6 SAFETYPRECAUTI
ONSANDPRACTI
CES

3.6.
1Cabling
Cablesint helabshouldbepr oper
lylocatedeitheronf al
sefl
ooror
ceil
i
ngoral ongt hewal l
ssoast oav oidinterf
erenceforexamplewith
communi cati
oncool er
sint [Link] dlymayresul
tin
possibl
epowerdi sconnecti
onifsteppedonorpushedar ound.

3.6.2St ablePowerSuppl y
Pr ovisionf orstabl e,adequat eandi ndependentpowersuppl yisv ery
i
mpor tant .Fluctuationi nv oltagefrequency ,suddencuti npowersuppl y
and spi kescause damagest othe comput ersystem.I nterr
upti
on of
powersuppl yforexampl ewilldamagedi sks,damaget hepr ocessorand
spikeswi llcausel ossofdat aandf luctuati
ons, volt
agef r
equencywi l
lcut
offot herar easf rom t her et
urn.
Asapr ecaution,l argebat ter
ies,Uni nterrupt
edPowerSuppl y( UPS)
andgener atorsshoul dal way sbeonst andbyt osuchacr i
sis.
3.6.3Bur glarPr oofingCount er
Alldoor st ot hecomput erlabshoul dbebur glarproof .Thisi sa
phy sicalsecur itymeasur esincethiswi llav ertanyattempt sbyintruders
tobr eaki nandi nterferewi t
hdat aandequi pmenti nthelab.

3.6.
4Vent
il
ati
on
Iti
sagoodpracti
cetoincl
udeventi
l
ati
oninacomput
err
oom butt
he
sameshouldnotpr
ovideanentr
ancetohacker
stot
amperwi
thdat
a.
Page|
41
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

3.6.5Floorspace
Thespaceont hefl
oorshoul dbewideenoughtopr ovi
deat horough
routef orequipmentinstall
ati
onandot hermovement soft hetrol
l
eyt o
transferequipment.I
tshouldalsoprov
ideforanemergencyexit.
NB:Sl ipperyfl
oorsarenotrecommendedi nacomput [Link] l
oor
i
ft hereis,shoul
dbecov eredwithmatsandtheli
ke.

VDULEGI SLATI ON
Thisi sal egislati
on( Brit
ish)t hatwaspassedi n1990f orf r
equent
usersofcomput erscreensi nthel [Link] oll
ows:
[Link] dnotuseacomput erformor et hanonehourcont inuously
.
[Link] l
eusi ngt heVDU, t
heey esshoul dnotl ookatt hescreendi rect
lybut
atanangl eof30 -
60.
[Link] stancef rom thescr eenshoul dbebet ween300mm- 480mm.
[Link] l
eusi ngt hekey boar d,t hear msandel bowsshoul dbeatr i
ght
anglesandpar all
eltothegr ound.
[Link] sanddesksi nt hel abshoul dbeadj ust abletotheuser sheight
thi
si st oai d( iv)andav oidRepet i
ti
v eSt rainsI nj
uri
es( RSI )oft he
fi
ngersandwr [Link] sshoul dhav ebackr ests!
[Link] nthel abshoul dbef i
tt
edwi thcast or s–t omaket hem mobi l
e
andlessnoi sy .

NB:AnAnt
i-
glar
escr
eeni
sst
il
lrecommended.

COMPUTERLABDESI GN
Beforewel ookatt hesafetyregulati
onsi
nthel
ab,itisvit
altol
ookat
whatfactorsmustbeputi ntoconsiderati
onwhendesi
gni ngacomputer
room.
Constr
aintsofComput erRoom
Thef ol
lowingr equi r
ementsmustbeobser vedi
nanycomput err
oom
desi
gn:
 Theneedf oraircondi t
ioni
ng
 Thedimensi onsofsi zeofthelab
 Theneedt oobser v
ecl eanli
ness
 Equi
pmentsi t
ti
ngi nt helab
 Accessibil
it
yformachi nerymaintenanceandmediare-supply.
 Considerati
onf orheal thandsafety
Page|
42
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

 Consi
der
ati
onf
ornoi
se

AirCondi ti
oni ng
Aircondi t
ioni
ngi sv eryessentialint hecomput erroom wher emai n
fr
amesar ehousedorsomemi nicomput erst ogetherwi ththeirassoci at
ed
peri
pher als. Most dev ices howev er, usual l
y cont ain thei r own
envi
r onment alcontrolst hatareaut omat i
cf orexampl ef ans,f i
ltersand
sealeduni ts.
Aircondi ti
oningisdonet oenabl econt rolthef oll
owi ng:
() Temper
i ature–f orequi pmentshoul dbebet ween18 Cand24 C.
(i
i)Humi dity–t hi
shel pst oav oidmoi sturepr ecipit
ationandbui l
dupof
el ectrost ati
cchar [Link] l
ityshoul dbe45%-55%.
(i
i)Dust cont
i rol – di sk medi ar equire hi gh l evelof cl eanl iness.
Pr ocessor s with hi ghlypacked el ectronics require high l ev els of
cl [Link] pkeephi ghlev elofcl eanli
ness,t hel abshoul d
hav eposi t
ivepressur e,ai
rlockandst ickingnut sont hef l
oor s.

DimensionsoftheLab
The size oft he comput erroom shoul
dt ake into accountthe
fol
lowing:
 Requirementsspecifi
edbyt heequi
pmentsuppli
er
 Operatingcondit
ionsand
 Theneedf orfutureexpansion.
Thehei ghtshouldbeenought opr
ovi
deforfalsefloor
sandcei li
ng
t
ohel pspreadequipmentl oadsprovi
desaf
ecablepathsandai rduct
s.

Accessi bil
it
y
Whi leinstal
li
ngequipmentinthel ab,
theremustbeapr ov
isionfora
through r oute,whi ch i
s al
so importantf oremergencyexit
.Onl yfor
secur i
typur posesshouldsuchar out
ebecl osed.
Corridorsoft helabmustbehi ghenoughwi thdoubledoor sand
fl
oor s,stair
sorl if
tsmustbest r
ongenoughtbeart heloadofequi pment
.
Itisoftenr ecommendedt hatgroundf l
oorshoul
dbeusedbutt hisagain
hasmanysecur i
tyri
sks.
Recept i
onshoul dalwaysbespaci ousenoughtoallowforstorageof
trol
leys( usedformov i
ngequi
pmentar oundt hel
ab)
.

Page|
43
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

EquipmentSi tti
ng
Design oft he si
tt
ing equipmentshoul d al
ways be such thatit
ensuresthewor kf
lowoft heoperat
orandmi nimizest
hewal ki
ngdistance
from oneequi pmenttoanot her
.Thismeansf orexamplethatthel
ocation
ofast and-al
onecomput erandt hepri
ntershouldbecl
oseenought oease
thewor k!

HealthandSaf ety
Fort hesakeofheal thandsaf etyoft hest affandequi pment ,the
fol
lowi ngshoul dbeobser ved:
a)Light ing
Ther eshoul dbeapr ovisionforl argel i
ghtingsoast oav oidmi nimi zed
ref
lectionsandgl [Link] ov isionshoul dbef oremer gencyl ighting.
b)Alar ms
Fireal armsint hel abmustbev er yclear(audi bl
e)andv isiblefrom any
angley ouar epl [Link] l
lallowf orquickact i
onandr eact i
oni nt he
eventofaf ir
ebr eakout .
c)Communi cati
ons
Toav oidnoisei nthelab, tel
ephonel inesshoul dbest rat
egi cal
lyplaced
withv i
si bleindi
cat orsforquickr esponse.
d)Phy si calsecur i
ty
Gener al:
 Onl yaut hor i
zed personnelshoul d beal l
owed i ntot hecomput er
room.
 Thel abshoul dnothav eanyout sidewallstokeepof fi
nt ruders.
 Thel abshoul dhav esmal lwi ndows’ pr
ov i
sionf orvent
ilati
on.
 Vi deo camer as shoul d be on t o moni tort he activit
ies oft he
per sonnel andi ntr
uders.

e)Fire
Alarmsshoul dbeinplaceasdi scussedearli
[Link] omaticdetecti
onof
smokeandel ect
rocut
ingsystem shouldbepr ovidedf or.I
nt hecomputer
room,t here should be hand held Co2 and BCF ext i
[Link]
personnelshouldbegi venev acuationtrai
ningi nt heev entoft hefi
re
breakout .
f)Flooding
Comput erlabsshouldnev erbesi t
edi nbasement swher etheyare
vulner
ablet ofl
[Link] erpipesshoul dbepl acedunder ,overorin
Page|
44
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

thecomputerr [Link] sisbecausewaterisli

kelyt
odestroyequipment,
progr
amsanddat aint hel
ab.
g)Power
Thecomput erroom shouldhaveindependentpowersupply,st
ableand
adequatewi t
hshr oudedpani coffbut
[Link] thpowersupply
comei nthr
eemai nf orms:
() Suppl
i yinterrupti
on–i scausedbyanumberoff act
orsthatincl
ude
tr
ansformerf ail
ure,cutt
ingofsupplylinesbyacci dent
,bypeopl e,
li
ghteni
ngandsoon.

(
i)Spi
i ke–t hi
sisav oltagelev elimposedont ot hesupplybyint
erf
ace
sourcesuchasswi tches,electro-mechanicaldevicesandsoon.
Thepr oblem causedbyspi kesi sgenerall
yl ossofdataassoonas
poweri [Link]
esal sogetcor ruptedwhenst or
ecycl
esare
i
nterruptedbyremov alofpower .

(
ii
i)Vol tageFr equencyVar i
ation–t hisisv ari
ationorf l
uctuati
oni nt he
voltagef r
equencyofel ectricit
ysuppl [Link] luctuati
onsnor mal l
ydo
nothav eeffectsincei nmostcomput ers,therear epowersuppl yunits
thatar edesignedt oadequat elycopewi thanysmal lfl
uctuati
ons
Probl emscausedbyv oltagef requencyv ari
at i
onsi sgener al
l
yl ossof
user sinthesenset hatt ermi nall i
nksgetbr okeni nthosepar tsofa
networ kwhosepoweri si nterruptedordest roy [Link] hi
spr oblem is
normal lyexper i
encedwhencomput er
sar enet wor ked.
Whendesi gni ngacomput erl ab,itisi mpor tantt ohav east andby
gener ator
,largebat teriesorot heruninterruptedpowersuppl y( UPS)
unitssot hatint heev entofpowerf ai
l
ure, t
hedat aisnotlost,oruser s
disconnect edordi skmedi adamagedet c.

3.6.
6Dust /
DumpPr oof
Diskstoragemedi aandpr ocessorrequir
eahi ghlevelofcleanl
i
ness
andst andardtemper at
ureinor dertomai ntai
nthedat ast or
edandof
courseforpowert oadequatel
yf unct
ion.
Thel abshouldt her
eforehav eaposi t
ivepressure,sui
tabl
ebuildi
ng
material
st oreducedust,specialfl
oorcoveri
ngt oreducethedumpness
andsoon.

3.
6.7Li
ght
ing
Page|
45
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

The computerlab should hav

e adequatelight
[Link] i
ght
ing
shoul
dbel ar
geenought omi ni
mizerefl
ecti
onsandglareont hepartof
theuser
.Thereshoul
dalsobeapr ovi
sionforemer
gencylight
ing.

3.
6.8St
andar dFurni
tur
e
Thefurnit
ureusedinthelab,thati
st hetableonwhichthemachineis
pl
acedshoul dbestableandf i
rm withenoughr oom underfortheuser
’s
l
egsandcl earancetoall
owpost [Link]
bespaciousenought oall
owf l
exiblearr
angement sofit
ems,itshoul
dbe
gl
arefr
ee.
Thechai rshouldbeadjustableast oallow di
ffer
entpersonnelof
di
ff
erentheightstousethedesk.

3.6.
9Fir
eFight
ingEquipment
Provi
sion for t
he fight
ing equi
pment i nt he lab isv i
tal
.Fire
exti
ngui
shersl
ikehandheldBCFandCo2ext inguisher
sshouldnevermiss.
Supplyequipmentshould alwaysbel ocated inv i
sibl
eplacesfor
staf
[Link] ei
mpor t
antistheadequatetrai
ningofhow t ohandlesuch
equipmentandprecauti
ontechni
quesfort
heper sonnel.

3.
7 POSSI
BLECAUSESOFLOSSOFPROGRAMSANDDATA

Lossofprogr
amsanddatatot
heorgani
zati
onresul
tsinl
ossof
i
nformati
ont
hatmaynotbeputi
nmonet
aryval
[Link]
i
nclude:

3.
7.1PowerSuppl
y
Powersuppl
yprobl
em r
esul
tint
wof
orms:

 Powersuppl yi nterrupti
on -isone f orm whi ch can be caused by
tr
ansfor merfail
ure,cut t
ing ofsupplylines,byacci dent
,bypeopl e,
l
ighteningandt hel i
ke,inadvertentswi
tchingof fofthemachi nealso
couldinter
ruptpowersuppl y.
 Spike–i sthesecondf orm ofpowersupplypr oblem,t
hisi
sasi tuati
on
whereav ol
tage levelisi mposed ontot he supplybyi nterfer
ence
sourcesuchasswi tches,el
ectromechanical devicesandsoon.

Al
lthesef
ormsofpowerpr
obl
emsespeci
all
ysuppl
yint
err
upt
ionand
Page|
46
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

spi
kesr esul
tindamaget odiskheadswhi choftencrushwhenpoweris
[Link]
swi l
lmeanlossofdat asi
nceitwill
behardtor
ead
orwrit
et osuchadi [Link]
kesoftenresultinseri
ouslossofdatasi
nce
RAM beingv ol
ati
l
elossesdataimmediatel
ypowersuppl yi
scutoff
.
Diskfil
esalsogetcrumpledwhenst oresareint
err
uptedbyremoval
ofpower .

3.7.2Virus
Av irus is a peace ofsof t
war e( program)t hatr epli
cates itself
withoutt he useri ntendi
ng i tornot ici
ng i t
.Vi rusesof ten affectour
comput ershav i
ngbeenbr oughtaboutbyhar dwar e/sof twareengi neers
whomov efrom onecomput ertoanot hercar ryi
ngoutdemonst rati
onsor
throughext ernalinfecteddisks, whichar ebroughti ntot hel [Link] sks
areof teni nfectedwi t
hbootsect orv i
rus(bootsect orist hef i
rstpartiti
on
oft hehar ddi sk/fl
oppy ).Wheni t(i
nfecteddi sk)isputi ntot hedr i
ve,itwill
bel oadedi ntomemor [Link] ski snow i nfectedsi ncet hememor yt o
whi chitmustbel oadedf i
rsti snowi nfected.
Av ir
ususual l
yhasmanyef fectsforexampl ereplicationwher eav i
rus
dividesi t
selfr epeat edl
ythusspoi l
ingt hedat aont hescr een/ memor y /
or
disk.
Viruseshav esomanyef fectstheycauset odat a/i
nf ormat i
onandt o
theuser .Whatweneedt onot eher ei ssimpl yt hef actt hatv i
ruseswi ll
changeormodi fyt hedatat hatwasst oredt otakeadi fferentformatt hat
i
snev erusef ul t
ot heoper ator.

3.7.3AccidentalErasure
Itispossiblethattheuserwi t
houthim want ingit
,coul
der roneousl y
erasedat [Link] lycomesaboutf orinstancewhi l
eusingadel ete
commandsayi nMs–Dos( nextchapter
),onehappenst odeleteawhol e
directorywhil
et heintenti
onwast odelet
easi nglefil
[Link]
willhappen,oneusesadi skcommandl ikediskcopywi thoutidentif
y ing
thesour cediskett
ef rom thedestinat
[Link] xed, t
heni t
i
spossi bl
etowi pethecont entsofthesourcedi skserr
oneousl
y .

3.
7.4Crashi
ngDisks
Diskheads,asment i
onedearl
ier,oftencrushwhent hereissudden
powersupplydisconnect
[Link]
ai sof tenlostsi
ncereadingfrom one
di
skandwr i
tingtothem i
[Link]
sk
Page|
47
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

wasl
ost
.

3.7.
5PoorSt orageofDi sks
Wesai dt hatthedi sksr equir
ev eryhighlevel
sofcleanli
nessabov e
anyother .Dust swil
lclogt [Link] oblem i
nreading
andwr i
tingt ot [Link] acesandv erydryplaces
haveef f
ect sont hedi sks,surfacewillei
therbecomet oodeli
cateorfold
away f r
om i ts [Link] lthese mi ni
mi ze t
he reading and writ
ing
processest odat ai
nt hedi sk.

3.7.
6Unaut hori
zedAccess
Onl
yaut hori
zedpersonnelshoul dal
way sbeall
owedi ntothel
ab.I ti
s
possibl
et hathacker s could gai
n access tot he room and “ steal
”
data/i
nformation,whichcoul dbet amperedwithinsomewayorev ena
vir
usinfectedintothesyst em.
Al
sounaut horizedper sonscouldperfor
m somef raudwi t
hthedat a
forsayper sonalgainatt heexpenseoftheor gani
zat
[Link] d
gainaccesst of orexampl echangeanexisti
nginvoi
cet orefl
ectahigher
orlowerbill
,clearaninvoice,et
c.
3.8 PRECAUTI ONS

Thefol
lowi
ngprecaut
ionsshouldbeputinpl
acet
oav
ertt
hepossi
ble
l
ossofdat
athr
oughtheri
sksidenti
fi
edabove.

3.8.
1a)PowerFai lure
Powerf ail
ureisar iskt odatai ntheorganizat i
[Link]
onst obe
takeni nclude:
b) Regul arSavingofDocument s/Fil
es
Theuseroft hesy stem shouldal waysensur et hattheworki ssaved
as r egular l
y as possi ble,say af terev er
y5 t o 10 mi nut
[Link]
applicationwi l
lalway sdot hi
sautomat i
call
yfort [Link]’tsave
yourwor kper i
odicall
y,thenanypoweri nterr
uption/ spi
kewillmeanal lt
he
wor kyoudi dwillbelost.
c) UseofUPS
UPSi nshor tforUnint err
uptedPowerSuppl [Link] si
sasi mpledev i
ce
thatconsi st
sofsui tablesi zedstrappedacrosst [Link]
ssize
i
sdependentupont hecapaci t
yoft hesystem i
tisr equir
edt osupportand
forhowl [Link] smet hodcanbei nterr
uptdriv
enf rom asimplehardware
Page|
48
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

dictat i
onci rcui
twhi chaut omat icall
yl ockst heuseroutassoonasan
i
nt er r
upt i
oni sdetectedandal ldat ai saut omat i
call
yst oredandal so
saf elypackedbef oret hesystem i sswitchedof f.
d) UseofBat t
eri
esandGener ators
Standby gener ator sy stems t ogether wi th l ar
ge bat teri
es ar e
necessar yt o sustaint he cont i
nuity ofcomput erf acili
ti
es i n such
organi zations as hospi t
als,mi l
it
aryi nstall
at i
ons,f actories and some
offices.I nt heev entofpoweri nterr
upt i
on,whathappensi st hatt he
syst em isf irstmaintainedbyt hebat terywhi lethegener atori sst art
edup.
3.8.2Vi rus
The f ollowing precautions shoul d be adher ed to so as t o guard
agai nstv i
r us:
a) Wr i
tePr otecti
onDi sks
Everyf loppy3½ di skcont ainsaphy sicalwr i
tepr otectt abont heleft
handcor nert hatsli
desdownt oindicatei t
s“ on”.Whent hedi ski swr i
te
prot ected,i tmeansy oucannotbeabl et owr i
teany thingorchangea
wor di ni t,y oucanonl yread!Thi swi l
lpr otecty ouagai nstv i
russi nceit
cannotal lowanyext ernaldataofanyf orm!

b) Rest ri
cti
onofDi skMov ement
St r
ictproceduresshouldalway sbeputi npl aceandadher edt obyall
IT [Link] softwarewi llaskt heusert o“ repai
r”har d disksand
fl
oppiesaswel lasthebootsectorfrom v i
[Link] ocedureshoul
d
bef ort hesakeofdat aintegr
it
y,nodi skfrom t heorganizati
onshould
l
eav ethecomput erroom andatt hesamet imeanyext ernaldiskshoul
d
notbeusedi nt hesyst
em unless“sheepdi pping”[Link]
si
mpl ymeansscanni ngthediskforv i
rusesfir
stbef or
ebei ngused.

c) Disabl
eDi skDr
ives
Anotherv i
abl
ealternativ
et ov irusprotecti
onwouldbet ophy si
call
y
removeallthediskdr i
vesoncet henor malwor ki
[Link]
shouldbedonebyt het [Link] hi
sisdone,itmeans
thatevenifyouhady ourdiskt ousey oucannotbecauset hedi
skdr i
veto
l
ety oureadandwr itetot hedi skisnott [Link]
swillhel
pprotectthe
organi
zati
onagainstboorsect orv i
rusandt heli
ke.

Page|
49
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

d) Ant iVirusSoftware
Softwarear eav ail
ableint hemar kettodayt hathel pt o disinf
ect
diskettes(disks)andofcour sethemai nmemor yfrom thev i
rusinfecti
on.
Sincenew v ir
usescomeupof t
en,iti salwaysr ecommendedt hatsuch
softwar einstall
edintoy oursy stem shoul dber egularlyupdat edora
newermor epower f
ulonei nstall
[Link] twareisof teneasyt ouse
oncei nstall
ed.
Exampl esofsuchsof twarei nclude:Nor t
onAnt i-
virus,[Link] omon
Anti-vi
rusToolKi t,F-ProtProfessionalet [Link] ewi l
lscanand
askt heusert o“repair
”harddisksandf l
oppiesaswel last hebootsect or
fr
om v iruses.

3.8.3Acci dentalEr asure

Whenaf i
l
e,document ,sof t
war ei saccident all
yer ased,i tispossi bl
e
thaty oucanputi npl acesomer ecov erypr ocedur espr ovidedf ori nthe
form ofut i
l
iti
esbyt heoper atingsof t
[Link] ngont heoper ati
ng
syst em inuse,andt heappl icati
onsof twar e,theusercanbeabl eto
undel etean“ al r
eadydel etedf il
e”ordocumentbysi mpl yev okingt he
util
[Link] hedat awasl ostasar esul toff ormat tingadi sk,aut ili
tyto
unf ormatt hesamecoul dbepr ov i
[Link] il
i
tieswi ll
theref orehel pto
recov ersuchacci dental lostdat a.
Anot herpr ecaut i
ont oputi nplacewoul dal way sbet ousebackup
copi esoft hei nformat ionl [Link] ssi mpl yt heal ternativ
e
copyt hatwasmadeoft hei nformat i
oncont ainedi napar t
iculardi [Link]
ast heexpl anationst ateswi llhelpt heor gani zati
ont ocont inuewor ki
ng
withoutanyhi tches.
Anot heropt ionist ousef ireproofsaf es( heat -
resist antsaf es).Heati s
at hreattobackupcopi esmadeondi skett
[Link] sket test endt of oldunder
excessi veheat .Toav oi dt helossofdat aint hisway ,itisrecommended
thatsuchdi sksbekepti nheatr esistantsafeal way s.

3.8.
4CrashingDisks
Poweri nterr
upt
ion,wesai d,causest
hedi skheadst [Link]
causesapr oblem i
nreadingandwr i
ti
ngtothesamedi [Link]
on
herewouldbet ousebackupcopi esofthesamedi sksi nt
heev entof
suchacrash.
Toav oidsuchacr ash,
itwouldbeimport
anttoobserveprecauti
ons
forpowerfail
ure.
Page|
50
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

3.8.5PoorSt or ageandHandl i
ngDi sks
Di sksarev erysensi t
ivest oragemedi aandal otofcar eneedst obe
takent oensur ethatthedat a/informat ionst oredi nthem issafeandt hat
thedi skcanber eadandwr i
ttent [Link] loppydi sksar ecov eredby
plasticmat erialwhi chreacteasi l
yt oexcessi vet emper at
ureslikedi rect
sunlightorv erycol ddumpsi t uati
[Link] efore,t opreservet hedi sks,
keep t hem awayf r
om sunl ightast hisi sl ikel
yt o coverthe pl ast i
c
envelopecov eringthedi skwhi chwi llulti
mat elyaffectreadingandwr it
ing;
keept hem awayf r
om wat erwhi chwoul dmaket hedisksur f
acedump
andhenceaf fectthest oragelay ers( sectors,tracksandcy li
nders)wher e
datai sst or
ed.
Disksshoul dal sobekeptawayf rom dustenv ir
onment ,ast hose
againwi llmaket hedi skdr i
[Link] swi llcausel ossofdat ai ft he
diskheadscannotr eadandwr i
te.
Themodeofst oraget othesemagnet i
cdi sksi sbymagnet ism oft he
positiveandt henegat i
vechar gesoft hedat at obest [Link] e
keptnex ttomagnet s,i tispossi blet hatt hedemagnet i
zati
onoft his
sequencecoul dbeal [Link] swi l
lofcour sedest r
oyt hedatast oredi n
thedi sk.

3.8.
6Unaut hor i
zedAccess
Accesst othe comput err oom shoul d be a pr i
[Link] yt hose
personnelwor ki
ngthereshouldbeal lowedi [Link] othel abis
notr estri
cted,thenitbecomeseasyf orhacker st ogai naccesst ot he
system andhencedest royor“ steal”infor mat i
[Link] audul entact iv
iti
esby
theempl oyeesoni nf
ormat i
onl i
kel eaki ngconf identiali nformationt o
ri
valsforpay mentisalsopossi [Link] heri nt
ruder scoul dal sogai naccess
tothesy st
em andhencedest royorcar ryoutr idiculousact sl i
keli
terall
y
steali
ngt heequipment .
Somef i
lesattr
ibut
esshoul dal sobeputi npl acetoav ertaccesst o
datast [Link] e,t
heuseofpasswor dsshoul dbeencour aged;
dataencr yptionmethodshouldal sobeadopt ed.
Passwor dscouldbeanumber (s)orawor dt hatisonl yknownt oone
personorsome“ tr
usted”personneli nadepar t
mentorasect orthatwi l
l
enablet heusert ogainaccesst ot hesy stem orapar t
iculardocumentor
fi
[Link] dswillensur et hatonl yt hosepeopl ewhoknow
thepasswor dcouldgainaccesst ot hosef i
lesi nt hesy [Link] ds
Page|
51
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

i
ftobeused,shoul dalwaysbechangedper i
odicall
yi ncasei
thasbeen
l
eakedt osomeonewhoi snotauthori
zedt oknowi t.
Dat aencrypti
onisawayofwr i
tingapar ti
cularinfor
mati
onusinga
gi
vengr idthatcouldonlybedecipher edbyy ouoragr oupofper
sonnel
authori
zedt oforexample:toencryptt hefol
l
owi ngstatementina5x4
gri
d( i
.earowis5andacol umnis4l etter
s)wouldbe:
Thestatement: MEETMETONI GHTAT8
MEET.
[Link]
NIGHT
.AT.8
Thestatementt obestoredasdataisMMN. [Link]. .
OT8

Thestat
ementLICENCEDTOKI LLcoul
dbeencr ypt
edas
LCOLI
E..
CDK.E.I
.NTL.i
na5x4gr idi
.e.
LI
CEN
LI
CENCED.T
O.
KILL
NB:Notethatawor dtobeencry
ptedinfullasyoumovealongt
her
ow.
Separ
ateeachspacebyadot .Tor ead,readthefir
stl
ett
erint
hef
irst
col
umnandmov edownthecol
[Link] saspace.

3.
9 SUMMARY

 Factorstoconsiderwhendesigni
ngacomput erlabaret
hefol
l
owing:
Dimension,accessibi
l
ity
,sit
ti
ngofequi pment ,heal
thandsafet
yof
personnel
,l
ight
ing,powersuppl
y,phy
sicalsecuri
tyandnoi
se.

 Str
ictrul
est
othel
ab concer
ning behav
iourasout
li
ned shoul
d be
observ
ed.

 Forsaf etyprecaut
ionsonthelab,thefoll
owing shoul
d al
way sbe
consi
der ed:Fi
refi
ghti
ngequi
pment,st
andar
df ur
nit
ure,pr
operl
ighti
ng,
dust/
dump- pr
ooflab,pr
operinst
all
ati
ons,stal
e powersupply and
burgl
arproofdoors.

 Possi
blecausesofdat alossandprogr
amsarethefoll
owi
ng:power
fai
l
ure,vi
ruses,acci
dent
alerasur
e,er
asi
ngofdi
sks,poorst
orageand
Page|
52
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

handli
ng ofdi
sks and unaut
hor
ized access byhacker
s and ot
her
i
ntruders.

 Thef oll
owingar epr ecauti
onst obet akeni nt heev entofdat aloss
fr
om suchr isksment ioned.
 UseUPS, largebat teri
esandgener at orsintheev entofpowerf ai
lure.
 Useofant ivir
ussof t
ware, writeprotect i
ngdi sks.
 Mov ementr estr
ictions.
 Disabli
ngdi skdr ivestopr otectagai nstv i
rusesoracci dental
erasure.
 Useofundel etedandunf ormat tedut ili
ti
es.
 Useofbackupcopi esandheatr esistantsaf es.
 Di sks shoul d be st or
ed away f rom wat er,fi
re or excessi ve
temper at
ur esandawayf rom magnet sandshoul dbekepti ndust
freeenv i
ronment s.
 Useofpasswor dsandencr ypti
onmet hodst oprotectf i
l
esagai nst
unauthorizedaccessbypeopl e.

3.
10QUESTI
ONS

1. Li
stf
act
orst
oconsi
derwhi
l
edesi
gni
ngacomput
erl
ab.

2. Whatpoints woul
d be observ
ed inthe comput
erl
ab as f
aras
behav
iourofper
sonnel
isconcerned?

Page|
53
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

3. Handl
i
ngofmat
eri
alsandequi
pmenti
nthel
abi
svi
tal
.Di
scuss.

4. Whatsafet
yprecaut
ionsandpr
act
icesshoul
dbeputi
ntopl
acei
na
comput
erlab?

5. What ar
e desi
rabl
e and possi
ble causes of dat
aloss i
n an
or
gani
zati
on?

6. Listanddi
scusst
hefactor
stobeputinplaceasr
ecov
erymeasur
es
totheabov
edatathr
eatstoanor
gani
zati
on.

CHAPTER4

OPERATI
NGSYSTEMS

Thischapt erwil
lint
roducethestudenttowhatoperati
ngtermsare,the
functionsandt [Link]
soser v
et oexplai
nhow diskOper at
ing
System ( DOS)organizesinfor
mati
[Link] udentisexpectedtouse
someDOScommandsf orfi
leanddiskmanagementandbeabl et
ol i
st
externalandint
ernalDOScommandsatt heendofthechapt
er.

4.
1Defi
nit
ionoft
heter
m Operati
ngSy
stem.
4.
2Funct
ionsofOper
ati
ngSystem.
Page|
54
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

4.
3TypesofOper at
ingSystems.
4.
4HowDOSor ganizesi
nformat
ion.
4.
5Li
stofDOScommands.
4.
6Fi
leManagementCommands.
4.
7DiskManagementCommands.
4.
8Summar y.
4.
9Questi
ons.

4.
1 DEFI
NITI
ONOFTHETERM:
‘OPERATI
NGSYSTEM’

Operat
ingSyst
em asdefinedear
li
er,i
sasetofpr ogramsav ai
lable
wi
thinthe syst
em soft
waret hatst
andardi
zes t
he waya comput er
’s
r
esourcesaremadeavai
labl
etotheuserandtoappl
icat
ionssof
tware.

4.
2 FUNCTI
ONSOFANOPERATI
NGSYSTEM

Thef
oll
owi
ngf
unct
ionsar
eident
if
iedascommont
oal
lOper
ati
ng
Sy
stems:

4.2.
1Memor yManagement
AnOper ati
ngSy stem al
locat
esmemor ytoit
selfandt oitsr
esident
system progr
ams,set sasidear easofappl
i
cationpr ogr
amsanduser
parti
ti
ons,arr
angest heinputandoutputbuf
fers(areasonRAM wher e
i
nputdat aandoutputdat aaretemporar
il
yst
ored)andr eser
vesstorage
forspeci
ali
zedpurposes.

4.2.
2Input/Output(I/O)Management
TheOper ati
ngSy st
em control
sr eadi
ngofdat acomi nginfrom t he
vari
ousi nputdev icesi ntothememor yandwr i
ti
ngofdat at oout put
devi
cessuchaspr i
nters.
TheOper ati
ngSy stem wil
lensurethateacht imet heusertypesi n
commandst hosei nputsareacceptedintothememor y,andift
helatteris
busythei tholdsthesamet emporari
l
yonbuf fersunti
lthememoryi sfree
andal sodoest hesamet ooutputdataawai t
ingtobedi spl
ayedont he
Page|
55
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

moni
torort
obesentt
othepr
int
eri
fthesamear
ebusy
.

4.2.
3Resour ceAl l
ocat ion
Oper ati
ng Sy stem l oad pr ogramsi nt
ot hecomput ermemor yand
startst hem r unningaf terr ecei
vinginstr
ucti
onsf rom theuser ,atthe
same t i
me,oper ating sy stemsmusthav e abil
it
yt o divi
de resources
availablet odi f
ferentuser s,memor yandofcour setheper ipheralsto
diff
er entprocessor sgoi ngonatt hesamet imesot hatnoneoft heusers
gets“ stuck”or“ deadl ocked”dur ingtheoperati
onf orl
ackofacomput er
resour ce.
4.2.
4Er r
orHandl i
ng
AnyOper ati
ngSy stem musthav etheabi l
i
tytohandl eer r
or sinthe
comput ersystem bei thardwar eorsoftwarefault
sandbeabl etopr ovi
de
routinest ocorrectt heseer rors.

4.
2.5Prov
isi
onforUserInt
erface
AnyOperati
ngSystem shouldhav etheabil
i
tyt
orecei
vecommands
fr
om theuserandr
espondt othem accor
dingl
y.

4.2.
6Int
erruptHandl i
ng
Aninterrupti
oncoul dbecausedbysof twareerrors,
mechani calfaul
ts
ofamachi neorbyt heoperat
orbypr essingtheBr eakkeyforexampl e
whichhaltst hesy st
[Link] at
ingsy stem shouldalway
sbeabl eto
handlesuchi nt
erruptswit
houtcausi
nganymal functi
onsasar esult.

4.
3 TYPESOFOPERATI
NGSYSTEMS

Ther
e are maj
orlytwo t
ypes ofOper
ati
ng Sy
stems t
hatwe wi
l
l
di
scussint
hissect
ion.

4.3.
1SingleUserSyst
em
InthistypeofOperat
ingSy stem,onl
yoneusercanusethemachine
atat i
me,l oadoneprogram atat i
mei nthemai
nmemor yandprocess
[Link] hesmallmicr
ocomputer
semploysi
ngle
[Link]- DOS,Pc-
DOSandWindows.

4.
3.2Mult
iUserSyst
em
Thi
ssy st
em asthenamesuggest
sisf
ormul
tiuser
,asopposedt
o
Page|
56
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

the si
ngle user system. This system i s empl
oyed by l ar
ger
micr
ocomputer
sandmi nicomput
[Link] hanoneprogram canbe
l
oadedintothemainmemor ybydiff
erentusersandprocessedatthe
sametimeinani nteract
[Link] esofsuchanoper at
ing
syst
em ar
eUNIXandWi ndowsNT.

4.
4 FI
LEMANAGEMENT

Medi um ofst orageempl oy edbymostmi crocomput er

si softendi sk.
Datat hatisst or edondi sksar eoftenhel dinaf [Link] att
erisof ten
ref
erredt oasagr oupofr elatedrecor [Link] ecordsmayhol ddat a
aboutcust omer s,empl oyeesoft heor ganizat
ionandnamesofst udents
i
naschool andt helikedependi ngont heor ganizati
ons.
Ther ef
or e,thef ileasagr oupofpr ogr am instructi
onsi sact ual
lya
comput erpr [Link] il
esar estoredonsuchst oragemedi a,then
theterm“ f
ile”ref er
st oanythingst or
edont hemedi um, beitapr ogram or
datafil
e.

4.4.1FileandDi r
ectories
Thewor koft heOper atingSy st
em ist okeepormai nt ainadi r
ect ory
oft headdr essoft hef i
lesondi [Link] i
leont hestor agemedi ai s
assi gnedanamecal l
edf il
ename( onewor d).Thedirector yisal istof
fi
lenamesandt hedi skaddr essesatwhi cht hef i
l
emaybef [Link]
theuserr eferstoapar t
icularfil
ename, i
tcausest heoperat i
ngsy stem t o
consul tit
sdi r
ectoryoff il
enames,l ocatet headdressoft her equir
edf i
le
andmakei treadyf oruse.
Letushav eal ookatadi r
ectoryli
sti
ngoff il
esofasy stem diskusi ng
[Link] lofthefil
esi nthisdirector
yarepr [Link] stem diski sso
calledbecausei tcont ai
nst [Link] lli
stdi r
ectoryf or
syst em dri
veA:
Volumei ndriv
eA: hasnol abel.
DirectoryofA:
COMMAND COM 1810713- 12-97 13. 00PM
SYSCOM740713- 12-97 13. 00PM
DIRECTORY COM 130713- 12-9713.00PM
FINDEXE127813- 12-97 13. 00PM
4FILE( S)142890BYTESFREE

Page|
57
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Whatt hel istshows:

(i
)t henameoft hef i
[Link]
(i
i)Fi lenameext ensi
one. [Link]
(i
ii
)Thenumberofby tescont ainedi nt hisf i
le
(i
v)Dat eandt imeonwhi chi twaspr intedi ntot hedi r
ectory.
(v)The t otalf i
gure att he bot tom oft hisdi rectorylisti
ng show t he
numberofby tesremai ningf orstor i
ngot herf i
les.
MS- DOShascer tainrulesforf ormat i
onoff il
enamesf orexampl e;
Af i
lenamemustnotexceed8char actersi nlengt handi nsome
casesr equiresf i
lenameext ensi ons,whi chi s3-char act
eri nadditi
ont o
the f i
lename.I nt he abov e exampl e,COM and EXE ar e extensions.
Alt
houghnotv i
sible,t
her eisusual l
yaf ullstopbet weent hef i
l
enameand
theext ensione. [Link] .COM i st
hecompl etenamef ortheabov ef il
e.
Theuserhast otypeint hecomput ernameoft hef i
leincludingtheper i
od
i
nor dert oef f
ect i
vel
yusesomef il
emai ntenanceut i
l
iti
esl i
kecopy ingor
[Link] lenameext ensionsusual l
yi ndicat ethet ypeoff il
eforexampl e
“COM”and“ EXE”abov ewi ll
r ef e
-
rt
75-
opr ogr am f i
les.

4.4.2Direct
oryHier
ar chy
Fil
esst oredonadi skcanal way sbeor gani
zedintosubdir
ect
ories.
Directoryhierar
chyreferstoa“ t
ree”li
kest ructur
eformedbydi r
ect
ory–
subdirectori
es– f i
[Link] e,wecoul dhav eadi r
ectorycall
ed
KENYAwi t
hsubdirectori
esoftownsNAI ROBI ,MOMBASA,NAKURUand
fi
lesofEst ateswit
hineacht own,e.
[Link] l
inghum, Nyal
iandMili
[Link]
fi
gur ebelowshowst hedir
ector
yhierarchy
.

KENYA

NAI
ROBI MOMBASA NAKURU

HURLI
NGHUM NYALI MI
LIMANI

NAI
ROBI MO

Page|
58
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
HURLI
NGHUM NY
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Fi
g.4.
4.2

Tobeabl etospecifywhichf i
letoopen,t heuserhast ospecif yto
theoperati
ngsy stem thedatapat horpat htothatfil
[Link] e,to
open a f i
lename Mi li
mani,t he f oll
owi ng path must be speci fi
ed:
Kenya\Nakuru\Mili
mani.
Apat hisoftendefinedasal ogical,
sequentiall
istofdi rector
iesand
subdi
rectori
es leading toaf [Link] names ofdi rectori
es and
subdi
rectori
esar esepar at
ed from eachot herbydet erminateswhi ch
coul
dbeabacksl ash(\
)orahy phen( -
)orasl ash(/)dependi ngont heMs
-Dosversi
oni nuse.
Thedi r
ectorynameshav eext ensionDI Rwherast hefileshav eTXT.
The dir
ectory named Keny a underwhi ch the subdirectories Nakur u,
MombasaandNai r
obiarestor
edi scal ledrootdir
ectory.

4.4.3Vol umeLabl esandDi r

ector i
es
Al abelsisanamegi ventoadi sktoenabl ey oui dentif
yt hecontents
from thoseofot herdi skswheni t’
sof f-
lineinthati fit’snotmount edona
drive.
Sincet heusecoul dhav emul tiplediskdriveson- line(mount ed)atone
ti
me,t heoper ati
ngsy stem musthav eawayofdet erminingwhendi sks
areact ual
lymount edont hedr i
v [Link] his,weusev olumel abelsor
volumedi r
ector y
,whi chsi mplyanameassi gnedt oeachdi skusedi nthe
comput erinstall
ati
[Link] f
f erencebet weenv ol umel abel sidenti
fi
esa
storagemedi um asphy si
caluni twhi l
et helattertwoi dentifydatastored
ondi [Link] eav olumel abelcount ryt ot hehierarchyabov e,
thecompl etenamef orr eachingMi l
imani fi
l
ewi llbe:
COUNTRY\ KENYA\ NAKURU\ MI LIMANI

Theoperati
ngsystem wil
lensur
ethatdiskonav olumel
abelCountry
i
slocatedfi
rstifi
tistheonemount ed,bef
oreitsearchesf
ortheactual
f
il
einthespecif
icdir
ector
ies.

4.
4.4TabControl
Computersandtheiroper
ati
ngsystemscanperfor
m agreatnumber
ofdif
fer
enttasks,
notjustonejobassayastand-
alonewor
dpr ocessoror
acalcul
ator
.Therefor
e,theuserofthesy st
em mustbepreparedt otel
l
Page|
59
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

theoper at
ingsy stem whatpar ti
cul artaskt oper form att hemoment .
When t hecomput ersy stem i scompl ete,usual lytheappl icati
on
progr am i s whatt he usercommuni cat es wi tht he pr ogram when a
particul artaski sdesi [Link] heappl icat i
onpr ogr am fini
shes,i ti
sno
l
ongerapar toft hesy stem.
Theusert her efor emustcommuni cat ewi tht heoper atingsy stems
tot ellitwhatt odonext .Heorshedoest histhr ought heuseofwhatwe
callOS’ sTabCont r
[Link] st sofanumberof
oper at i
ngsy stem commandsal socal l
edsy stem commandst hatcont rol
theoper at
ingsy stem.
How doesoneknow t hatt heappl icationpr ogr am hasf inishedi ts
wor kandi tisnol ongerl oadedbyt heoper at
ingsy st em?Theoper ati
ng
syst em wi lldispl ayt hatbydi splay i
ngi tspr ompt ;itcoul dbeachar acteror
twot hatwi llsignal theuseri tawai tsf urthersy stem commands.
TheMS- DOSOper atingSy stem, usest hepr omptC: \>orC>.The“ C”
i
nt hepr ompti ndi cat est hedi skdr i
vei nwhi cht heoper at
ingsy stem wi l
l
l
ookf oranyf il
esr ef erredt obyt henextTCLi nstruct [Link] skdr i
ve
attachedt ot hesy stem ar eusual l
yi dent i
f i
edbyl etter softheal phabet
throughasy stem wi thf ourdr ivescoul dhav edr ivei dent i
fi
ersA:t hrough
[Link] ef
erencet oadr ivemusti ncl udet hecol oni nt hedrivei dent i
fi
er.
Thedr iveident ifierdi splayedbyt hedospr ompti sknownasal ogged
dri
v e, thedef aul tdr iveort heact i
v edr i
ve.

4.5 MS- DOSCOMMANDS

Usingsy stem [Link]
samat t
erofknowingt he
ri
ghtcommandskey ,keyi
tinandpressenterkeyforthecommandt obe
[Link] commandshel pust omanageourf i
lesanddirector
ies
forexample;wecancopyaf i
lefrom onedisktoanother,del
etefil
esor
[Link] somanageourdi sksforexampletof ormata
disk,
labeladiskorcopydisks.

TheSy nt
axofaDosCommand
A Doscommandusual l
yhasacommandname( i
.ethesyst
em
commandt heuseri
ntendstouse)andanargumentwhi
chisinf
ormat
ion
requi
redbyt [Link] gumentusedwi t
haDoscommandwi l
l
i
ndicatethediskdr
iveonthefi
letobeusedbythecommand
Exampl e:COPYANN1TO ANN2
[Link] gumentsare
Page|
60
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

[Link] scommandcopi esafi

[Link]
newcopyisnamedANN2.
N/B:ANN1andANN2ar eargument
sandaresepar
atedfrom eachot
her
[Link]
soseparat
edfr
om thecommandname
byablankspace.

4.5.1Runni ngaPr ogram

Itisimpor tantt onot et hataDosCommandr epr esent saprogr am.A
commandnamei sjustl ikeaf ilenameofanyot herpr ogr [Link] e
torunapr ogr am usi ngDos, f
ir
stt heoper at
inghast obel [Link] ng
theoper atingsy st em i ssimpl yswi t
chingont hecomput er,i
twi l
lopena
progr am l oadedi nROM t ochecki ftheoper at
ingsy st em isloadedi n
driveAoranyot herandl oad, otherwi seitwilll
oadf r
om t heharddi sk.
Tor unapr ogram wi thf i
lenameext ensionCOM,BAT,TXT,si mply
enteri tsfilenamewi thoutt heext ensionf orexampl etoaBasi cPr ogram
simpl yent erBASI [Link] i
lenamei sBASI [Link].
Wheny ouwantt oexecut eapr ogram thatisnotst oredonadi skin
theloggeddr ive,thef irstthingwoul dbet ochanget heloggeddr ivet othe
diskcont ainingt hepr [Link] ampl e,supposey ouwant edt or una
progr am wi tht hef il
enameMI LO. EXEwhi chi sont hedi ski ndriveB: ,and
thel oggeddr i
vei sA: ,t ospeci fythedr iv
eonwhi chDosshoul dlookf or
thepr ogram,pr oceedwi ththef il
enamewi tht hedr ivei dentif
iedwi thno
blanki nbet weent hecol onandt hefil
ename.
B: MILO

4.
6 FI
LEMANAGEMENTCOMMANDS

4.6.
1Changi ngt heLoggedDr i
ve
Tochanget heloggeddriv
ef rom t
heactiv
eone,si
mplyenterthe
l
etteroft heal phabetforthenew driv
eatthepromptoft
heacti
vedr i
ve
foll
owedbyt hecol onsandthenpressEnt
erkey.
Forexampl e,i
ftheacti
vedriveisC:
\>,si
mplyt
ypeA:att
hepr ompt
andpr essEnt er.
C:\
> A:\
>
A:\
> or A: \
>

4.
6.2Det
ermini
ngtheCont
entsofaDi
sket
te
Todetermi
nethecontent
sofyourdisk,Dospr
ovi
desapr
ogr
am
Page|
61
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

commandDI R(Directory)thatwilldi
splayt hefi
lesstorediny ourdi skwith
theexcept i
onoft hehi ddenf i
les.
Thefilesareusual l
yl i
stedoneperl inewitht heirfi
l
enames, f
ilename
extension,sizeandt hedat eandt i
met heywer el astsaved.
I
fy ouhav emanyf i
lesthancanbedi spl
ayedont hescreen, t
henDos
passest hem sof astov erthescreent haty oucannotbeabl etor eador
i
dent i
fyapar ti
cularprogr [Link] wosol utionstothatpr ogram:

(i
)/ P( Pause)Swi t
ch
To see t he f
il
es wit
h al
lthe r
elev
antinformati
on i
.[Link]
ename,
fi
lenameext ension,si
zeanddateandti
me,then/Pswitchdoesthewor k.
Thef il
eswillbeshownonescr eenatati
meandt estst
heusertoseet he
fi
leswi t
hinstructi
onsto“pr
essanykeytoconti
nue…”TheformatisDIR/P
<ENTER>

(i
i)/W(Wide)Switch
Thi
scommandwi l
ldispl
ayf
il
enamesandt
hei
rext
ensi
ononlyf
orthe
enti
redi
rect
[Link]
lbedi
spl
ayedi
nrowsfi
vefi
leswi
[Link]
formati
sDIR/W <ent
er>.

Toseeonl
yaparti
cul
arfi
leonDi
sk
Si
mpl
yusethefi
lenameoft
hatf
il
east
hear
gument
,thus:
DI
RB:FI
[Link]

I
nthi
scase,Doswil
ldi
spl
ayt
hepar
ti
cul
ari
nfor
mat
ionaboutt
hatf
il
e
ort
elly
outhati
tisnotondi
sk.

ToseeDi rect
oryfil
eswi t
hsi mil
arextensions.
I
fy our fi
les hav e t he fol
lowing ext ensions;BAS f or Basi
c
Programmi ngfi
les,DBSf orDatabasef i
les,toseet heirdir
ector
yofallt
he
Basicpr ogrammi ngfi
les,enter:
DIR*.BASor DI R/P. BAS orDI R/W*.BAS
The asteri
sk is called a wil
d car [Link] tmeans i sthatyou
“substi
tutet he position wi t
h any char acters.” Fori nst
ance inthe
commandDI R*.
BASwi l
ll
istallt
hefil
eswi ththe. BASext ensi
on.

Di
rector
yoffi
leswit
hsimil
arnamesanddi
ff
erentext
ensi
ons
Supposeyourf
il
enamesarethesamebuthavedif
fer
entext
ensi
ons,
Page|
62
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

al
lthatyouneedt odois:
DIRSame. *
Allf
il
escal l
ed“Same”willbedispl
ayed.
Supposey oudeci
dedt oidenti
fyyourfi
l
esasSame1,Same2andso
on,andt heref
oreyouwant edt oonlydispl
ayafi
lenameSamebutwi
th
speci
fi
cext ensi
onDBF, y
ouwoul denter:
DIRSame* .DBF
Toseeal lsamefil
esyouwoul denter:
DIRSame* .*

Theast eri
skwi ldcardi samanychar act
erwildcar [Link]
ll
souta
fi
lenameorext ensi
onf r
om i tspositi
ont otheendoft henamei nt he
abov eEXEf i
le,theast eri
skist hefif
th,
sixth,
sevent
handei ght
hcharacter
i
ft heyexisti
nt hef i
l
enamebegi nni
ngwi t
hSAME.
Anotherwi ldcardusedi nt heDoscommandi f?Itisusuallycal
leda
one char act
erwi l
d car [Link] i tappearsi n a command,y ou can
substitut
eitwi t
honechar actere.g.
DIR? AME* .DBF,wi l
lsubst it
ute?wi t
hanychar acteraslongast he
[Link] spar tofthatf il
[Link] fiti
sacommand,l i
keDI R
SAME* ??
?Woul dbet hesameasDI RDSAME* .
*whent hethreequestions
mar ksinthef ormerst andfirthreecharacter
.

4.6.
3Changi ngDi rect
ori
es
Letusgobackt otheexamplewegav ewi t
hrootdi
rect
oryKENYA.
Supposey ouwant edtomakeHur li
nghum yourcurr
entdir
ector
y,you
si
mpl yneedt oent ertocommand:
CDC: \NAIROBI \
HURLINGHAM.<ENTER>
Ifyouar eal r
eadyinC:asthelogi
caldr
ive,
youdonotneedtoenteri
t
agai
n, si
mpl ytype: CD.I
fyouwantedtomov euponelevel
ofthedir
ector
y
i
.e.t
oNai robi,t
y pe:
CD..<ENTER>

Supposeyouweretogostraighttot
herootdi
rect
oryi
.[Link],al
l
youneedtotypei
natthepromptis:
CD\<ENTER>
I
fy ouwanttoseethesubdirect
oryofacurr
entdir
ect
ory,ty
peDIR.
<ENTER>.

Page|
63
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Forexamplei
fyouhavemadeNakur
uyourcurr
entdi
rect
ory
,tosee
subdi
rect
oryl
ikeMil
imani
simpl
yent
ert
helat
tercommand!

4.6.
4MakingDi r
ectories
Supposey ouwant edtomakeasubdi rector
yofy ourcur
rentdi
rector
y
Nakuru,whatyouneedt odoisenterthatcommandMD( MakeDir
ectory
)
andthenamey ouintendtocallt
hesubdirectory,
thus:
MDLANGA<ENTER>
Iftowar
dscr eati
ngt hedi
rect
orynamedLANGAy ouwanttoworkinit,
si
mpl yusetheCDcommandt oplaceyourselfinit
,thus:
CDLANGA<ENTER>

4.6.5Remov i
ngDi rector i
es
Tor emov eadi rect ory, f
irstensur ethatt hedi rectorytober emovedi s
empt y .Youcanempt yadi rect or ybyusi ngDELcommandaf termaking
back- upcopi esoft hesame.
Toef fectt hecommandt or emov eadi r
ect or yl
ikeNYALI ,ensureyou
placey oursel finMOMBASAdi r
ect oryfir
st, t
hus:
CDMOMBASA<ENTER>
RDNYALI<ENTER>
4.6.6Copy ingaFi le
Itisof tennecessar yt omakeacopyofaf i
[Link] limpor t
antfi
les
shoul dal way sbecopi edsoast oguar dy oursel fagainstt hel ossofdat a.
Datal ossof tenoccur sify ouacci dentallyer aseaf i
le,Powergoesof f
beforey ou sav ey ourf iles,st ore data underan i ncorrectname,do
physical damagest oadi sket te.
Wheny oucopyaf il
et opr ot ectagainstl ossofdat awesayy ouar e
backi ngupaf i
[Link] equi res2par amet ers/argument s
toaccompl isht het [Link] sar esidentcommand.
(
i) Thef irstargumenti st henameoft hef i
let obecopi ed.
(
ii
) Thesecondar gumenti st hef i
l
enamef ort hecopy .Ift hefil
eisnot
ont hel oggeddr i
v e,thendr i
veident i
fi
cat ionmustbei ncluded.

4.
6.6.
1Copyi
ngfrom t
hesameDr
ive
Thus:
[Link]

Theabov
ecommandwil
lcopyf
il
enamedSAME1onthesamedriv
e
andgiv
eitanewnameZAME2.
DBF.i
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethati
fyouar
e
Page|
64
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

copy
ingwi
thi
nthesamedr
ive,t
hent
henew f
il
emusthav
eadi
ff
erent
name.

4.6.
6.2Copyingf
rom oneDri
vetoanot
her
Tocopyaf i
l
ef r
om onedr i
vetoanothergi
vingitthesamename.
Enter
:
COPYSAME1. DBFB:
Newf i
lenameisnotnecessaryonthetar
getdri
ve(B:)si
ncei
tist
he
sameast hatoft
hesourcedri
ve.

4.6.6.3CopyingarangeofFiles.
Tocopyar angeoffi
les,weempl oywi l
dcardsf orexample:
Copysame* .*
Bwi l
lcopyal lfi
lesont hel oggeddr i
vethatstartwith
sameont othedisket
teindri
v eb:ir
respecti
veoff i
lenameext ensi
on.
Tocopyt heenti
recontentsofdr i
veA:t oB,wecanuset hefoll
owing
command:
COPYA: *.
*B:
N/ B:Ensur
et hat t
he destinati
on diskettei sf or
matted beforet he
oper at
ionisstart
edsincethiscommandCOPYdoesn’ tcopyf ormatt
ing
i
nf ormati
onasdoesDI SKCOPYcommand( 4.7.4)
.

4.6.7Renami ngFi l
es
Fort hesakeofcl ari
ty,theusercanr enameanol df i
l
ewi t
hanew
[Link] sRENAMEorsi mpl [Link] ormatoft his
resi
dentDOScommandi s:
Atthepr omptoft hel oggeddr i
vecontainingt
hedi skwit
ht heol d
fi
lenamet ype:
RENAMEOLDNAME. TXT NEWNAME. TXT
ThisDOSi nter nalcommandwi l
lnotal
lowy outochangeaf il
ename
tooneal r
eadyexi sti
nginthedi skett
e.
Noticet hesi nglespacel eftbetweenthear gumentsthemselvesand
betweenDoscommandandt hear gumentoldname.
Theuseofwi l
dcardisi mpor t
anthereast heycouldhelprenamea
wider angeoff i
les, f
orinstance:
RENAMESAME* .
DBFSAME* .WPF
Thiswi llchangeal lthef ilenameextensionsofallt
heSAME f i
lesto
Wor dPr ocessi ngFi les(WPF) .Tor enameaf i
l
eonadi ffer
entdri
v e,you
woul ddot his:
Page|
65
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

RENAMEB:
SAME.
DBFZAME.
DBFt
orenameaf
il
einB:

4.
6.8Delet
ingFiles
TwoDoscommandsav ail
ablef ordelet
ingfi
l
esareDELandERASE.
Theformati s:
DELZAME. DBF<ENTER>
Thi
swi lldelet
eonlyafil
[Link] et
etheent
ir
edi
rect
ory
ofZAME( thatisplusthesubdir
ectories)
,enter
:
DEL* .
*<ENTER>
Thatisifyouar epl
acedinsi
det hedirect
oryZAME.

4.6.
9ToDi splayt heCont entsofaFil
e
Tobeabl et osimplydi spl
aythecontentsofaf i
leont
hemonitor
.The
commandt ypei sprov i
[Link]:
TYPEFi lename. EXT
I
ndicat
et hefil
enamet hati
spl usextensionifyoui
ntendt
odispl
ay
thecont ent
sont hescr [Link]:Youcanpr essCTRL+St ostopthe
contentsont hescr eenfrom passingtoofastforyou.

4.6.
10ToprinttheContent
sofaFi
l
e
Ifyouneedahar dcopyofthecont
ent
sofaf
il
e,t
henent
ert
he
formatbel
ow:
TYPEFi l
[Link]>PRN

N/B:Youcoul
dal
sousethecommandPRESSCTRL+Pwhi chwi
l
lsent
ev
erythi
ngont
heCRTtot
hepri
nter
.Tost
oppr
int
ingpr
eCTRL+Pagai
n.

4.
7 DI
SKMANAGEMENTCOMMANDS

UnderDiskManagementcommands,wewi
l
lexami
net
hef
oll
owi
ng
commands:
 Format t
ingaFloppyDi
sk
InsertingaFloppyDisk
 Copyingdisks
 AddingDost oaf or
matteddi
sk

Page|
66
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

4.7.
1Formatti
ngaDi skette
Formatti
ngi sapr ocessofpr epar i
ngnewdi sket tesfordat astorage.
Thesystem commandi sFOMART.
Whatf or
mat tingdoes:i torgani zest hedisksoDoscanst oredat a,
keeptrackofthem andr etri
ev ethem f rom [Link] esthatthere
arenodef ect
ivear easont henew di [Link] hedef ectiveareasar e
found,FORMATwi llmar kthem soDosdoesnotst oredat ai nthem.
Formatti
ngusual l
yt akest wo way s:A diskcanbef ormattedt o
i
ncludeDosornot .Diskst hati ncludet heoper at i
ngsy st em orDosar e
call
edsy st
em disksorbootdi skorcommanddi skandcanbeusedt o
star
tthecomput er( orloadt heoper ati
ngsy stem) .Diskst hatdonothav e
theoperati
ngsy stem st or
edi nt hem hav emor er oom t ost oredatat han
thefor
mer .

Procedure:
(i
) ToFor matanonsy stem ordatadisk
SimplyenterFORMATf ollowedbyadr i
veidenti
fi
cati
oni fthenewdiskis
nottobei ntheloggeddr i
v ei.
e.
FORMATorFORMATB:
Thiscommandwi llpromptDost oloadformatpr ogram anddi
splay
thefol
lowingmessage:
INSERTNEW DI SKETTEFORDRI VEA: andstri
keanykeywhenr eady.
I
nt hefi
lecaseor
INSERTNEW DI SKETTEFORDRI VEB:andst ri
keanykeywhenr eady
i
nt hesecondcase.
Simplyputt henewdi sket
tei
ntheindicateddri
veandpr essanykey.
Doswi l
ldisplay
:
Format t
ing…
Afteraf ewminutes, Dosrepeat
s

Formatt
ing……FormatCompl et
e
362496by t
estot
aldiskspace
362496by t
esavai
lableondisk
Formatanother(
Y/N)

Towhichyouwillanswer“Y”or“N”pressYify
ouwantt
ofor
mat
anot
herot
herwi
sepressNkeyf r
om thekey
board.

Page|
67
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

(i
i
)For matti
ngadisksothati
tincl
udesthesy
stems.
Simplyfoll
ow theabovepr ocedur
eswith addi
ti
on ofl
ett
erS f
or
syst
em thus:
FORMAT/ SorFORMAT/ SB:

Themessagesdi splay
ed ar ethesameast heonesabov ewit
h
addit
ionoftheonesindicati
ngt hatsyst
em transfer
redandhow much
spaceitr
equi
red.
A di
skwi t
hthesy st
em includessomehi ddenfil
esthenamesof
whichdonotappearwheny oulookatt hecont
ent softhedisk,
andafi
l
e
cal
ledCOOMAND. [Link] i
lesformtheresidentport
ionofDos.

4.7.
2Addi ngDost oaFor mat tedDi skette
Addi ngDost oaf ormatteddi sketteisat wo-steppr ocess:
(i
) Wi tht het argetdi sketteinB:andasy stem diski nt heloggeddr i
v er
,
copyt hehi ddenf il
est othedi sket t
ewi t
ht heSYScommand:
SYSB:
SYSi sanon- residentpr ogram ( ortransmit)i.
[Link] snotkepti nRAM.
I
tgener at
est hef ol
lowi ngmessages:
SYETEM TRANSFERRED
(i
i)Aft ert heabov epr ocess,copyCOMMAND. COM f rom y oursystem
disktt hedi sky ouar emodi fyi
ngbyent ering
COPYCOMMAND. COM B:
NB:y oucan addDost oanydi sket t
easl ongast her eisenoughspace
tostoret het hreef [Link] skalreadyhashi ddenf i
lesandy out r
ytouse
SYScommandt opl acet hem ont hediskany way ,y ouwi l
lgetaner ror
messagei ndi ctingt hatt herei snor oom ont hediskf orthesy [Link]
onlywayt or eplacet hehi ddenf il
esoncei nstall
edi sonl ybyf or
matting
thediskagai n.

4.7.
3Label i
ngaDi sk
Av ol
umenamei susedt oidenti
fydisksj ustasyouidenti
fyt
hem by
writ
ingidentif
icat i
oninformationonal abelplacedont hediskenvel
ope.
Thev ol
umenamehowev er,isrecordedont hedi ski
tsel
fandcanbe
checkedbyt heoper at
ingsy st
em toensuret hatthecorr
ectdiskhasbeen
i
nstalledinthedi skdrive.
Volumelabel (
11char act
ers;ENTERf orNone) ?MYDISKETTE
362496by test ot
al di
skspace
Page|
68
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

362496bytesusedbyt hesyst
em
321536bytesavai
lableondisk
Formatanother(
Y/N)
A>
NB:Al ways have some f ormatt
ed di
sks wit
hyou because some
appl
icati
onprogramswi llnotgivetheleewaytof
ormatadi skwhil
e
workingoni
t.

4.7.4Copy ingDisks
Ther eisaut il
itycall
edDi skcopythatisof tenprov i
dedf orinmost
versionsofMs- DosandPc- [Link] hisut i
li
tydoesi sthatitcopi esthe
entirecont entsofthesour cedi sktothedest i
[Link]
theoper atingsystem andf ormat sthedestinati
ondocumentaswel l.
Whatt hi
sut i
l
itydoesnotdoi stocheckf orer r
orsint hedest i
nation
diskandmar kthem sot hatdat aisnotstoredi [Link] leusi ng
thedi skcopycommand,car emustal way sbet akent ocl earl
yi dentif
y
whichdi skcontainsdat a( i
.[Link] cedisk)andwhi chdi skisempt y
(i
.[Link] i
nat
iondi sk)
.Ifthisisnotdone, thenitispossibletowi peout
every thing on t he source disk because y ou inadvertentlycopied t he
cont entsofabl ankdiskt othedat adiskyoui ntendedtor eproduce.

Procedure:
TheformatforDISKCOPYi ncl
udest
woparameter
s:
(a)Sour
ceDr i
veand
(b)Dest
inati
onDr i
ve.
Tobeabl etoexecutethecommand,ent
ert
hefoll
owi
ng:
DISKCOPYA: B:

Thiscommandwi ll
copyt hecontent
softheent i
redr i
veA:totheone
i
ndriveB:.
NB:Ev ery
thingont hedi skinB:,thedest
inat
iondr i
ve,wi l
lbedestroyed
bytheoper ati
[Link],Doswi llprompty outoinsertthe
di
sks.
Youcanaswel lspeci f
yDI SKCOPYB:A:ify ouintendt ocopyf r
om
dr
iveB:todr i
veA:.
Thismet hodisof t
enef fecti
vefordi
skst hataref ul
l,ot
herwisewe
wouldusethecommand:
COPYA: *.
* B:
Page|
69
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

Tocopyallt
hefi
lesi
ndri
veA:wi t
hanyextensi
ontoadiski
ndriv
eB.
thi
scommandasopposedt odiskcopy,wi
l
lalwayscheckf
orfaul
tyareas
onthedest
inat
iondr
iveandmarkthem sothatnodatai
skepti
nthem.

4.
8 SUMMARY

 AnOper at
ingSy st
em i
sasetofpr ogram “
housed”wit
hinthesyst
em
soft
warethatstandar
dizest
hewayt hecomputer
’sr
esourcesar
emade
avai
labl
efortheusertoappl
icat
ionssoft
ware.

 The f
unct
ions ofan operati
ng syst
em aret he f
oll
owing:Memor y
management,I
nput/Outputmanagement,Resourceallocat
ion,Err
or
handl
i
ng, Provi
sion for user int
erf
ace, I
nter
rupt handli
ng, Fi
le
managementandJobcont r
ol.

 Operat
ing Syst
ems coul d be si ngle userofmul t
iuser .Ms-
Dos
commandscanbedi videdi nt
oFi l
eManagementCommandsandDi sk
Management [Link] Dos commands ar einter
nal(or
resi
dent)and some ar e ext
ernal( non-r
esidentortr
ansi
ent)whi
ch
meanst heyhav
etobel oggedfirstbeforetheycanbeused.

 Examplesoff il
emanagementcommandsar e:Deleti
ng,copy i
ngand
renami
ngf i
les,vi
ewi
ng,
changi
ngandcreati
ngdirect
[Link]
DiskManagementcommandsar e:Copyingdisks,labeli
ngdisksand
format
tingdisks.

 Resi
dentDoscommandsi
ncl
ude:
DIR,
COPYandDI
SKCOPY,
RENAME.

 Non-
resi
dentDoscommandsi
ncl
ude:
FORMAT,
SYS.

4.
9 QUESTI
ONS

1. Def
inet
het
erm Oper
ati
ngSy
stem.

2. St
ateanddi
scussf
unct
ionsofanOper
ati
ngSy
stem.

Page|
70
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

3. Whatar
ethet
wot
ypesofOper
ati
ngSy
stems?Expl
ain.

4. Li
stcommandsundert
hefol
l
owi
ngheadi
ngs:
(
i) Fi
l
emanagement;
(
ii
)Diskmanagement
;

5. Whati
sthesy
ntaxofaDoscommand?

6. Li
stsomeoft
hei
nter
nal
andext
ernal
Doscommandst
haty
ouknow.

7. Whatwi
ll
thef
oll
owi
ngDoscommandsdo?
(i
) COPYDATA1DATA2
(i
i)COPYDATA1B:
(i
ii
)MDDATA3
(i
v)[Link]

8. WhatisaWi
l
dcar
d?Di
ff
erent
iat
ebet
weenWi
l
dcar
dandAst
eri
sk(
*)
and(
?).

9. Explai
nwhatthefol
lowingDosCommandswilldo:
(i
) COPYDATA* .
*A:
(i
i)DISKCOPYA:B:
(i
ii
)DELDATA* .
DBF
(i
v)ERASE?ATA* .
*
(v)TYPEDATA* .
*
(vi
)TYPEDATA* .
DBF>PRN
10.(i
) Whati sfor
mat t
ing?Whyisi
timpor
tant

(
ii
) How woul
dy ouformataDi
sket
te?How cany
oui
ncl
udean
Oper
ati
ngSystem t
oafor
mat
teddi
sket
te?

(
ii
i) Whatar
ethet
woway
sofAddi
ngDost
oaf
ormat
teddi
sk?

(
iv) Wr
it
edownt
hecommandf
orAddi
ngVol
umeLabel
toDi
sk.

Page|
71
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

BI
BLI
OGRAPHY

Usi
ngMi
crocomput
ers -by Ri
char
d [Link]
ight
man and Jef
frey M.
Di
msdal
e.

Comput
erSci
[Link]
enchDPPubl
i
cat
ionsI
SBN1873981961

Comput
erHar
dwar
eandOr
gani
zat
i oan2ndEdi
[Link] ti
on.

Comput
erSci
encef
orBegi
nner
s-byRakeshAupl
i
sh.

Dat
abasePr
ocessing:
Funt
ament
als,
Desi
gn,
Impl
ement
aton-2ndEdi
i ti
on
byDavi
[Link].

Dat
aPr
ocessi
ngaFi
rstCour
se-byDav
idHar
ri
son

Comput
ing-byHeat
hcat
e
Page|
72
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695
 enockmosomi
@gmai
l
.com

I
MISI
T1Manual

Page|
73
Formor
ehi
ghschool
not
es,
setbooks,gui
debooks,CPA,CI
FA,
IT,
ICT&ot
herE-
mat
eri
als
WhatsApp0748842695