COURSE NAME: ELECTRICAL POWER TRANSMISSION AND

DISTRIBUTION
COURSE CODE: EL 2201
COURSE LEVEL: YEAR II SEM 1I
COURSE CREDIT: 4 CU
CONTACT HOURS: 60 HOURS

Course Description:
The course presents the basic tools required to understand the components in an electric power
transmission system. It presents systematic analysis concepts that makes easy to study expressions
that predict the performance of transmission systems and transformers. It then extends these concepts
to balanced three-phase systems and unbalanced systems. The design of untransposed transmission
lines and discuss other analysis component systems, such as Clarke component networks are
discussed.

Course Objectives:
The course unit aims at making the student able to:
 Describe the role of transmission systems
 Explain line phases
 Voltage distribution system
 Perform voltage control manipulations, compensation techniques

Learning Outcome:
By the end of the course the student should be able to:
 Explain the methods that contribute to efficient transmission of power and distribution.
 Describe transmission line parameters
 Demonstrate the design and plan for power distribution to consumers

Detailed Course Description:

 Introduction, Role of Transmission and distribution as the components of power system,
Typical A.C. Transmission system, standard voltage levels; Distinction between; transmission and
distribution system. [4hours]
 Single phase and poly transmissions
Advantage of three phase, Concept of line and phase quantities of three phase system
Advantage of interconnected transmission network (grid system).
[4hours]
 Transmission line components, Overhead line vs. underground cable,Conductors : material,
stranding and bundling of conductor, Supports: Types of poles and tower as supporting structure,
Insulators their types and applications. [4hours]
 Other components like; jumper, anti-climbing devices, danger plate, and stay wires etc.,
Sag tension compu
cables, Solid, oil and gas as filling material. [6hours]
 Transmission line performance, Transmission Line parameters: Basic concept of Resistance,
inductance andcapacitance calculation, Concept of single line diagram. [5hours]
 Classification of transmission line: Short, medium and long TLs, Short TL: Sending and
receiving end voltage, equivalent single line diagram, efficiency, phasor diagram, Medium TL:
Sending and receiving end voltage, equivalent single line diagram (T-pi), efficiency, phasor
diagram, Ferranti effect. [6hours]
 Distribution system, Distribution system as proximity to consumers, Radial , loop and ring
main feeders, Voltage drop and power losses in radial and loop feeders, Guidelines for rural and
urban distribution. [4hours]
 Single phase and three phase distribution, Underground cables for distribution, Sheathing
and armoring, Cable breakdown, Effect of moisture and temperature, Unit 5: Voltage Control,
Necessity of voltage control, voltage fluctuation and associated problems.[4hours]
 Method for voltage control, Excitation control of alternator, Tap changing transformer
Synchronous condenser, Static compensating devices, [3hours]
 Interconnected system, Advantage of interconnection, Effects on voltage and frequency
fluctuation with interconnected system, Flexibility in real and reactive power dispatching
Knowledge of complexity with interconnected system. [5hours]
 Practical sessions(30) [15hours]

Mode of Delivery
Course should be taught by lectures, presentations, practical laboratory exercises and discussions

Assessment
The course is assessed by assignment, tests and final examination whose contributions are:

Requirements: Contribution
Coursework 40%
Final Examination 60%
Total 100%

Reference Books:
1) M.L. Soni, P.V. Gupta, U.S. Bhatnagar & A Chakrabarti, A text Book on Power System
Engineering; 2008; Dhanpat Rai Publishers, India. ISBN-10: 8177000209
2) A.S. Pabla; Electric Power Distribution; Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd,
India
3) M.A ChaudhariTransmission And Distribution of Electrical Power; 2013; Nirali Prakashan
Publishers, ISBN-10:9383750448
4) Tarlok Singh; Transmission and Distribution: Elcetrical Power; 2013; S.K. Kataria & Sons
Publishers; ISBN-10:9350143984
Power Systems 1
 What is a power system

⚫ A system that deals with the business of:

⚪ Generation
⚪ Transmission
⚪ Distribution
Of Electrical energy
⚫ Is a network of electrical components deployed to
supply, transfer and use electrical power.
 Structure of Electric Power Systems

⚫ Generation subsystem
⚫ Transmission (and sub-transmission) subsystem
⚫ Distribution subsystem
⚫ Utilization or Load subsystem
Structure of Electric Power systems
 Power systems

⚫ Power systems provide vital service to the society

⚫ Electrical power is the air we breathe. For any
industrial society it is the life blood.
⚫ Goals of achieving :
⚪ Highest reliability standards
⚪ Lowest operation cost
⚪ Minimum environmental impacts
Power generation

⚫ Takes place in power plants that are geographically

dispersed
⚫ A power plant can house more than one
generatingunits.
 Energy sources

⚫ Hydrocarbons fossil fuels (oil, coal, natural gas, etc.)

⚫ Water
⚫ Nuclear
⚫ Solar
⚫ Chemical
⚫ Wind
⚫ tidal
Thermal plants
 Electricity Transmission

⚫ Transmission networks:
⚫ Connect generating plants to consumption point
⚫ HVAC Transmission
⚫ HVDC Transmission
 Advantages of HV transmission

⚫ Lower transmission losses

⚫ Lower line-voltage drop /Km
⚫ Higher transmission capacity /Km
⚫ Reduced right-of-way requirement
⚪ 400kv can carry 550MW while 220kv can carry 200MW and
132kV can carry 85 to 100MW
⚫ Lower capital and operating costs
 Transmission Equipment

⚫ Transformers
 Step-up transformers
 Step-down transformers
 Voltage transformers
 Current transformers

⚫ Voltage regulators: maintain voltage throughout the

system
⚫ Transmission lines and cables
⚫ Circuit breakers and isolators
⚫ Shunt and series reactors and capacitors
⚫ Lighting arrestors
⚫ Protective relays
⚫ FACTS Devices (eg Statcoms)
⚫ Converter / Inverter (HVDC)
 Distribution system

⚫ Receive electrical energy from HV levels of the

transmission system
⚫ Supplies energy to customers:
⚫ At MV / LV levels
⚫ Single phase or three phase
 Equipment in distribution system:

⚫ Distribution transformers
⚫ Feeders (O/H or underground cables)
⚫ Switches, fuses, etc.
⚫ Protective Relays
⚫ Lighting arrestors
⚫ CT/VT Current transformers and
Voltage transformers
Typical load curve
 Operational goals

⚫ Power balance: generation must remain balanced

with demand
⚫ Total generation (t) = Total Demand (t) + Losses (t)
⚪ Thus power quality real issue
⚫ System Security: Equipment power flows must not
exceed equipment ratings, under normal or under
outages
 Power quality consideration

⚫ Frequency Regulation: system frequency must

remain within its operational range
❖ 49.0Hz < f(t) < 50.5Hz
⚫ Voltage Regulation: voltages must remain within
their operational limits
+ 10%
 Control

⚫ Centralized control
⚪ Dispatchers/Operators
□ SCADA(Supervisory control and data acquisition)
□ EMS (Energy Management system)
⚫ Decentralized controls driven by local measurements
⚪ Protection systems
 Management structure of Uganda Power System

⚫ UEB: Vertically integrated

⚫ Later unbundled into UEGCL, UETCL and UEDCL
⚪ UEGCL manages the generation
⚪ UETCL manages the transmission
⚪ And UEDCL manages the Distribution
UGANDA ELECTRICITY SECTOR STRUCTURE

24
⚫ Uganda’s power sector covers;
1. Electricity generation 25
2. Electricity transmission
3. Electricity distribution including rural electrification.
⚫ Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) regulates the
industry.
⚫ Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (MEMD) is
responsible for policy.
⚫ Generation Grid Connected Companies include;
-Eskom (U) Ltd
-Aggreko (U) Ltd
-Kasese Cobalt Company Ltd (KCCL)
-Kilembe Mines Ltd (KML)
⚫ Uganda Electricity Trans2m
6
ission Company LTD
(UETCL) is the only transmission company
⚫ Umeme:-only distribution company.
⚫ One licensed Off-Grid company:-West Nile Rural
Electrification Company Ltd (Wenreco)
⚫ Wenreco generates and distributes electricity in
Arua, Nebbi, and Phaidha.
⚫ Two asset owning companies:
□ Uganda Electricity Generation Company Ltd
(UEGCL)
□ Uganda Electricity Distribution Company Ltd
(UEDCL)
⚫ UEGCL leased assets to E27skom (U) Ltd for 20 years
⚫ UEDCL leased assets to Umeme Ltd

Electricity Generation Line

 Uganda generation

Current:
⚫ Nalubaale (owen falls): 180MW
⚫ Kiira: 200 MW
⚫ Namanve (thermal, UEGCL) 50MW
⚫ Electromac : 50MW
⚫ Bujagali 200MW
⚫ Isimba 183MW
Future
⚫ Karuma 600MW
Complete list:
⚫ [Link]
n_Uganda
 Transmission and Distribution

⚫ Transmission is managed by UETCL

⚫ Voltages for transmission
 66Kv
 132Kv
 220Kv
 400Kv

⚫ Distribution managed by UEDCL currently run by

UMEME
⚫ Voltages for distribution
⚪ 415kv
⚪ 11kv
⚪ 33kv
 One-line (single-line) diagrams
Almost all modern power systems are three-phase systems with the phases of equal
amplitude and shifted by 120˚. Since phases are similar, it is customary to sketch
power systems in a simple form with a single line representing all three phases of the
real system.

Combined with a standard set

of symbols for electrical
components, such one-line
diagrams provide a compact
way to represent information.
 One-line (single-line) diagrams
Example 1 a power system containing two synchronous machines, two loads, two
busses, two transformers, and a transmission line to connect busses together.

All devices are protected by circuit breakers (CBs). We notice that the diagram
indicates the type of connection for each machine and transformer, and also the
points in the system connected to the ground.
Electrical Power Transmission and Distribution
ELT 2201

YEAR TWO
SEMESTER TWO
2025
INTRODUCTION:

In our life today, we require electricity so we can survive, that is,

it’s part of the basic needs of humans. Understanding the
electrical power transmission and distribution system is
something broad which is what you’ll be learning throughout this
entire course unit.
An electric power transmission system is a means of transmitting
power from a generating source to various load centers. This
means where the power is used. Generating stations is where the
electrical power is generated, well these generating stations must
not be situated where the majority of the power is being
consumed.
 What is electric power transmission?
 Electric power transmission or electrical transmission is the
process of delivering generated electricity.
 This is usually achieved over long distances to the distribution
grid located in populated areas.
 Electric power transmission can also be seen as a bulk
movement of electrical energy from a generating site, such as
a power plant, to an electrical substation.
 The interconnected lines in the system are what facilitate the
movement of electrical power. They are known as
transmission networks.
 Components of electrical power transmission

 An electrical transmission system consists of the

following:
i. Power plants
ii. Distribution systems
iii. Sub-stations.
 All these
Power forms
lines are what is known
or transmission line is as an transport
what electrical grid.
electricity from one place to place.
 The electricity is usually alternating current so that step-up
transformers can increase the voltage, which allows
efficient transmission for 500 kilometers or less.
 The three types of lines include:

Overhead lines: these types of Underground lines: the underground

transmission lines have a very high lines are used to transmit power through
voltage that ranges between 100 kV populated areas, underwater, or
and 800 kV. They are suitable for long- anywhere that overhead lines can’t be
distance transmission and must be used. They are less common when
high voltage in order to minimize compared with the overhead lines due
power losses to resistance. to higher and heat-related losses.

Sub-transmission lines: these types of

transmission lines carry lower voltages
ranges from 26 kV – 69 kV to distribution
stations. This transmission can either be
overhead or underground.
STRUCTURE OF THE POWER SYSTEM
 Transformers: step-up transformers are used for stepping up the voltage level
and step-down transformers are used for stepping it down.

 Line insulators: the line insulators mechanically support the line conductors as
they are electrically isolated from the support towers.

 Support towers: this supports the line conductors suspending in the air
overhead.
Types of electrical power transmission
Below are the major types of transmission system:
Primary transmission:
 The primary transmission is a power transmission type that transfers a
large quantity of electrical power from the initial generating station to the
substation via overhead electrical lines. Although, some countries use
underground cables in situations where transmission takes place at a
shorter distance.
 In the primary transmission, power is generated at a power station, which
supplies electrical energy anywhere between 11 kV and 400 kV in Uganda

 It is then sent to the distribution center through the transmission lines. It

stepped up using a transformer to a voltage level that can be anywhere
between 100 kV and 700 kV or more, depending on the distance that needs to
be transmitted.

 This means, the longer the distance, the higher the voltage level.

 The electrical power is stepped up to an elevated voltage level so that it can

be more efficient by reducing the I2R losses that take place when power is
transmitted.

 When the voltage is stepped up, the current reduces relative to the voltage.
This helps the power remain constant, thus reducing the I2R losses.
Secondary transmission:

 In the secondary transmission, the voltage is stepped back down when

electrical power reaches a receiving station.

 The voltage is stepped down typically between 33 kV and 11kV.

 It is then sent to transmission lines from the receiving station to

electrical substations closer to “load centers” such as villages, cities,
and urban areas. This process is known as secondary transmission.

 Furthermore, when electrical power reaches a substation, it is stepped

down once again by a step-down transformer to lesser voltages but close
to the previous one.

 This is usually around 11kV. At this point, the transmission phase

graduates to the distribution phase, and electrical power is used to serve
both primary and secondary consumers.
Different Types of Electrical Power Transmission System
DC Transmission System Single Phase AC System
When the electrical power is When the electrical power is
transmitted using direct current or transmitted using alternating current or
voltage, then the transmission system is voltage and in this system any one of
called the DC transmission system. The the three phases is used for the
transmission system can be further transmission of electric power. The
classified into following three types − single phase AC system is also
 DC Two-Wire System classified into three types viz −
 DC Two-Wire with Mid-Point Earthed Single-Phase Two-Wire System
 DC Three-Wire System •Single-Phase Two-Wire with Mid-Point
Earthed System
•Single-Phase Three-Wire System
Two Phase AC System
Here ,the electrical power is transmitted in
the form of alternating quantities and any
two of the three phase are used for
transmitting the electric power. Depending
upon the conductors used, the two phase
AC system is of following two types −
•Two-Phase Three-Wire System
•Two-Phase Four-Wire System

Three Phase AC System

When the electric power is transmitted
by using the three phases or three line
conductors, then the system is called the
three phase AC system. There are two
types of three phase AC system as −
•Three-Phase Three-Wire System
•Three-Phase Four-Wire System
AC and DC Power Transmission
The AC and DC transmission are the two ways by which electrical energy can
be transmitted. They are called ‘high voltage DC electrical transmission system
and high AC electrical transmission system’. These two methods of energy
transmission have their own advantages and disadvantages which will be
explained below.
Advantages of using DC transmission
system:
 ELECTRICAL SUBSTATION

▪ The electrical substation is the part of a power system in which the voltage is
transformed from high to low or low to high for transmission, distribution,
transformation, and switching.
▪ The power transformer, circuit breaker, bus bar, insulator, lightning arrester are the
main components of an electrical substation.

1. Single Line Diagram of an Electrical Substation

▪ The single-line diagram of a substation is shown in the figure below. The connection of
the substation is divided as:
o Incoming or power feeder connection
o Outgoing feeder for feeding the other subsequent substations or switchgear.
o Power transformer connection.
o Voltage transformer connection for control and metering.
▪ The circuit breaker is connected between the bus bar and each incoming and outgoing
circuit. An isolator is provided on each side of the circuit breaker. A current
transformer is used for measurement and protection. Current transformers are placed
on both sides of the circuit breaker so that the protection zone is overlapped and covers
the circuit breaker.
▪ The potential transformer is connected to the bus bar and on the incoming line side.
Lightning or surge arrester are connected phase to ground at the incoming line as the first
apparatus and also at the terminal of transformer and capacitor bank, the terminal of shunt
reactor and a terminal of the generator, the terminal of the large motor to divert switching.

2. Selection and location of a site for an Electrical Substation

▪ The following factor is considered while making site selection for a substation.
i. Type of substation – The category of the substation is important for its location.
For example, a step-up transformer is a point where power from various sources
is pooled and stepped up for long-distance transmission should be located as
cool as possible to minimize the losses. Similarly, the step-down transformer
should be located nearer to the load center to reduce transmission losses, the
cost of the distribution system, and better reliability of supply.
ii. Availability of suitable and sufficient land – The land selected for a substation
should be level and open from all sides. It should not be waterlogged particularly
in the rainy season. The site selected for substation should be such that the
approach of transmission lines and their take-off can be easily possible without
any obstruction. The places nearer to airdrome, shooting practice ground, etc.
should be avoided.
iii. Communication facility – Suitable communication facility is desirable at a
proposed station, both during and after its construction. It is better, therefore,
to select the site alongside the existing road to facilitate easier and cheaper
transportation.
iv. Atmospheric Pollution – The atmosphere around the ground factories produces
metal corroding gas, air fumes, conductive dust, etc. And the area near the sea
coast may be more humid and is harmful to the proper running of the power
system. Thus, the substation should not be located near the factories or sea
coast.
v. Availability of Essential Facilities to the Staff – The site should be such where
staff can be provided essential facilities like a school, hospital, drinking water,
housing, etc.
vi. Drainage Facility – The site selected for the proposed substations should have
proper drainage arrangement or the possibility of making effective drainage,
avoid pollution of air and growth of micro-organism and health
3. Electrical Substation Equipment
▪ For transferring electrical power from generating units to distributing units various types
of electrical equipment are required. The equipment like bus bars, isolator, power
transformer, etc., are assembled in the electrical substation through which consumers
get electrical supply. The main equipment required for the substation installations is
explained below in detail:

3.1. Lightning Arrestor

▪ Lightning Arrestor is the first member of the electrical substations. It protects the
substation equipment from transient high voltage and also limits the duration and
amplitude of the flow of current.
▪ The Lightning arrestor is connected between line and earth, i.e., in parallel with the
equipment under protection at the substation. It diverts, the current of the surges to
the earth and hence protects the insulation and conductor of the system from damage.
▪ lightning arresters are several types and they are classified based on the duties they
perform.
 3.2. Power Transformer
▪ Power transformers are used for stepping up the voltage for transmission at generating
station and for stepping down the voltage for further distribution at main step-down
transformer substations.
▪ Usually naturally cooled, oil-immersed type two winding, three-phase transformers, are
used for rating up to 10 MVA. The transformer for rating more than 10 MVA, is usually
air-blast cooled.
▪ Such type of transformer operated at full load, and it is disconnected at light load hours.
The power transformers are arranged in banks and can be thrown in parallel with other
units. Thus, the efficiency of the power transformer is maximum at full load (i.e., with
iron loss to full load copper loss ratio 1:1).

3.3. Instrument Transformer

▪ Instrument transformer is used to reduced high voltages and currents to a safe and
practical value which can be measured by conventional instruments (normal range is 1A
or 5A for current and 110 V for voltage). Instrument transformers are classified into two
types
o Current Transformer – is used to divide or multiply current. It produces a current
in its secondary proportional to that in its primary. It is used with AC metering
instruments or control apparatus since these cannot be conveniently designed
with sufficient current-carrying capacity.
 o Potential Transformer – may be defined as an instrument transformer for the
transformation of voltage from a higher value to the lower value for the
protection and measurement purposes in a power system.

3.4. Bus Bar

▪ It is one of the most important elements in an electrical power substation. It is a type of
conductor carrying an electrical current to which many connections are made. In order
words, a bus bar is a type of electrical junction in which the incoming and outgoing
electrical currents take place.
▪ When the fault occurs in the bus- bar, then all the circuit equipment connected to that
section must be tripped out to give complete isolation in the shortest possible time e.g.
(60ms) so that the damage is avoided to the installation due to heating of conductors.

3.5. Wave Trap (Line trap)

▪ A line trap, also known as wave trap, or high-frequency stopper, is a maintenance-
free parallel resonant circuit, mounted inline on high-voltage
(HV) AC transmission power lines to prevent the transmission of high frequency (40 kHz
to 1000 kHz) carrier signals of power line communication to unwanted destinations.
 3.6. Isolator
▪ An isolator switch (disconnector/ disconnect switch) is used to ensure that an electrical
circuit is completely de-energized for service or maintenance. They are only used for
breaking the circuit and are often found in electrical distribution and industrial
applications, where machinery must have its source of driving power removed for
adjustment or repair.

3.7. Circuit Breaker

▪ The circuit breaker is a type of electrical switch which is used for opening or closing
electrical circuits whenever faults occur in the system. It consists of two moving contacts
which are normally closed. Whenever the fault occurs in the system, the relay sends the
tripping command to the circuit breaker and hence their contacts are moved apart.
 3.8. Batteries
▪ In electric power stations and large capacity substations, the operation and automatic
control circuits the protective relay system, as well as emergency lighting circuits, are
supplied by station batteries. Station battery is assembled of a certain number of
accumulator cells depending on the operating voltage of the respective DC circuit.
▪ Storage batteries are two types lead-acid batteries and acid-alkaline batteries. A lead-
acid battery is most commonly used in power stations and substations because its
voltage is high yet it is of low cost.

3.9. Capacitor Bank

▪ Capacitor bank consists of capacitors connected either in series or parallel. It stores
electrical energy in the form of electrical charges. Capacitor bank draws leading
current which increases the power factor of the network and also the power transfer
capability of the system increases.
 3.10. Switchyard (switching station)
▪ A switchyard or substation is an assembly of apparatus which transforms the
characteristics of electrical energy from one place to another and controls the flow
of power. Switchyard controls the exchange of electrical energy. It monitors the
electrical parameters in each transmission line like the voltage, current, power,
frequency. The important part of the power system is the switchyard, it can be
considered as the backbone of the power system.

3.11. Indicating and metering Instruments

▪ These are used in conjunction with current and potential transformers to ensure the
quality of the power delivered and the safety of the various substation equipment.
4. Different Layouts for Substation
▪ The different layouts for substations are explained below in detail.

4.1. Typical Radial Substation

▪ In the radial substation, there is only one source of feeding the load as shown in the
figure below. This supply system is unreliable because of total blackout when the
source fails, or the line develops a fault. Such type of substation is used in
distribution systems particularly in rural areas because of their unimportance.

4.2. Tapped-Substation
▪ This supply is equally unreliable and insecure because there shall be total supply
failure when the source or line becomes faulty.
 4.3. LILo (Line In Line Out) Substation
▪ In this substation, a long distribution line is brought in and brought out from the
newly created substation as shown below. This scheme is a bit expensive because of
the need for an extra layout. But it is more secure.
 4.4. Interconnected Substation
▪ This is the most preferred supply system which is safe secure and reliable. The
outage of one source and line does not affect the power supply system because
many other alternatives are available. Such a formation of the network is called an
electric grid.
5. Classification of Substations
▪ The substations may be classified in numerous ways, such as by nature of duties,
service rendered operating voltage, importance, and design.

5.1. Classification of Substations by Nature of Duties

▪ The classification of the substation by nature of functions is explained below in
detail:
▪ Primary Substations – The step-up substations are linked to generating stations
directly as generation is achieved in lower voltages. Hence, these voltages are
needed to be stepped up for economical transmission of electrical energy over a
greater distance. The primary grid substations are linked with bulk load centers
alongside primary lines of transmissions. The voltages are stepped-down at various
voltage ranges for purpose of secondary transmission.
▪ Secondary substation – The secondary substations are lined alongside secondary
transmission lines adjacent to loads. The voltages here are further stepped-down for
purpose of distribution.
▪ Distribution Substations – The distribution substations are located at the place
where voltages of primary distribution are being stepped down. These voltages are
for consumers to use for their actual loads. These substations are having high-
voltage bearable wires and conductors having one neutral to ground and 4 live
wires.

5.2. Classification of Substations by Service Rendered

▪ Transformer substations – In such type of substation transformers are installed for
transforming the power from one voltage level to another level as per need.
▪ Switching Substations – The substations use for switching the power line without
disturbing the voltage is known as the switching substations. This type of substation is
placed between the transmission line.
▪ Converting Substations – In such types of substations, AC power converting into DC
power or vice versa or it can convert the high frequency to lower frequency or vice
versa.

5.3. Classification of Substations by Operating Voltage

▪ The substations, according to the operating voltage, may be categorized as:
o High Voltage Substations (HV Substations) – Involving voltages between 33 kV
and 66 kV.
o Extra-High Voltage Substations – Involving voltages between 132 kV and 400 kV.
o Ultra-High Voltage – Operating voltage above 400 kV.
5.4. Classifications of Substation by Importance
o Grid Substations – This substation is used for transferring the bulk power from
one point to another. If any fault occurs on the substation, then the continuity of
the whole of the supply is affected by it.
o Town Substations – These substations step down the voltage at 33/11 kV for
more distribution in the towns. If there is any fault occurs in this substation, then
the supply of the whole town is blocked.

5.5. Classification of Substations by Design

5.5.1. Indoor Type Substations

o In such types of substations, the apparatus is installed within the substation
building. Such type of substations is usually for the voltage up to 11 kV but can
be raised for the 33 kV or 66 kV when the surrounding air is polluted by dust,
fumes, gasses, etc.
o The indoor substation is subdivided into several compartments like control
compartment, indicating and metering instruments and protective device
compartment main bus-bar compartment, current transformer, and cable
sealing box compartment as shown in the figure below.

o The switchgear on the supply or primary side will consist of an oil circuit breaker
only. The high voltage supply is given to the primary of the transformer through
a circuit breaker. From the bus bar, various feeders emerge. The panel on each
feeder consists of an isolator switch and a circuit breaker. In addition to the
isolator and circuit breaker, the panel also provided the measuring instrument.
o For the protection of feeders usually, a reverse power relay is used. For the
protection of an oil-filled transformer, a Buchholz relay is used. The accessories
of the indoors type substations are a storage battery, fire fighting equipment
such as water, buckets, and fire extinguisher, etc., The battery is used for the
operation of protective gear and switching operating solenoids and emergency
lighting in substations in the case of failure of supply.
o Indoor substations and transformer substations, as well as, high voltage
switchboards consist of a series of open and enclosed chambers or
 compartments. The main equipment for this installation is arranged in these
compartments. The chamber space within which the equipment of the main bus
bar is connected is called a compartment or a cubical cell.

General View of a Unit -Type Metal-Clad Switchboard

o A general view of a unit-type metal-clad switchboard assembled of several
metal-clad cubicles is shown above.

5.5.2. Outdoor Substations

o A substation that is used for all voltage levels between 55 kV to 765 kV is called
an outdoor substation. Such type of substation requires less time for
construction but uses more space. The outdoor substations are mainly classified
into two types, namely pole-mounted substations and foundation-mounted
substations.

[Link]. Pole Mounted Substations

o Such substations are used for supporting distribution transformers having a
capacity of up to 250 KVA. Such types of transformers are the cheapest, simplest,
and smallest of distributions.
o All the equipment is the outdoor type and mounted on the supporting structures
of high tension distribution line. Triple pole mechanically operated switch used
for switching on and off the high tension transmission line.
o HT fuse is used for the protection of the high tension transmission line. For
controlling the low tension lines, low tension switches along with fuses are
equipped. Lightning arresters are equipped over the high tension line for the
protection of the transformers from the surges. Pole-Mounted substations are
earthed at two or more places.
 Pole-Mounted Outdoor Substation

o The transformers having a capacity up to 125 KVA are mounted on the double
pole structure and for the transformer having a capacity between 125 to 250
KVA a 4-pole structure with a suitable platform is used. Such types of substations
are placed in a very thickly populated location.
o Their maintenance cost is low, and by using a large number of substations in a
town, it is desirable to lay the distributors at a lower cost. But when the number
of transformers is increasing, total KVA is increased, no-load losses in increases,
and the cost per KVA increases.

[Link]. Foundation Mounted Substations

o In foundation mounted substation all the equipment are assembled on a
concrete finished pad/ area surrounded by fencing for safety purpose. The
equipment required for such type of substations are heavy, and hence the site
selected for such type of substation must have a good path for heavy transport.
Foundation mounted outdoor substation is shown in the figure below.
 Foundation-Mounted Outdoor Substation

Advantages of Outdoor Substation

o All the equipment in the outdoor substations is within view, and therefore fault
location is easier.
o The expansion of the installation is easier in the outdoor substations.
o The time requires for the construction of such substations is lesser.
o A smaller amount of building material like steel, concrete is required.
o The construction work required is comparatively less, and the cost of the
switchgear installation is also very low.
o Repairing work is easy, and proper space is provided between the apparatus so
that the fault that occurs at one point will not be carried over to another point.

Disadvantages of Outdoor Substation

o More space is required for the outdoor substations.
o Protection devices are required to be installed for protection against lightning
surges.
o The length of the control cables increases which increases the cost of the
substation.
o Equipment designed for the outdoor substation is more costly because outdoor
door substation equipment required additional protection from dirt and dust.
5.6. Single Line Diagram of 11kV Substation
o The single line diagram of an 11 kV substation is shown in the figure below.
 ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS, LINE SUPPORTS, AND CABLES

1. ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS
▪ A conductor is the type of metal that allows the electrical current to flow through it. The
electrical conductor is generally made up of metals like copper, aluminum, and alloys. In
an electrical conductor, charges move from atom to atom when the potential difference
is applied across them. The electrical conductors are used in the form of a wire.
▪ choice of a conductor can be taken into account by considering the various factors like
tensile strength, fatigue strength, corona loss, local conditions, and cost.
▪ The electrical conductor which is used for power transmission is usually stranded giving
them great flexibility and mechanical strength as compared to a single wire of the same
cross-section area. In a stranded conductor usually, the center wire is surrounded by the
successive layers of wires containing 6, 12,18, 24,… wires.
▪ The size of the conductor is determined by its equivalent cross-sectional area which is a
composition of several strands.

1.1. Types of Electrical Conductors

1.1.1. Hard Drawn Copper Conductor

▪ Such type of conductors gives high tensile strength. It has high electrical conductivity,
long life, and high scrap value. It is most suitable for distribution work where spans and
tapping are more.

1.1.2. Cadmium Copper Conductor

▪ The tensile strength of the copper is increased by approximately 50% by adding about
0.7 to 1.0 percent cadmium to it, but their conductivity is reduced by about 15 to 17
percent. The property of higher tensile strength enables the conductor to be erected on
longer spans with the same sag. This conductor possesses the advantages of easy
joining, more resistance to atmospheric conditions, better resistance to wear, easy
machinability, etc.
▪ The temperature at which copper anneals and softens is also increased, and
temperature effects on stresses are less. The variation in sag due to changes in load and
temperature is minimized.

1.1.3. Steel-Cored Copper Conductor (SCC)

▪ In steel cored copper conductor one or two layers of copper strands surround a steel
cored copper conductors. The steel core adds tensile strength to the conductor.
 1.1.4. Copper Welded Conductor
▪ In such types of conductors, the uniform layers of copper are welded onto a steel wire.
The conductivity of the copper welded conductor varies from 30 to 60 percent to that of
a solid copper conductor with the same diameter. Such types of conductors may be
used for a longer span such as a river crossing.

1.1.5. Hard-Drawn Aluminium Conductor or All-Aluminum Conductor

▪ The cost of the copper conductor is very high, and hence it is replaced by an aluminum
conductor. The handling, transportation, and erection of the aluminum wires become
very economical. It is used in distribution lines in urban areas and short transmission
lines with lower voltages.

1.1.6. Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced

▪ All aluminum conductors are not sufficiently strong mechanically for the construction of
long-span lines. This deficiency in strength can be compensated by adding a steel core to
the conductor. Such a conductor is called steel-cored aluminum conductor (SCA) or
aluminum conductor steel reinforced (ACSR).

▪ The ACSR conductor has seven steel strands forming a central core around which there
are two layers of 30 aluminum strands. The ACSR conductors have high tensile strength
and are lightweight hence it is used for small sag.
 1.1.7. Smooth Body ACSR Conductor
▪ Such a type of conductor is also called Compacted ACSR. The conventional ACSR
conductor is pressed through dies to flatten the aluminum strands into a segmental
shape. The interstrand space is filled, and the diameter of the conductor reduces
without affecting its electrical and mechanical properties. This conductor can be made
with different ratios of aluminum to steel.

1.1.8. Expanded ACSR Conductor

▪ For reducing the corona loss and radio interference at a high voltage a fibrous or plastic
material is filled between the strands. The diameter of the conductor expands due to
the filling material and hence, it is called an expanded conductor. These conductors
consist of paper material that separates the inner aluminum strands from the outer
steel strands.
 1.1.9. All Aluminum Alloy Conductors
▪ Such types of conductors are mostly used in urban areas. These conductors have a good
combination of conductivity and tensile strength. One of the alloys which are used for
making such conductors is Silmalec. This alloy contains 0.5% silicon, 0.5% magnesium,
and the remainder aluminum. These alloys are very costly as they are heat treated.

1.1.10. ACAR Conductor

▪ Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced has a central core of alloys of aluminum
surrounded by the layers of conductor aluminum. Such conductor gives better
conductance with the strength-weight ratio equal to ACSR construction of the same
diameter.

1.1.11. Alum weld Conductor

▪ Aluminum powder is welded onto a high-strength steel wire. About 75% of the area of
the conductor is covered by aluminum. This is more costly than a core silicon conductor.
It has been used as an earth wire for making cores of SCA conductors.

1.1.12. Phosphor Bronze Conductor

▪ Phosphor bronze is used as a conductor material for very long spans such as river
crossing. It is stronger than copper conductor but has got a low conductivity. This
conductor is superior to the aluminum bronze conductor for atmospheres containing
harmful gases such as ammonia.

1.1.13. Galvanized Steel Conductor

▪ The galvanized steel conductors have high tensile strength. They are used in a very long
span and in a rural area where the load is small. In such cases, the steel conductors may
be replaced by a steel core conductor to deal with the extra future load. This conductor
has a large resistance, inductance, and voltage drop. But it has a small life as compared
to other conductors.
2. FACTORS AFFECTING POWER TRANSMISSION IN CONDUCTORS

2.1. The Ferranti effect

▪ The effect in which the voltage at the receiving end of the transmission line is more than
the sending voltage is known as the Ferranti effect. Such type of effect mainly occurs
because of light load or open circuit at the receiving end.
▪ The Ferranti effect is due to the charging current of the line. When an alternating
voltage is applied, the current that flows into the capacitor is called the charging
current. A charging current is also known as capacitive current. The charging current
increases in the line when the receiving end voltage of the line is larger than the sending
end.

2.1.1. Why the Ferranti effect occurs?

▪ Capacitance and inductance are the main parameters of the lines having a length of
240km or above. On such transmission lines, the capacitance is not concentrated at
some definite points. It is distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line.
▪ When the voltage is applied at the sending end, the current drawn by the capacitance of
the line is more than the current associated with the load. Thus, at no load or light load,
the voltage at the receiving end is quite large as compared to the constant voltage at
the sending end.

2.1.2. How to reduce the Ferranti effect:

▪ Electrical devices are designed to work at some particular voltage. If the voltages are
high at the users’ ends their equipment gets damaged, and their windings burn because
of high voltage. Ferranti effect on long transmission lines at low load or no load
increases the receiving end voltage. This voltage can be controlled by placing the shunt
reactors at the receiving end of the lines.
▪ A shunt reactor is an inductive current element connected between line and neutral to
compensate for the capacitive current from transmission lines. When this effect occurs
in long transmission lines, shunt reactors compensate the capacitive VAr of the lines and
therefore the voltage is regulated within the prescribed limits.
 2.2. The skin effect
▪ The non-uniform distribution of electric current over the surface or skin of the
conductor carrying a.c is called the skin effect. In other words, the concentration of
charge is more near the surface as compared to the core of the conductor. The ohmic
resistance of the conductor is increased due to the concentration of current on the
surface of the conductor.
▪ Skin effect increases with the increase in frequency. At low frequency, such as 50Hz,
there is a small increase in the current density near the surface of the conductor; but, at
high frequencies, such as radiofrequency, practically the whole of the currents flows on
the surface of the conductor. If d.c current (frequency=0) is passed in a conductor, the
current is uniformly distributed over the cross-section of the conductors.

2.2.1. Why the skin effect occurs?

▪ Consider that a conductor is made up of many concentric cylinders. When a.c is passed
through it, the magnetic flux is induced. This, linking to a cylindrical element near the
center is greater than that linking another cylindrical element near the surface of the
conductor. This is because the center cylindrical element is surrounded by both the
internal as well as external flux, while the external cylindrical element is surrounded by
the external flux only.
▪ The self-inductance in the inner cylindrical element is more and, therefore, will offer a
greater inductive reactance than the outer cylindrical element. This difference in the
inductive reactance gives a tendency to the current to concentrate towards the surface
or skin of the conductor.
▪ The current density is maximum at the surface of the conductor and minimum at the
center of the conductor. The effect is equivalent to a reduction of the cross-section area
of the conductor and, therefore the effective resistance of the conductor is increased.
 2.2.2. Factors affecting the skin effect
▪ Frequency – skin effect increases with the increase in frequency.
▪ Diameter – It increases with the increase in the diameter of the conductor.
▪ The shape of the conductor – Skin effect is more in the solid conductor and less in the
stranded conductor because the surface area of the solid conductor is more.
▪ Type of material – The skin effect increase with the increase in the permeability of the
material (Permeability is the ability of a material to support the formation of the
magnetic field).

Points-to-remember
▪ The Skin effect is negligible if the frequency is less than 50Hz and the diameter of the
conductor is less than 1cm.
▪ In the stranded conductors like ACSR (Aluminium Conductor Steel Reinforced) the
current flows mostly in the outer layer made of aluminum, while the steel near the
center carries no current and gives high tensile strength to the conductor. The
concentration of current near the surface enabled the use of an ACSR conductor.
 2.3. The corona effect
▪ The phenomenon of ionization of air around a conductor causing a luminous glow with
hissing noise is known as the corona effect.
▪ Air acts as a dielectric medium between the transmission lines. In other words, it is an
insulator between the current-carrying conductors. If the voltage induced between the
conductor is alternating then the charging current flows between the conductors. And
this in turn increases the voltage of the transmission line.
▪ The electric field intensity also increases because of the charging current.
If the intensity of the electric field is beyond the 30kv then the air between the
conductors becomes charged and starts conducting. Sparking occurs between the
conductors till the complete breakdown of the insulation properties of conductors takes
place.

Corona effect mostly occurs at the sharp point of insulators.

 2.3.1. Factors affecting corona:
a. Effect of supply voltage – If the supply voltage is high corona loss is higher in the
lines. In low-voltage transmission lines, the corona is negligible, due to the
insufficient electric field to maintain ionization.
b. The condition of conductor surface – If the conductor is smooth, the electric field
will be more uniform as compared to the rough surface. The roughness of the
conductor is caused by the deposition of dirt, dust and by scratching, etc. Thus, the
rough line decreases the corona loss in the transmission lines.
c. Air Density Factor – The corona loss is inversely proportional to the air density
factor, i.e., corona loss, increases with the decrease in density of air. Transmission
lines passing through a hilly area may have higher corona loss than that of similar
transmission lines in the plains because the density of air is low in hilly areas.
d. Effect of system voltage – Electric field intensity in the space around the
conductors depends on the potential difference between the conductors. If the
potential difference is high, the electric field intensity is also very high, and hence
corona is also high.
e. The spacing between conductors – If the distance between two conductors is
much more as compared to the diameter of the conductor the less corona loss
occurs between the conductors.

2.3.2. Disadvantages of corona discharge:

a. The glow appears across the conductor which shows the occurrence of a power
loss.
b. The hissing audible sound.
c. Sometimes vibrations occur in the conductors.
d. The Corona effect generates ozone making the conductor corrosive.
e. The corona effect produces the non-sinusoidal signal thus the non-sinusoidal
voltage drops occur in the line.
f. The corona power loss reduces the efficiency of the line.
g. This effect causes interference of radio and tv signals.

2.3.3. Minimizing corona:

a. Conductor diameter – For reducing corona loss, this method of increasing
conductor diameters is very effective. Diameters of conductors can be increased by
using hollow conductors and by using steel-cored aluminum conductors(ACSR)
conductors.
b. Spacing between conductors – The voltage of transmission lines is fixed by
economic considerations. To increase the disruptive voltage the spacing of the
conductors is to be increased, but this method has some limitations.
Important points:
▪ Disruptive voltage is the minimum voltage at which the breakdown of air occurs and
corona starts.
▪ Visual critical voltage is the minimum voltage at which visible corona begins.
 2.4. The proximity effect
▪ When conductors carry high alternating voltages then currents are non-uniformly
distributed on the cross-section area of the conductor. This effect is called the proximity
effect. The proximity effect results in the increment of the apparent resistance of the
conductor due to the presence of the other current-carrying conductors in its vicinity.
▪ When two or more conductors are placed near each other, then their electromagnetic
fields interact with each other. Due to this interaction, the current in each of them is
redistributed such that the greater current density is concentrated in that part of the
strands most remote from the interfering conductor.

▪ If DC flows on the surface of the conductor, then the current is uniformly distributed
around the cross-section area of the conductor. Hence, no proximity effect occurs on
the surface of the conductor.
▪ The proximity effect is important only for conductor sizes greater than 125 mm2.
Correction factors are to be applied to take this fact into account.
 2.4.1. Factors Affecting the Proximity Effect
▪ Frequency – The proximity increases with the increases in frequency.
▪ Diameter – The proximity effect increases with the increase in the conductor
diameter.
▪ Structure – This effect is more on the solid conductor as compared to the stranded
conductor (i.e., ASCR) because the surface area of the stranded conductor is
smaller than the solid conductor.
▪ Material – this effect is more in ferromagnetic materials.

2.4.2. How to reduce the Proximity Effect?

▪ The proximity effect can be reduced by using the ACSR (Aluminum Core Steel
Reinforced) conductor. In an ACSR conductor, the steel is placed at the center of the
conductor and the aluminum conductor is positioned around a steel wire.
▪ The steel increases the strength of the conductor but reduces the surface area of the
conductor. Thus, current flows mostly in the outer layer of the conductor, and no
current is carried in the center of the conductor. Thus, reducing the proximity effect on
the conductor.
3. LINE SUPPORTS
▪ The different types of structures (poles or towers) used for supporting the overhead
lines or wires are called line supports. These play a major role in power transmission.
They maintain proper spacing between the conductors and a safe distance from its
ground parts.

3.1. Types of Line Supports

▪ The main requirement of the line supports is low cost, low maintenance expense, and
long life. The line supports are made up of wood, concrete, steel, or aluminum. It is
mainly classified into two types;
▪ Electrical Pole
▪ Electrical Tower

3.1.1. Electrical Pole

▪ A pole is used for supporting the small voltage (not more than 115 kV) transmission
lines, such a type of pole is called an electrical pole. It is usually made up of woods,
concrete, or steel. These poles are mainly classified into three types. Their types are
explained below in detail;

[Link]. Wooden poles

▪ It is one of the cheapest types of line supports and is used for lines where spans are
short, and tension is low. The wood poles have limitations of height and diameter. The
double-pole structure of the A or H types is used where greater strength is required.
▪ The strength of these types of constructions varies from two to four times the strength
of the single pole. H-type of construction is usually employed for four-terminal poles or
those carrying switchgear and transformers.
▪ Wood pole has a natural insulating property, and lesser flashovers are likely to take
place due to lightning. One of the drawbacks of wood poles is that their strength and
durability cannot be predicted with certainty.

[Link]. Concrete Poles

▪ A concrete pole gives greater strength and is used in place of a wood pole. It has a
longer life than that of a wood pole because of little degradation. Also, maintenance
cost is low. Concrete poles are very heavy and are liable to damage during loading,
unloading, transportation, and erection due to their brittle nature.

▪ Handlings and transportation difficulties are overcome by the use of pre-stressed

concrete supports which can be manufactured in pieces and then assembled at the job
sites. The weight of pre-stressed concrete poles is more durable than any other type of
pole. The material used is less, and it is more durable than any other type of pole.

[Link]. Steel Poles

▪ For low and medium-voltage tubular steel poles or Grider, steel supports are used.
Longer spans are possible with steel poles. The poles need to be galvanized or painted
periodically to prevent them from corrosion. Their maintenance expense is high.
 3.1.2. Electrical Towers
▪ An electrical tower is used for carrying high voltage (above 230 kV) transmission lines.
Such types of towers are made up of aluminum or steel which gives them strength for
supporting the heavy electrical conductor. The electrical towers are broadly classified
into various types. These types are explained below.

[Link]. Types of Supporting Towers

▪ High voltage and extra-high voltage lines require large air and ground clearances. They
have large mechanical loading and insulation costs. Such types of towers used very long
spans. The long-span construction cuts the insulation cost considerably as fewer
supports are to be provided. Such types of towers are either made up of steel or
aluminum and hence the possibilities of breakdown are reduced. These are classified as

[Link].1. Self- Supporting Towers

▪ Self-supporting towers are divided into two categories; wide-base and narrow-base
towers. In the wide base tower, lattice (criss-cross) with the roasted connection is
adopted. Each leg has a separate foundation. The narrow-base designs are used as
a lattice (criss-cross) construction of angle, channel, or tubular steel section with bolted
or welded connection. The self-supporting tower is also classified as
o Tangent Tower – It is used for a straight run of the line. Suspension insulators
are used with these towers.
o Deviation Tower – It is used in a line where the transmission line changes
direction.
▪ Strain insulators are used with these towers. They have a broader base, stronger
members, and are costlier as compared to tangent towers. The narrow-based design
requires less steel or aluminum in comparison with a wide base tower, but the cost of
the foundation is more. The selection between the two is based on the costs of material,
foundations, and right-of-way requirements.

[Link].2. Guyed or Stayed Towers

▪ Such types of towers are either portal types or V-types. Both of them have two supports
connected at the top by a cross arm and provided with four guys.
4. ELECTRICAL POWER CABLE
▪ An electrical power cable is used for the transmission and distribution of electrical
energy. Power cable consists of two or more electrical conductors joined with an over
sheath. It is used for the transmission of extra high voltages in a place where overhead
lines are impracticable to use like, the sea, airfield crossing, etc. But underground cable
is more costly as compared to aerial cable for the same voltage which is one of the main
draws back of electrical power cable.

4.1. Construction of Cable

▪ The power cable mainly consists of three main components, namely, conductor,
dielectric, and sheath. The conductor in the cable provides the conducting path for the
current. The insulation or dielectric withstands the service voltage and isolates the
conductor with other objects. The sheath does not allow the moistures to enter and
protects the cables from all external influences like chemical or electrochemical attack,
fire, etc. The main components of electrical power cables are explained below in detail.

4.1.1. Conductor
▪ Coppers and aluminum wires are used as a conductor material in cables because of their
high electrical conductivity. Solid or number of bare wires made of either copper or
aluminum are used to make a power cable.
▪ For a conductor having more than three wires, the wire is arranged around a center wire
such that there are six in the first layer, twelve in the second, eighteen in the third, and
so on. The number of wires in the conductors is 7, 19, 37, 61, 91, etc., The size of the
conductor is represented by 7/A, 19/B, 37/C, etc., in which first figures represent the
number of strands and the second figure A, B, C, etc., represents the diameters in cm or
mm of the individual wire of the conductors.
 4.1.2. Insulation
▪ The most commonly used dielectric in power cables is impregnated paper, butyl rubber,
polyvinyl chloride cable, polyethylene, cross-linked polyethylene. Paper insulated cables
are mostly preferred because their current carrying capacity is high, generally reliable,
and has a long life. The dielectric compound used for the cable should have the
following properties.
o The insulator must have high insulation resistance.
o It should have high dielectric strength so that it does not allow the leakage
current to pass through it.
o The material must have good mechanical strength.
o The dielectric material should be capable of operating at high temperatures.
o It should have a low thermal resistance.
o It should have a low power factor.
▪ The cables used for submarine and damp soil should use synthetic dielectrics like
polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene, etc. These materials are comparatively lighter and have
nonmigratory dielectric. Also, such a type of dielectric material has good dielectric
strength, low power loss, and low thermal resistance.

4.1.3. Inner Sheath

▪ It is used for protecting the cable from moisture which would affect the insulation. The
cable sheath is made up of lead alloy, and these strengths withstand the internal
pressures of the pressurized cables. The material used for the inner sheath should be
non-magnetic.
▪ The aluminum sheath is also used in a power cable because it is cheaper, smaller in
weight, and has high mechanical strength than the lead sheath. In oil-filled cables and
telephone, cables corrugated seamless aluminum sheath is used because it has better-
bending properties, reduced thickness, and lesser weight.

4.1.4. Protective Covering

▪ Lead sheath cables, when directly laid down on the ground, are damaged by corrosion
and electrolyte. To protect the cables against corrosion layers of fibrous material like
paper, hessian, etc., or polyvinyl chloride is used. Layers of fibrous material spread with
the waterproof compound to the outside of the electrical cable are called serving.

4.1.5. Armoring
▪ Armoring is the process in which layers of galvanized steel wires or two layers of metal
tape are applied over the sheath for protecting it from mechanical damage. Steel wires
are normally used for armoring because it has high longitudinal strength. Armoring is
also used for earthing the cable. When the fault occurs in the cable (due to insulation
failure) the fault current flows through the armor and gets earthed.
4.1.6. OverSheath
▪ It gives mechanical strength to the cables. It protects the cable from overall damage like
moisture, corrosion, dirt, dust, etc. The thermosetting or thermoplastic material is used
for making over the sheath.
4.2. OIL FILED CABLES
▪ An Oil-filled cable has low viscosity oil kept under pressure either within the cable
sheath itself or a containing pipe. The oil in the cable filled the voids in the oil-
impregnated paper under all conditions of varying loads. In the past, over the years
mineral oils are used but recently alkylates (linear decyl benzene and branched nonyl
benzene) have become popular because of their low viscosity and their ability to absorb
water vapors liberated during the aging of cellulose.
▪ Oil-filled cables are used for long power transmission or are placed where aerial cables
are impracticable to use like: sea, underground hydroelectric plant or in power
substations having water obstacles.

4.2.1. Advantage of Oil Filled Cables

▪ The pressure in the cable is sustained by connecting the oil channel of the cable to the
oil tank. For maintaining the pressure, the oil channel is placed far away from the oil
reservoir. The oil pressure reduces the formation of voids in the insulator. Oil-filled
cables have the following advantages over solid cables:
o Oil-filled cables have greater operating dielectric stress.
o Such a type of cable has a greater working temperature and greater current
carrying capacity.
o Oil-filled cable has better impregnation as compared to solid cable.
o In oil-filled cable, impregnation is possible, even after sheathing.
o In such a type of cable, there is no void formation.
o The size of oil-filled cables is small as compared to solid-filled cables because
their dielectric thickness is less.
o In oil-filled cable, the defect can easily be detected by oil leakage.

4.2.2. Types of Oil Filled Cable

▪ Oil-filled cables are mainly classified into three types. These are;
o Self-contained circular type oil cable
o Self-contained Flat type cable
o Pipeline cable
 [Link]. Self-Contained Oil-filled Cable
▪ These cables have oil ducts filled with oil. The oil is kept under pressure, and its
strength is 180 kV/cm. In this type of cable, all the free space between the core is
available for oil flow. The oil in the cables filled the free spaces of the insulations and
hence increase the strength of the insulations.

▪ The cross-sectional area of the conductor used for such types of cables is nearly 150-
180 sq mm, and it is made up of tin. The diameter of the oil ducts used in such cable
is approximately 12 mm. Such type of cable is mostly used for voltage up to 110-220
kV.

[Link].1. Advantages of self-contained oil-filled cables

▪ The size of the conductor is small in self-contained oil-filled cable because it contains
oil ducts.
▪ Such type of cable is easy to install.
▪ Their cost is less as compared to other oil-filled cables.
▪ In self-contained oil-filled cables, no pumps are required, only oil tanks are to be
used.
 [Link]. Flat Type Oil Filled Cable
▪ In such type of cable, three insulated cores are placed together horizontally. There is
no filter material, and space is filled up with oil under pressure. The flat sides of the
lead sheath are the strength with hard metallics tapes or bands and winding wires.
The supporting bands are made fluted to make the cable more flexible.
▪ When the cable is loaded, their temperature rises and the oil expands due to which
the flat side of the sheath is deformed slightly. On decreasing, the load oil contracts
and deflections are reduced due to the presence of resilient bands. Thus the
formation of the voids in the dielectric during cooling is minimized.

▪ The oil storage tank is placed along the cable route at suitable intervals to allow for
thermal expansion and contraction. On loading, the cable heat is produced, and oil is
driven by the cable in the oil storage tanks and vice versa. Thus, the creation of voids
is avoided.

[Link]. Pipes Types Oil Filled Cables

▪ A pipe-type oil-filled cable consists of three separate paper insulated screen cores
installed in a steel pipe. The pipe is filled with insulation oil kept at a pressure of
1.38×106 to 1.725×106 N/M2. The high-pressure oil prevents the formation of voids.
It also removes heat from the cable. In this type of cable, the conductor oil duct is
not required.
 ACTIVE, REACTIVE & APPARENT POWER

1. DEFINITIONS

1.1. Active Power

▪ The power which is consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit is called True power, Active
power, or Real power. It is measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW.
▪ It is the actual outcomes of the electrical system which runs the electric circuits or load.

1.2. Reactive Power

▪ The power which flows back and forth which means it moves in both directions in the
circuit or reacts upon itself is called Reactive Power.
▪ The reactive power is measured in kilo volt-ampere reactive (kVAR) or MVAR.

1.3. Apparent Power

▪ The product of the root mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current is known
as Apparent Power. This power is measured in kVA or MVA.
▪ It has been seen that power is consumed only in resistance.
▪ A pure inductor and a pure capacitor do not consume any power since in a half cycle
whatever power is received from the source by these components is the same power
returned. This reactive power does not perform any useful work in the circuit.
▪ In a purely resistive circuit, the current is in phase with the applied voltage, whereas in a
purely inductive and capacitive circuit the current is 90 degrees out of phase, i.e., if an
inductive load is connected in the circuit the current lags voltage by 90 degrees and if
the capacitive load is connected the current leads the voltage by 90 degrees.
▪ Hence, from all the above discussion, it is concluded that the current in phase with the
voltage produces true or active power, whereas, the current 90 degrees out of phase
with the voltage contributes to reactive power in the circuit. Thus,
o True power = voltage x current in phase with the voltage
o Reactive power = voltage x current out of phase with the voltage
▪ The phasor diagram for a capacitive circuit is shown below:
▪ Taking voltage 𝑉 as a reference, the current 𝐼 lags behind the voltage 𝑉 by an angle 𝜑.
The current 𝐼 is divided into two components:
o 𝐼 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜑 in phase with the voltage 𝑉
o 𝐼 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝜑 which is 90 degrees out of phase with the voltage 𝑉
▪ Therefore, the following expression shown below gives the active, reactive, and
apparent power respectively.
o Active power 𝑃 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙 = 𝑉 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
o Reactive power 𝑃𝑟 or 𝑄 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 = 𝑉 𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙
o Apparent power 𝑃𝑎 or 𝑆 = 𝑉 × 𝐼 = 𝑉𝐼

1.4. The active component of the current

▪ The current component, which is in phase with the circuit voltage and contributes to the
active or true power of the circuit, is called an active component or watt-full
component, or in-phase component of the current.

1.5. Reactive component of the current

▪ The current component, which is in quadrature or 90 degrees out of phase to the circuit
voltage and contributes to the reactive power of the circuit, is called a reactive
component of the current.
2. POWER TRIANGLE
▪ The power Triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation
between active power, reactive power, and apparent power.
▪ When each component of the current that is the active component (𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) or the
reactive component (𝐼𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙) is multiplied by the voltage 𝑉, a power triangle is obtained
shown in the figure below:

▪ The following points explain the relationship between the following quantities and are
explained by a graphical representation called Power Triangle shown above.
o When an active component of current is multiplied by the circuit voltage 𝑉, it
results in active power. It is this power that produces torque in the motor, heat
in the heater, etc. This power is measured by the wattmeter.
o When the reactive component of the current is multiplied by the circuit voltage,
it gives reactive power. This power determines the power factor, and it flows
back and forth in the circuit.
o When the circuit current is multiplied by the circuit voltage, it results in apparent
power.
o From the power triangle shown above the power, the factor may be determined
by taking the ratio of true power to the apparent power.

o As we know simply power means the product of voltage and current but in an AC
circuit except for a purely resistive circuit, there is usually a phase difference
between voltage and current, and thus the product 𝑉𝐼 does not give real or true
power in the circuit.
Examples
1) An RL series circuit consists of a resistance of 15Ω and an inductor that has an
inductive reactance of 26Ω. If a current of 5 amperes flows around the circuit,
calculate:
i) the supply voltage.
ii) the phase angle between the supply voltage and circuit current.
iii) Draw the resulting phasor diagram.

Solution
i) The supply voltage

We can double-check this answer of 150Vrms using the impedances of the circuit as
follows:

ii) The phase angle 𝜃 using Trigonometry functions is:

iii) The resulting phasor diagram showing VS

2) A wound coil that has an inductance of 180mH and a resistance of 35Ω is connected
to a 100V 50Hz supply. Calculate:
i) the impedance of the coil,
ii) the current,
iii) the power factor, and
iv) the apparent power consumed.
v) Also draw the resulting power triangle for the above coil.
Data given: R = 35Ω, L = 180mH, V = 100V and ƒ = 50Hz.

Solution
i) Impedance (Z) of the coil:

ii) Current (I) consumed by the coil:

iii) The power factor and phase angle, Φ:

iv) Apparent power (S) consumed by the coil:

 v) Power triangle for the coil:

Exercise
1) For the circuit shown:
i) Determine the real and reactive power of
each component.
ii) Determine the apparent power delivered by
the source.

2) Determine the apparent power, total real and

reactive power using the following equations:
𝑆 = 𝑉𝐼
𝑃 = 𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑄 = 𝑆𝑠𝑖𝑛∅
3) For the circuit shown
i) Determine the unknown real (P2) and
reactive powers (Q3) in the circuit
ii) Determine total apparent power
iii) Draw a power triangle for the circuit
iv) Is the unknown element in Load #3 an
inductor or capacitor?

4) For the circuit shown

i) Determine the value of R, PT and QT
ii) Draw the power triangle and determine S

5) The load shown in the phasor diagram has a

measured terminal current of 𝐼𝑇 = 12530𝑜𝐴 and a
terminal voltage of 𝑉𝑇 = 460 20𝑜𝑉 Find:
i) apparent power delivered
ii) active and reactive power delivered
iii) determine if the circuit is acting as a
capacitor or an inductor
iv) power factor of the load
3. POWER FACTOR
▪ The power factor is defined as the ratio of the active power (𝑃) and the apparent power.
The active power is the real power that is consumed in an AC circuit, whereas the
apparent power is the overall power delivered to the circuit.

▪ For sinusoidal waveforms, the power factor is the cosine of the angle (phase angle)
between voltage and current.

▪ Equation (1) shows that the current is affected by the power factor. Hence, for a given
power 𝑃 by the load, the current 𝐼, taken by the load vary inversely as the load power
factor 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛷. Thus, a given load takes more current at a low power factor than it does at
a high power factor.

3.1. Disadvantages of low power factor

▪ The undesirable effect of operating a light load at a low power factor is due to the large
current required for a low power factor. The important disadvantages of low power
factor are:
o Higher current is required by the equipment, due to which the economic cost of
the equipment is increased.
o At a low power factor, the current is high which gives rise to high copper losses
in the system and therefore the efficiency of the system is reduced.
o Higher currents produce large voltage drops in the apparatus. This results in poor
voltage regulation.
 o Since both the capital and running costs are increased, the operation of the
system at a low power factor (whether it is lagging or leading) is uneconomical
from the supplier’s point of view.

3.2. Causes of Low power factor

▪ The usual reason for the low power factor is the inductive load. The current in the inductive
load lag behind the voltage.
▪ The important inductive loads responsible for the low power factor are the three-phase
induction motors (which operate at a 0.8 lagging power factor), transformer, lamps, and
welding equipment that operate at low lagging power factors.
▪ Power factor improvement methods are used for improving the value of the power factor
in a power system.

3.3. LEADING & LAGGING POWER FACTOR

▪ Leading and lagging power factors are the two major terms associated with the power
factor of the AC electrical system. The crucial difference between leading and lagging power
factors is that in the case of the leading power factor the current leads to the voltage. And
as for a lagging power factor, the current lags the supplied voltage. The tendency of the
circuit that causes the current to either lead or lag depends on the load conditions.
Comparison Chart
Basis for
Leading Power Factor Lagging Power Factor
Comparison

Basic The load current leads the There is a phase difference between
supply voltage by a certain voltage and current where load current
phase angle. lags the supply voltage.

Nature of load in an Capacitive Inductive

electrical circuit

Correction of low With the addition of an With the addition of a capacitive load.
power factor inductive load.

Value Exists between -1 to 0. Exists between 0 and 1.

Reactive power Is supplied by the load Is consumed by the load

Reactive Negative Positive

component
Basis for
Leading Power Factor Lagging Power Factor
Comparison

Examples of Capacitive load: Inductive load:

respective loads Electrical motors, capacitors, Power generator, inductor, relays, etc.
radio circuits, etc.

3.4. Leading Power Factor

▪ The leading power factor in an ac electrical circuit is attained by the use of capacitive
load in the circuit. As in the presence of a purely capacitive load or combination of
resistive-capacitive load, the current leads supply voltage.
▪ As it is known that the power factor is the ratio of true to the apparent power. And
generally for sinusoidal waveform power factor is the cosine function of the phase angle
existing between voltage and current. Consider the wave shapes of the voltage supplied
to an ac circuit and the current through a capacitive load:

From the above figure, it is clear that current, 𝐼 crosses the time axis some phase earlier
than the voltage, 𝑉. The figure below represents the leading power factor triangle:

3.5. Lagging Power Factor

▪ In ac circuits, a lagging power factor is achieved when the load is inductive. This is so
because when a purely inductive or resistive-inductive load is present then there exists a
phase difference between voltage and current in which the current lags the voltage.
▪ Let us consider the waveforms of supplied voltage to an ac circuit and the current
through an inductive load as:

▪ Here the current crosses the time axis at some phase after the voltage. Thereby giving
rise to a lagging power factor. The lagging power factor triangle is given below:
4. POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
▪ The power factor correction means bringing the power factor of an AC circuit nearer to
one by using the equipment which absorbs or supplies the reactive power to the circuit.
Usually, the power factor correction can be done by using a capacitor (capacitor bank)
and a synchronous motor in the circuit. The power factor correction will not change the
amount of true power, but it will reduce the apparent power and the total current
drawn by the load.
▪ The most economical value of the power factor lies between 0.9 to 0.95. If the value of
the power factor lies below 0.8 (approx.), then it draws more current from the load. A
large current increases the losses and requires a large conductor, thus increasing the
cost of the system. The loss can be reduced by correcting the power factor of the
system.

4.1. Power Factor Correction Methods

▪ The power factor correction methods are mainly classified into two types, i.e., by using
the capacitor or through a synchronous condenser.

4.1.1. Power Factor Correction by using Capacitor Bank

▪ In a three-phase system, the power factor is improved by connecting the capacitors in a
star or delta. The star and delta-connected banks are shown in the figure below.

Let, VL = Line voltage

Vp = phase voltage
CΔ = capacitor per phase when the capacitors are connected in delta
 Cy = capacitance per phase when the capacitor is connected in star
Qc = Var rating of each phase

Delta Connection

The capacitance per phase is given by the equation

Star Connection

The capacitance per phase is expressed by the equation

From equations (1) and (2) we get

▪ Equation (3) shows that the capacitance required in the star connection of a three-
phase transformer is equal to three times the capacitance required per phase when the
capacitors are connected in delta. Also, the working voltage of the star-connected bank
is 1/√3 equal to the delta-connected bank.
▪ For these reasons, the capacitors are connected in delta configuration in a three-phase
system for power factor improvement. Delta connection is also better if the capacitors
are designed for higher working voltage.
4.2. Power Factor Correction by Using Synchronous Condenser
▪ Power factor can also be correct by installing the specially designed induction
motor, known as a synchronous condenser. The synchronous condenser running
without the mechanical load is connected in parallel with the load. It absorbs and
generates reactive power (var) by varying the excitation of the motor field winding.
▪ The synchronous condenser is used for improving the power factor in bulk. The output
of the phase modifier can be varied smoothly. The synchronous condenser has some
disadvantages like it is costly in terms of installation, maintenance and operation.
Examples

1) A parallel circuit is shown below. Calculate (a) the current flowing through each branch, (b)
the current drawn from the supply, and (c) the circuit p.f. and power dissipated.

Solution
a) Current 𝐼1 is opposed by the impedance 𝑍1 of that branch, where:

Current 𝐼2 is opposed only by the reactance of the capacitor, where

b)
Note: Since this is an a.c. parallel circuit, it is possible for the current drawn from the supply to be less
than one or more of the branch currents
c)
 2) The stator winding of an a.c. motor, which has a resistance of 20 ohms and an inductance of
0.25 H, is connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. (a) Calculate the current drawn from the supply,
and the power factor. (b) Two power factor correction capacitors, each of 16 µF, are then
connected in parallel across the stator winding. Calculate the current now drawn from the
supply, and the power factor.

solution
 Note: By using the power factor correction capacitors, the current drawn from the supply has been
reduced by almost 71%.

Exercise

1) a 10 kW, 220 V, 60 Hz single phase motor

operates at a power factor of 0.7 lagging.
Find the value of capacitance that must
be connected in parallel with the motor
to improve the power factor to 0.95
lagging

2) A 480 V, 60 Hz, single phase load draws 50.25 kVA at a power factor of 0.87 lagging. Find: a)
the current and the active power in kW that the load absorbs b) the angle between the
source voltage and the load current c) the amount of reactive power necessary to correct the
load power factor to 0.98 lagging d) the current the load draws at 0.98 power factor
Transmission Lines (TL)
 A TL is a major component of an electrical
power system.
 The function of a TL is to transport power
from sources to loads with minimal loss.
 Transmission Lines
 The performance of the transmission line is governed by its
four parameters namely:
i. Series resistance (R)
ii. Indunctance (L)
iii. Shunt Capacitance (C)
iv. Conductance (G)
 The resistance is because every conductor resists the flow of
current.
 The inductance is because the current carrying conductor is
surrounded by magnetic lines of force.
 The capacitance of the line is because the voltage which is
always at lower potential than the conductor and the air
between them form a dielectric medium.
 The shunt conductance is mainly due to the flow of leakage
currents over the surface of the insulators.
 The line resistance causes voltage drop and power loss in the
transmission line, line inductance causes voltage drop , line
capacitance produces charging current
Classification of
Transmission Lines
Transmission Lines are classified based
on three criterion and they are:
 Length of transmission line
 Operating Voltage
 Effect of Capacitance
On the basis of length of transmission
line, transmission lines are classified as:
 Short transmission line
 Medium transmission line
 Long transmission line
Medium and Short Line
Models
Short-Line Model
How to choose when modeling the
electrical characteristics of a
transmission line depends on the
length of the line

For Short-line model:

 <~80��m
 Lumped model
 Account only for series impedance
 Neglect shunt capacitance
 �� and �� are resistance and
reactance per unit length,
respectively
Each with units of Ω/��
��
Medium-Line Model
 This can be modelled into two basic types namely :
i. Nominal –�� Model
ii. Nominal –T Model
In nominal π Model In nominal T Model
representation, the lumped representation, the shunt
series impedance is placed in admittance is placed in the
the middle while the shunt middle and the series
admittance is divided into two impedance is divided into
equal parts and placed at the two equal parts and these
two ends. parts are placed on either
side of the shunt admittance.
 Transmission Lines as Two-Port
 Networkslines can be treated as
Transmission
general two-port networks
 As two-port networks, we can
characterize transmission lines with
their ABCD parameters or chain-
parameters.
 ABCD (or chain or transmission or
cascade) parameters define the
following two-port relationships
 In matrix form, the chain-
parameter equations are:
 ��, ��, ��, and �� are, in
general, complex numbers
 Example:
ABCD Parameters – Short-Line Model
Applying KVL around the loop gives our
first equation

Applying KCL gives the second

equation
Medium-Line Model for Nominal –��
Model
 Voltage Regulation
The voltage at the receiving end of a line will change
depending on the load placed on the line.
 Magnitude of this change is quantified as voltage regulation

Voltage regulation:
 Change in receiving-end voltage from no load to full load,
expressed as a percentage of the full-load voltage

Typically, transmission lines are designed to limit voltage

regulation to about 10%
At full-load condition we can see that
the receiving voltage is always at the
full load, that is
Medium line model efficiency
Transmission Line
Loadability:
 Loadability of line is defined as the extent of
load which can flow through the line without
exceeding the limitations.
 Line Loadability is expressed in percentage of
Surge Impedance Loading of line.
 The limiting factor for line loading are:
i. Thermal limit
ii. Voltage drop limit
iii. Phase Shift/ Steady State Stability.
 The loading of line shall not exceed these
limits in any case.
Voltage drop limit:
 This corresponds to drop in receiving end
voltage.
 In case the loading of line is very high compared
to Surge Impedance Loading (SIL), there will be a
huge drop in receiving end voltage.
 A voltage drop of 5% is normally permissible
Thermal limit:
 Corresponds to heating of transmission line and
interposes a limit on current which can flow.
 Though of overhead transmission line, thermal
limit is quite high but this cannot be neglected
while deciding loading.
 REACTIVE COMPENSATION
 Voltage profile and loadability of a transmission line depend on relative
line and load impedances
i. By varying line impedance, we can affect voltage regulation
and line loadability.
ii. Add shunt or series reactance to the line–reactive
Types of reactivecompensation.
compensation
 Shunt reactors (inductors)
i. Absorb reactive power
ii. Reduce receiving-end voltage under light load
iii. Must be removed under higher-load conditions
 Shunt capacitors
i. Supply reactive power
ii. Increase receiving-end voltage at full load
iii. Removed under light-load conditions
 Series capacitors
i. Reduce series line impedance
ii. Reduce line voltage drops
iii. Increase steady-state stability limit

 Static VAR compensators (SVCs)

i. Thyristor-controlled shunt reactors and
capacitors.
ii. Automatically adjust compensation depending
on load.
 Power System Protection
Definition:
 Power system protection is the protection of electrical power
systems from faults through the disconnection of faulted parts from
the rest of the electrical network

 Protection devices perform their purpose by keeping a faulty section

isolated from the remaining healthy system to make it work without
any disturbances.
 The function of a protection system is not to prevent faults as its
name suggests, rather it minimizes repair costs as it senses fault
because it only acts after a fault occurs.
 Objectives of Power System Protection
 Power system protection's main objective is to maintain the reliability of
the running power system and to save the equipment from getting
damaged. To achieve reliability, two points are kept in mind:
i. Only the faulty part of the system is completely isolated
within a minimum time so that the remaining system
operates normally.
ii. In the case of normal conditions, there should be no
nuisance tripping.
 To isolate the system from the faulty section, fuses and circuit breakers
are used and to detect fault relays are used. In low voltage systems
breakers perform both functions of detecting and isolating the fault.
 Protection Zones in Power System
 Each protection scheme safeguards a defined area known as a
protection zone. The protection zone surrounds each power
equipment.
 When a fault occurs in any of the zone, then only the circuit breaker in
that zone trips.
 Therefore, only a faulty element is disconnected without affecting the
rest of the system.
Following six categories of protection zones are possible in a
system, we apply here a concept of selective coordination.
 Generators and generator–transformer units
 Transformers
 Buses
 Lines (transmission, sub-transmission, and
distribution)
 Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, or
other)
 Capacitor or reactor banks (when separately
protected).
Power System Protection Devices
 Fuse
 Instrument Transformer
 Relay
 Circuit Breaker
 Batteries
 ESD Protection Device
 Surge Protection Device
Fuse

The simplest type of system protection

equipment is the fuse
 Designed to create an open circuit in
response to an overcurrent event
 Fusible link melts in response to excessive
current
 If a fuse opens, it must be replaced to
restore service once the fault is cleared
Relays are sensing devices. Due to the ability to make
decisions about fault recognition, these relays are
regarded as the brain of power systems.
Relays are operated by measuring the voltage and
current values and converting them into digital and/or
analog signals, which in turn isolate the circuits by
opening the faulty circuits. Most often, the relays
serve two objectives, alarm and trip, once the
abnormality is noticed