3 Oceanography
Oceans cover more than 70% of the earth’s surface. Its health, humanity’s well-being, and the living environment that
keeps us all alive are all intricately interwoven. Despite this, ocean acidification, climate change, polluting activities,
and over-exploitation of marine resources have made oceans one of the most endangered ecosystems on the planet.
Ocean Reliefs
Continental Shelf: Shallow submerged extension of the
continent is called the Continental Shelf.
Continental slope: The continuous sloping portion of the
continental margin, extending down to the deep sea floor
of the abyssal plain, is known as Continental Slope.
Abyssal plains: These are the extremely flat and featureless
plains of the deep ocean floor.
Submarine Trenches: Oceanic trenches are prominent,
long, narrow topographic depressions of the ocean floor.
Salinity (UPSC 2017)
Salinity refers to the amount of dissolved salts (in grams) per Fig. 3.1: Submarine Relief Features of the Ocean
kilogram of seawater. It’s a crucial factor influencing ocean Floor
behavior and climate.
Why is Salinity Important?
Ocean Circulation: Salinity, along with temperature, determines
seawater density, which drives ocean currents that transport heat
around the globe, impacting global climate.
Water Cycle: Sea surface salinity reflects Earth’s water cycle,
indicating the balance between freshwater entering (precipitation,
rivers) and leaving (evaporation) the oceans.
Factors Affecting Salinity
Evaporation: High evaporation in warm, dry regions increases
salinity.
Freshwater Input: Precipitation, rivers, and icebergs decrease
salinity (e.g., Equatorial regions).
Ocean Current Mixing: Enclosed seas with limited mixing have
higher salinity, while freely circulating areas have lower salinity.
Climate Change: Rising temperatures lead to increased evaporation
and potentially higher salinity. Fig. 3.2: Vertical Distribution
Distribution of Salinity of Salinity in Ocean
Vertical: Salinity generally increases with depth at high latitudes, peaks around 35 meters in mid-latitudes, and then
decreases towards the equator.
Horizontal: Global ocean salinity ranges from 33 to 37 grams per kilogram. The highest salinity is observed between
15° and 20° latitudes, gradually decreasing northward.
Regional Variations in Salinity
Pacific Ocean: Salinity varies due to its vast size and shape.
Atlantic Ocean: Average salinity is around 36-37 grams per kilogram.
Indian Ocean: Average salinity is 35 grams per kilogram. The Bay of Bengal has lower salinity due to the Ganges
River, while the Arabian Sea has higher salinity due to high evaporation.
Other Seas:
¾ The North Sea witnesses higher salinity due to more
saline water influx by the North Atlantic Drift.
¾ With a salinity of 342 g/kg, or 34.2% (in 2011), Dead
sea is one of the world’s saltiest bodies of water.
¾ The Baltic Sea has low salinity due to the addition of
river waters in huge amounts.
¾ The Mediterranean Sea shows higher salinity because
of high evaporation.
¾ Black Sea records low salinity due to huge fresh water
influx by rivers.
Impact of Salinity
First, along with temperature, they directly affect
seawater density (salty water is denser than freshwater)
and therefore the circulation of ocean currents from the Fig. 3.3: Sea Surface Salinity
tropics to the poles.
Sea surface salinity is closely linked to Earth’s overall water cycle and to flow of freshwater in and out of oceans
through evaporation and precipitation.
Any changes (small or big) in salinity and ocean currents can affect the climate of the region and marine life.
Oceanic Temperature
Oceanic temperature refers to the heat content of seawater and is a key element in oceanography, influencing climate,
marine life, and ocean circulation.
Factors Influencing Oceanic Temperature
Latitude: Equatorial regions receive direct sun rays, leading to higher temperatures; polar regions are colder.
Solar Insolation: Varies with time of year, angle of sun, and day length.
Ocean Currents: Warm currents (e.g., Gulf Stream) raise temperatures; cold currents (e.g., Humboldt Current) lower them.
Depth: Temperature decreases with increasing depth.
Wind & Atmospheric Circulation: Affect surface temperature through heat exchange and mixing.
Vertical Distribution
Surface Layer (0–200m): Warm, mixed by wind and waves.
Thermocline (200–1000m): Sharp decrease in temperature with depth.
Deep Zone (>1000m): Uniformly cold (2–4°C), unaffected by sunlight.
Horizontal Distribution
Equator: Highest sea surface temperatures (~25–30°C) due to direct solar heating.
Mid-latitudes: Moderate temperatures (~10–20°C), influenced by seasonal variation and ocean currents.
Poles: Lowest temperatures (~0–5°C), with freezing in Arctic and Antarctic seas.
Western margins of oceans (e.g., North Atlantic, North Pacific): Warmer due to warm poleward currents.
Eastern margins (e.g., West coast of South America, Africa): Cooler due to cold equatorward currents and upwelling.
Land-sea contrast: Oceans near continents show greater variation due to coastal upwelling, river discharge, and
proximity to land masses.
Significance
Controls climate and monsoon patterns.
Drives ocean currents and thermohaline circulation.
Influences marine ecosystems and fisheries.
Indicator of climate change (e.g., global warming, El Niño).
Global Ocean Heat Content (OHC)
Global Ocean Heat Content (OHC) refers to the total amount of heat absorbed and stored in the world’s oceans. It is
measured by recording water temperatures at various depths, which reflects the amount of heat present in the ocean
at specific times and locations.
Key Facts
Oceans absorb approximately 90% of the excess heat generated by global warming.
The Atlantic Ocean, North and Western Pacific, and the Southern Ocean are warming at rates higher than the
global average.
Oceanography 19
According to a 2023 study, Global OHC has doubled or even tripled since the late 1980s, highlighting the
intensification of ocean warming.
Significance
Rising OHC contributes to sea level rise through thermal expansion.
It influences weather patterns, marine ecosystems, and the intensity of tropical cyclones.
A key indicator of climate change, often more stable than surface temperature metrics.
Movement of Ocean Waters
The movement of ocean water takes place in three forms which are waves, tides, and currents.
Waves
Ocean waves are created by wind transferring energy to the water, causing the characteristic rise and fall in oscillatory
movements.
Waves move horizontally, with the energy traveling through the water, not the water itself.
The highest point of a wave is called the crest, while the lowest point is called the trough.
Swell waves destroyed the Kerala coast causing panic in coastal communities. A swell is the formation of long
wavelength waves on the surface of the seas. They propagate along the interface between water and air. Thus, they
are often referred to as surface gravity waves.
Tides
Tides are the regular rise and fall of sea levels, occurring once or twice daily. The gravitational pull of the moon,
sun, and Earth’s rotation are the primary forces driving tides. Tides are devided based on frequency and Sun-Moon-
Earth Alignment:
Based on Frequency:
¾ Semi-diurnal tides: Two high and two low tides occur in a day.
¾ Diurnal tides: Only one high and one low tide occur in a day.
Based on Sun-Moon-Earth Alignment:
¾ Spring tides: Highest and lowest tides occur when the sun, moon, and Earth are in a straight line (new moon
or full moon).
¾ Neap tides: Less dramatic high and low tides occur when the sun and moon are at right angles to Earth (first
and third quarters).
Ocean Currents (UPSC 2015)
The ocean currents are the horizontal flow of
oceanic water in a particular direction over a long
distance. They are like a flowing river within the
ocean.
Forces Driving Ocean Current
Primary forces, which initiate water movement:
¾ Sun’s Heat (Insolation): Warmer equatorial
waters expand, causing a slight bulge compared
to cooler mid-latitude waters, initiating
movement.
¾ Wind’s Influence: Surface water is dragged by
wind friction, with the Coriolis force (deflecting
winds due to Earth’s rotation) shaping current
direction (rightward in the north, leftward in
the south). Examples include the Gulf Stream
(north) and the Brazilian Current (south). Fig. 3.4: Major Ocean Currents of the World
¾ Landmasses as Obstacles: Landmasses like the tip of South America divert currents, creating the Peruvian Current.
Secondary factors, which impact current flow:
¾ Temperature and Salinity: Denser, saltier water sinks, while lighter water rises, influencing vertical movement
within currents.
¾ Climate Change Impact: Rising sea surface temperatures due to greenhouse gases may disrupt major currents
like the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), potentially altering global climate patterns.
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Effects of Ocean Current
Climate Control: Ocean currents play a significant role in regulating regional climates. Warm currents raise
temperatures in nearby areas, while cold currents have a cooling effect. (e.g., North Atlantic Drift warming England,
Canary Current cooling Spain and Portugal)
Rainfall and Deserts: Warm currents contribute to increased rainfall along coastlines and even inland areas.
Conversely, cold currents can create deserts on the western sides of continents in subtropical zones. (e.g.,cold
Humboldt current off the coast of Peru contributes to the formation of the Atacama Desert, one of the driest places
on Earth.)
Fishing Zone: The convergence of warm and cold currents creates ideal conditions for plankton growth, which
in turn supports abundant fish populations, making these areas prime fishing grounds. (e.g, The Grand Banks of
Newfoundland)
Navigation: Ocean currents can influence ship navigation. Understanding these currents allows for more efficient
travel routes.
Temperature Moderation: By redistributing heat, currents help regulate coastal temperatures. For instance, the
warm North Atlantic Drift keeps the coast of England mild, while the Canary Current tempers the climate of Spain
and Portugal.
Gyre, Drift, and Stream
Features Description
Gyre Large system of rotating ocean current, with large wind movements is called a Gyre. Force - Coriolis force.
Drift When the huge ocean water moves forward because of the prevailing wind, it is called a Drift. E.g.
North Atlantic Drift.
Stream Ocean water moving in a definite path like a river on the continent is called a Stream. They are speedier
than drifts. E.g. Gulf Stream
Climate Change and Ocean Circulation
The vast network of ocean currents plays a critical role in regulating
Earth’s climate. These currents transport heat, impacting everything
from local weather patterns to global climate stability. Changes
in ocean circulation due to climate change can have far-reaching
consequences:
Disrupted Marine Ecosystems: Shifts in water temperature and
currents can disrupt spawning grounds and alter the connectivity
between marine ecosystems, impacting fish populations and
overall biodiversity.
Altered Carbon Cycle: Melting sea ice caused by warming winds
disrupts the growth of algae, which plays a crucial role in absorbing
atmospheric carbon dioxide. This can further accelerate climate
change.
Fisheries at Risk: Changing current patterns can disrupt the Fig. 3.5: Types of Coral Reefs
recruitment of fish stocks, jeopardizing food security and
livelihoods for millions who depend on the ocean
Multiple Threats: Rising ocean temperatures, acidification, and declining oxygen levels create a multitude of threats
to marine life and the delicate balance of ocean ecosystems.
Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
The AMOC is a massive system of ocean currents transporting warm tropical waters northward. This circulation is
crucial for regulating global climate as it redistributes heat, impacting weather patterns worldwide.
AMOC’s Influence
Fluctuations and Impacts: The AMOC naturally fluctuates, but a weakening could have significant consequences. For
instance, the US East Coast might face rising sea levels, Europe could experience harsher winters and more extreme
heatwaves, and the UK could see an increase in intense storms.
Indian Ocean’s Role: Interestingly, recent research suggests rising temperatures in the Indian Ocean might actually
help AMOC by influencing air and water circulation patterns in the Atlantic.
A paper from scientists from the University of Copenhagen, Denmark published that AMOC could collapse between
2025 and 2095 due to the impact of anthropogenic emissions.
Understanding the AMOC’s complex dynamics and potential influences like the Indian Ocean is crucial for predicting
future climate patterns and mitigating their potential impacts.
Oceanography 21
Global Overturning Circulation (GOC)
Global overturning circulation (GOC) is the equatorward
transportation of cold, deep waters and the poleward
transportation of warm, near-surface waters.
Importance: It controls ocean heat distribution and
atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, thus playing a critical
role in global climate.
Coral Reefs
Coral reefs are underwater structures built by tiny coral animals
called polyps. Hundreds to thousands of polyps work together,
forming colonies that create these vibrant ecosystems..
India has three major types of coral reefs: Fig. 3.6: Ideal Environment Condition for Corals
¾ Fringing Reefs: Bordering the coastline, creating shallow Diagram Type: Hub and Spoke
lagoons.
¾ Barrier Reefs: Running parallel to the shore at a distance.
¾ Atolls: Ring-shaped reefs encircling a lagoon, found in mid-ocean.
Coral Triangle (Amazon of the Seas): Spreading over 10
million sq. km in Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua
New Guinea, Timor-Leste, Solomon Islands. Hosts 76% of
global coral species; supports 120+ million livelihoods.
Ideal Environmental Conditions For Corals To Grow
Sunlight: Zooxanthellae algae within polyps need
sunlight for photosynthesis.
Solid Foundation: A hard surface allows for attachment
and reef development.
Warm, Clear Water: Ideal temperatures are around 20°C
with good water clarity.
Salinity: Corals extract calcium from salty water to Fig. 3.7: Coral Reef Regions
build their skeletons.
Nutrients: A steady supply of nutrients supports healthy coral growth.
Impact of Global Warming on Coral Life System (UPSC 2019)
Rising ocean temperatures, a consequence of global warming, pose a significant threat to coral life. This warming
triggers coral bleaching, a phenomenon where coral expels the vital algae living within them, causing them to turn
white and weaken.
Coral bleaching is becoming increasingly severe and frequent due to heat stress.
Factors Causing Coral Bleaching
Ocean Warming: Climate change is the primary culprit.
Pollution: Runoff, storm-generated debris, and other
pollutants can harm corals.
Excessive Sunlight: High solar radiation can bleach shallow-
water corals.
Low Tides: Extended exposure to air during low tides can
bleach shallow corals.
Fourth Global Mass Coral Bleaching Event
NOAA’s Coral Reef Watch (CRW) and International Coral
Reef Initiative (ICRI) has confirmed the 4th global mass
coral bleaching event in at least 53 countries, territories,
and local economies including Australia’s Great Barrier
Reef since early 2023. Fig. 3.8: Indian Legal Safeguards
It is the second such event in the past 10 years with an to Protect Coral Reefs
earlier event lasting from 2014 to 2017. Diagram Type: Pillar
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Significance of Coral Reef for Ocean Ecosystem
Economic Powerhouse: Reefs support fisheries and tourism, generating jobs and revenue.
Biodiversity Hotspot: Coral reefs teem with marine life, housing around 4,000 fish species and countless others.
Natural Barrier: Reefs protect coastlines by absorbing wave energy, reducing erosion and storm damage
Ocean Pollution
Ocean pollution is a growing threat which encompasses a variety of contaminants, including toxic metals, chemicals, plastics,
waste, and agricultural runoff. These pollutants disrupt delicate marine ecosystems and pose a risk to human health.
Impact of Ocean Pollution
Hazard of Microplastics: Microplastics are plastic particles smaller than 5 millimeters, are a major concern.
They account for over 80% of ocean debris. Marine life ingests these microplastics, mistaking them for food. This
contamination travels up the food chain, potentially reaching humans who consume seafood. A study published in
the journal Nature finds microplastics at 100 metre depth in oceans, disrupting its carbon cycle; researchers warns
of rising pollution levels
Harmed Marine Life: Ingestion of microplastics can reduce feeding capacity and harm marine organisms. Overall,
ocean pollution disrupts ecosystems and destroys habitats.
Oxygen Depletion: Decomposing debris depletes oxygen levels in the water, suffocating marine life.
Human Health Risks: Research suggests ocean pollution can harm human health through contaminated seafood and
sea spray aerosols containing pollutants.
Marine Pollution – Mitigation
Climate Change Action: Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is crucial to combat climate change, a major contributor
to ocean pollution.
Enhanced Monitoring: Better observation and data analysis are needed to understand oxygen depletion and other
ocean health changes.
Raising Awareness: Public education is key to changing human behavior and mitigating the impact of our activities
on the oceans.
International Efforts
Regulations and Treaties: Several international agreements like MARPOL and UNCLOS aim to control pollution
from ships and protect the marine environment. These efforts require continued enforcement and strengthening.
High Seas Treaty (Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) Agreement)
¾ It is a new international legal framework under UNCLOS for maintaining the ecological health of the oceans.
¾ The treaty was negotiated in 2023 and is meant to reduce pollution, and promote the conservation and sustainable
use of biodiversity and other marine resources in ocean waters outside the national jurisdiction of any country.
Fact-Wise
According to one of the UNESCO research, Plastic waste makes up 80% of all marine pollution, and around 8 to
10 million metric tons of plastic end up in the ocean each year.
Research states that, by 2050, plastic will likely outweigh all fish in the sea.
Marine Resources
Marine resources encompass a vast array of valuable materials found in
the ocean, from living organisms (fish, coral) to minerals (oil, gas) and even
tourism potential. These resources take millions of years to form, like oil
and gas deposits from decayed marine life.
Marine wealth comes in many forms
Biotic resources: This includes animal life (fish, shellfish, etc.), plant life
(phytoplankton, seagrass), and coral reefs.
Abiotic Resources:
¾ Minerals: Sand, gravel, phosphorites and polymetallic nodules
(manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper).
¾ Energy Resources: Offshore oil and natural gas, methane hydrates Fig. 3.9: Marine Resources
(future energy potential), Ocean Thermal Energy, Wave and Tidal Energy. Diagram Type: Hieararchy
Human Activities Threaten these Vital Resources
A recent report indicates that over 60% of the world’s coral reefs are under threat.
Marine heatwaves and unsustainable fishing practices further endanger marine ecosystems
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