Appendix I

Review of Fundamental Physical

Concepts

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 Review of Fundamental Physical Concepts
1. Linear Momentum and Collisions
➢ If there are no external forces on the system, the system is isolated.
➢ Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system interact (collide) , the total
momentum of the system does not change.
ur
r d p tot d r r ur
F= = ( p1 + p2 ) = 0 ptot = constant
dt dt
r r r r
p1i + p2i = p1 f + p2 f
14442 4443 14442 4443 Law of conservation of
intial momentum final momentum linear momentum
( before collision ) ( after collision )

➢ An elastic collision is one in which the kinetic energy of the system is conserved.
➢ An inelastic collision is one for which the total kinetic energy of the system of
colliding particles is not conserved.
➢ A perfectly inelastic collision is one in which the colliding particles stick together
after the collision.

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 Review of Fundamental Physical Concepts
2. Uniform Circular Motion
During the time interval t, a particle (P) moves from the reference line (x-axis) and
covers a linear distance (s), while the radius vector covers an angular distance ().
ds d
bydefinition: v (linar speed ) = and  (angular frequency) =
dt dt
y
s d
= or s = r
ds
=r v =r v
r dt dt
P
A particle moving in a circle of radius r with constant
speed v is in a uniform circular motion r s

d v 𝜽
x
= = = constant O
dt r reference line
 t t

Thus,  d =  dt =   dt
0 0 0
 = t

For one complete revolution: θ → 2π & t → T (periodic time)

2 2 r 1  v
T= = and f ( frequency) = = =
 v T 2 2 r

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 Review of Fundamental Physical Concepts
y
For uniform circular motion, the linear velocity vector (𝒗) has v cos θ
constant magnitude and is changing in direction.
θ
From the next figure v = −(v sin  )i + (v cos  ) j
v sin θ
then acceleration is given by:
dv
a=
dt
o x
 d   d 
= −  v cos   
i − v sin  j
 dt   dt 
= − ( v cos  ) i − ( v sin  ) j

and is directed from P towards O, the center of rotation, see next

figure. For this reason this type of acceleration is called the
v𝜔 cosθ
centripetal (radial) acceleration. θ

The magnitude (ac) of this acceleration is given by: v𝜔 sinθ

v2
ac = v  cos  + v  sin  = v  =
2 2 2 2 2 2

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 Review of Fundamental Physical Concepts
3. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Magnetic Field
When a particle with charge (q) moves with velocity (𝑣) Ԧ in a plane perpendicular
to a uniform magnetic field (𝐵), it is affected by the magnetic force given by:
FB = qv B
𝐵
➢ This force is always perpendicular to 𝑣,
Ԧ so it cannot 𝑣
change the magnitude of the velocity, only its direction. 𝑞
𝐹Ԧ𝐵 𝑟
𝐹Ԧ𝐵
“No gain or loss in kinetic energy ” 𝑣
𝑞
𝐹Ԧ𝐵

Since the particle moves in uniform circular motion,

Newton’s second law can be written as: 𝑞 𝑣

mv 2 v qB
FB = mac = = qvB = =
r r m

➢ The periodic time of the motion:

2 2 m
T = =
 qB

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 Review of Fundamental Physical Concepts
x=0 x=d
4. Potential Gradient (assume one dimension for simplicity): +
E -
+ -
dV
E=− +
+
-
-
dx + -
For the uniform field inside a parallel plate capacitor +
+ v
-
-
0 d d +
q -
dV = − Edx   dV = −  Edx = − E  dx
Vo 0 0
 (0 − Vo ) = − E (d − 0) +

vi vf

Vo = Ed or E = Vo d
Vo
5. Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field
Consider a particle, of charge (q) and mass (m), starts to move at x = 0 with an initial
velocity (vi) as shown in the next figure. The electric force acting on the charge is:
FE = ma = qE
and the work done by the field to move the charge a distance dx is:
dv
dw = FE dx = madx = m dx = mvdv
dt 1J = 1C × 1V
= FE dx = qEdx
The work done to move the charge across the capacitor
vf d
1 2 1 2
 mvdv =  qEdx
vi 0
2
mv f − mvi = qEd = qVo
2
 ( KE ) = qVo

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 Review of Fundamental Physical Concepts
6. Electron Volt
➢ It is a useful unit of energy commonly used in atomic physics and band theory
of solids.
➢ It is the kinetic energy given to an electron when accelerated in an electric field
between two points that have a potential difference of 1 volt.

1eV = 1.6 10−19 C 1V 1eV = 1.6 10 −19 J

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 Appendix II

Nuclear fusion as an example of mass-

energy relation

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 Nuclear fusion as an example of mass-
energy relation
An example of the energy-mass equivalence is the nuclear fusion.
Such a reaction is the source of the sun radiation. The sequence of the reaction goes
as follows:

Twice of this group of reactions to

produce two He isotopes and then:

1
1𝐻: proton; 21𝐻: deuteron; 32𝐻𝑒: isotope of helium; 42𝐻𝑒: helium nucleus (also called
“alpha particle”) ; 𝛽 + : positron (positive charge electron); 𝜈𝑒 : neutrino (very small
mass with zero charge); 𝛾: gamma photon.
The inputs are (2 × first two reactions + the third reaction) → 6 protons + 2 deuterons
+ 2 helium isotopes.
The outputs are (2 × first two reactions + the third reaction) : 2 deuterons + 2
positrons + 2 neutrinos + 2 gamma photons + 2 helium isotopes + one helium nucleus
+ 2 protons.
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 Nuclear fusion
Since the temperature of the sun is very high, the electrons move freely and are not
bound to their atoms.
Therefore, the two positrons react with two free electrons and convert into gamma
radiation through annihilation (one electron and one positron disappear and two
gamma photons are generated).
The gamma radiation equals the energy stored in the four particles of the reaction (2
positrons+2 electrons):
𝑚𝑐 2 = 4 9.1 × 10−31 3 × 108 2 = 3.27 × 10−13 𝐽 ≈ 2𝑀𝑒𝑉
Note that this gamma radiation is different from that in the second step of the
reaction.

Back to the nuclear fusion, there are six protons in the input and two in the output,
then there is a net of four protons in the input. Doing the same for all other
components of the reaction we find the following:
The net input mass:
Four protons → 4 × 1.672 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 = 6.688 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
The net output mass:
One helium nucleus = 6.644 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔

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 Nuclear fusion
Net mass loss = 0.044 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
Radiated energy due to mass loss =0.044 × 10−27 × 3 × 108 2
= 3.96 × 10−12 𝐽
= 24.75 𝑀𝑒𝑉

What about the gamma radiation in the second step? It is included in the previous
calculation (24.75 𝑀𝑒𝑉) since the net mass loss (input mass – output mass)
represents all the energy released in this reaction (other than the positron-electron
annihilation). You can verify that by calculating the mass loss and the energy
released for each of the three steps of the reaction.

So, the total radiation including gamma radiation (from annihilation) ≈ 26.75 𝑀𝑒𝑉

This is called the proton-proton cycle. Why? The protons from the last reaction can
start a new reaction.

So, the sun has a fuel of protons that react to produce energy and helium, besides a
smaller number of new protons. The sun will continue to radiate as long as its fuel
(the protons) is available.

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 Appendix III

Black body radiation

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 Blackbody Radiation
Introduction
• We are all familiar with the glow of a hot piece of metal, which gives off visible light
whose color varies with the temperature of the metal, going from red to yellow to white
as it becomes hotter and hotter.

• In fact, other frequencies or wavelengths to which our

eyes do not respond are present as well. Visible Light (µm)

• The spectrum of electromagnetic

radiation is shown in the figure
c = lf

• Black body is one which absorb the entire radiation on it

• The best realization of a perfect black body is a tiny hole

(opening) in a cavity (enclosure) with rough walls.
− Any radiation enters the cavity is trapped by reflection back and
forth until absorbed
− If the cavity is heated, the radiation coming out of the hole is
called black-body radiation it is independent of the wall material

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• Lummer and Pringsheim (1897) investigated the spectral emittance at different
Temperature as shown in the figure
− The spectral emittance f(l,T) is the power (energy /time) radiated per unit area of the surface of
the black body per unit wavelength interval at a certain temperature T.

f(l,T)

Characteristics of black body spectra

1) The black-body radiation spectrum curves are universal and depend only on the
temperature of the black-body and not its material.
2) The higher the temperature, the more the peak shifts to shorter wavelength.
3) The radiation intensity at a certain wavelength increases as the temperature increases.

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• Black body laws
➢ Stefan-Boltzmann law (1884): Total energy emitted per unit area of a black
body per second is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature

I = T 4
Where  is Stefan constant and its
value is 5.672×10-8 W/m2. K4

f(l,T)
Total energy emitted per unit
area ≡ area under the curve

➢ Wien’s Displacement Law :

The wavelength corresponding to the maximum emitted radiation is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature
1
lmax  or lmaxT = constant
T
Wien’s constant 2.898×10-3 mK

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 Classical physics explanation & failure
• Rayleigh and Jeans (1899) assumed that the atoms forming the cavity walls could be
treated as a set of oscillators that emit electromagnetic waves at all wavelengths and
these waves form standing-waves modes in the cavity.
• They calculated the number of modes with wavelengths from λ to λ+dλ to be
2π𝑐
4 𝑑𝜆, where c is the speed of light.
𝜆

• Classical physics tells us, the average energy per Rayleigh-Jeans law

mode is kT where k is Boltzmann’s constant.

Rayleigh-Jeans law for spectra emittance would by:

2 ckT
f (l , T ) =
l4
 This theoretical expression could only fit the wavelength

experimental results in the infrared region.

 At short wavelength, the theoretical curve deviates completely from the experimental
one resulting in what is called ultraviolet catastrophe
 Rayleigh-Jeans law is inconsistent with Stefan and Wien laws.

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Planck’s Quantum Theory (1900)
• Planck saw that he could get agreement between theory and experiment
if he quantized the energies of the oscillators.
− He assumed that the allowable energy of Planck’s quantum
theory
atomic oscillators are given by E = nhf
where n = 0,1,2,….

l (f,T)
Classical theory
• According to Planck, the spectra
T = 1600 oK
emittance would by:
 measured data
2 c h2
f (l , T ) =
l 5 ehc / l kT − 1 2000 4000 6000
wavelength (nm)

• This expression is plotted as the solid line in the figure and is in excellent agreement
with the experiment over a wide range of l and T.
• The total energy emitted per unit area per second (area under the curve) can be found
by integrating f(l,T)dl over all wavelengths
 
2 c 2 h 2 5 k 4 4 Stefan-
I =  f (l , T )d l =  5 hc / l kT dl = T = 5.67 10−8 T 4 W/m 2 Boltzmann
0 l  − 1
2 3 Law
0 e 15c h

Last integral represented another proof of the correctness of Planck’s approach since
the Stefan–Boltzmann law was known twenty years before Planck’s theory.

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