India’s Water Status

Water Availability and Population Pressure:

 India holds only 4% of the global freshwater resources, yet

accommodates 18% of the world’s population, placing the country
among the most water-stressed nations.
 Per capita water availability has fallen sharply—from 5,410 m³/year
in 1951 to 1,614 m³/year in 2011, and is expected to drop further
to 1,235 m³/year by 2050.

Annual per-capita water availability of less than 1700 cubic meter is

considered as water stressed condition whereas annual per-capita water
availability below 1000 cubic meters is considered as a water scarcity
condition.

Precipitation Pattern:

 Though India receives roughly 4,000 km³ of annual rainfall,

extreme unevenness in timing and spatial distribution means only
about 1,123 km³ can actually be used.
 Around 80–90% of rainfall occurs during the four-month monsoon,
often within a very short span of around 100 hours, causing floods
and leaving much of the water unutilized.

Groundwater Dependency and Crisis:

 Groundwater supplies 63% of irrigation needs and 90% of rural

drinking water.
 India extracts one-quarter of the world’s total groundwater,
surpassing both China and the U.S.
 Nearly 60% of districts fall in the “critical” category—either over-
exploited or having poor-quality groundwater.

Pollution and Quality Concerns:

 Approximately 70% of India’s surface water is contaminated due to

untreated sewage, industrial waste, and agricultural chemicals.
  The country ranks 120th out of 122 nations in global water quality
assessments.

Urban and Rural Water Challenges:

 More than half the population lacks safe drinking water, and
waterborne illnesses result in nearly 200,000 deaths annually.
 Over 75% of households still do not have clean drinking water, and
by 2030, about 40% of Indians may face zero access to potable
water.

Economic Cost and Development Impact:

 NITI Aayog estimates that worsening water scarcity may reduce

India’s GDP by 6% by 2050.
 Water stress is already affecting agriculture, health outcomes,
education, and livelihoods, especially among women and rural
communities.

Water Management in India

Water management entails the planning, development, allocation,

regulation, and safeguarding of water resources—both surface and
groundwater—for households, agriculture, industries, sanitation, and
ecological health.

Constitutional Provisions For Water in India

State Subject (Entry 17, List II):

Water primarily falls under state jurisdiction—including drinking water,

canals, irrigation, water storage, drainage, and hydropower.

Union List (Entry 56, List I):

Parliament can oversee and regulate inter-state rivers and river valleys
when required for national interest.

Article 262 – Water Dispute Resolution:

Allows Parliament to establish mechanisms for settling inter-state river

disputes and restricts Supreme Court involvement when a tribunal is set
up.

Right to Water under Article 21:

The Supreme Court has interpreted the Right to Life to include the right
to safe and clean drinking water (e.g., Subhash Kumar vs. State of Bihar,
1991).

Directive Principles & Fundamental Duties:

 Article 48A: The State must protect environmental resources,

including water bodies.
 Article 51A(g): Citizens must protect the natural environment.

Local Governance Empowerment:

Articles 243G and 243W empower Panchayats and Municipalities to

manage local water supply, irrigation systems, and sanitation as per the
11th and 12th Schedules.

Legislative Framework for Water Management in India

Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956:

Formulated under Article 262 to resolve conflicts over inter-state river

water through tribunals (e.g., Cauvery, Krishna).

River Boards Act, 1956:

Provides for creation of River Boards for joint river basin regulation,
although it has never been fully implemented.
Environment Protection Act, 1986:

Serves as an umbrella law for environmental protection, under which the

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 operates through
central and state pollution control boards.

Institutional Framework for Water Management in India

Ministry of Jal Shakti (MoJS):

Established in 2019 as the central authority responsible for policy,

coordination, and flagship programs like PMKSY, Jal Jeevan Mission, and
Namami Gange.

Central Water Commission (CWC):

A top technical agency handling surface water assessment, flood

forecasting, dam safety, and irrigation advisory services.

Central Ground Water Board (CGWB):

Oversees groundwater monitoring, aquifer mapping, and

recommendations for sustainable extraction.

State Water Resources/Irrigation Departments:

Execute state-level irrigation projects, manage intra-state water

governance, and work with central schemes.

Decentralized Institutions:

Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies manage local water provisions,

sanitation, and infrastructure.

Water Users’ Associations (WUAs):

Encourage farmer-led irrigation management under programs like

CADWM.
Major Government Initiatives for Water Management in India

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) (2015):

A comprehensive irrigation and water conservation initiative comprising

AIBP, CADWM, Per Drop More Crop, and watershed development
activities.

Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM) (2019):

Aims to provide tap water connections to all rural homes.

Emphasizes water source sustainability, community involvement, and IoT-
enabled water quality monitoring.

Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020):

Targets groundwater recharge and management in seven highly stressed

states through community-driven water budgeting.

Namami Gange Programme (2014):

Focuses on sewage treatment, pollution control, biodiversity protection,

and riverfront restoration along the Ganga.

Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019):

Promotes water conservation activities like rainwater harvesting, check

dams, and reuse-oriented awareness campaigns.

National Water Mission (NWM):

Part of NAPCC, aimed at improving water-use efficiency by 20%,

promoting integrated basin management and better water data systems.

National Aquifer Mapping & Management Programme (NAQUIM):

Led by CGWB to create scientific aquifer maps using GIS and satellite data
to guide groundwater extraction.
State & Community-Led Models:

 Rajasthan’s Mukhya Mantri Jal Swavlamban Abhiyan

 Hivre Bazar (Maharashtra) – model village in water conservation
 Neeru-Chettu (Andhra Pradesh) – ecological and irrigation
integration

Challenges Related to Water Management in India

Over-Extraction of Groundwater:

India uses more groundwater than any other country; many states,
including Punjab and Haryana, have extraction rates exceeding natural
recharge.

High Dependence on Monsoons & Erratic Availability:

Most rainfall arrives in a short monsoon period, causing seasonal floods

and droughts.
Around 51 million hectares face drought risk, while 40 million hectares
are flood-prone.

Water Pollution and Depleting Quality:

Nearly 70% of surface water is polluted.

Out of 38,000 MLD of sewage generated daily, only 11,500 MLD is
treated, contributing to the pollution of rivers like the Yamuna and
Ganga.

Inefficient Agricultural Water Use:

Agriculture consumes ~80% of India’s water, yet irrigation efficiency is

low because flood irrigation dominates.
Micro-irrigation covers only about 11% of irrigated areas.

Institutional and Governance Challenges:

Overlapping responsibilities among central, state, and local agencies slow
decision-making.
Water disputes often remain unresolved for decades.

Urban Water Stress and Infrastructure Deficits:

Cities such as Delhi and Bengaluru face severe shortages.

Nearly 30% of urban water supply is lost due to leakages, theft, and
outdated infrastructure.

Global Best Practices in Water Management

Israel (Leading in Water Use Efficiency):

Israel excels in wastewater recycling—treating and reusing over 85% of

it—mainly for agriculture, and is a global pioneer of drip irrigation.

Singapore (Integrated Urban Water Management):

Operates through a “Four National Taps” strategy—local catchments,

imports, NEWater (recycled water), and desalination—supported by
smart water tracking and leakage control.

Australia (Community-Driven Water Governance):

The Murray–Darling Basin Plan reflects strong basin-level governance,

water markets, and community participation.

Netherlands (Living with Water Approach):

The Room for the River strategy prioritizes controlled flooding zones over
raising embankments, aligning flood protection with ecological
preservation.

South Africa (Legal Right to Water):

Recognizes water access as a constitutional right; the National Water Act

treats water as a public trust.
In 2017, New Zealand’s parliament passed the Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui
River Claims Settlement) Act 2017, which declares that Whanganui River
— referred to as the entity Te Awa Tupua — is a “legal person.” That
means the river “owns itself”: it has legal rights, powers, duties and
liabilities, similar to a person or a corporation.

Way Forward for Water Management in India

Promote Water Use Efficiency (WUE) in Agriculture:

Expand micro-irrigation systems and integrate IoT-based irrigation under

PMKSY.

Strengthen Groundwater Governance:

Implement state groundwater laws, expand aquifer mapping, promote

community water budgeting, and improve recharge structures.

Modernize Urban Water Infrastructure:

Repair outdated pipelines, adopt 24×7 supply models like Odisha’s Drink-
from-Tap, and introduce dual pipelines for treated water reuse.

Integrated River Basin Management:

Activate the River Boards Act, encourage cooperative federalism in water

sharing, and adopt basin-based planning in line with the National Water
Policy (2012).

Improve Water Quality Monitoring & Pollution Control:

Enhance sewage treatment capacity, enforce pollution laws strictly, and

scale real-time monitoring on polluted rivers.

Enhance Community Participation and Public Awareness:

Empower WUAs, revive traditional water systems, and increase water

literacy through schools, panchayats, and media.
Recent Development

The Union Cabinet recently approved the Modernization of Command

Area Development and Water Management (M-CADWM) as a sub-scheme
of Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) for the period 2025-
2026 with an initial total outlay of Rs.1600 crore.
SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) is a computer-based
system that gathers and analyzes real-time data to monitor and control
equipment that deals with critical and time-sensitive materials or events.

About the Modernisation of Command Area Development and Water

Management (M-CADWM) Scheme
Key Objectives and Features
 Modernization of Irrigation Systems:

o Goal: Improve irrigation water supply infrastructure to ensure water

reaches designated farming clusters from existing sources (e.g.,

canals).
o Scope: Focus on modernizing the backend infrastructure for micro-

irrigation and water supply up to 1 hectare per farm via underground

pressurized piped irrigation systems.

o Technologies:
 SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition): For real-time
monitoring and control.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Used for efficient water accounting and
management, improving Water Use Efficiency (WUE) at the farm
level.
 Increased Agricultural Productivity: The modernization will increase
agriculture production and productivity, leading to higher income for
farmers.
 Irrigation Management Transfer (IMT):
 o Sustainability: The scheme includes the Irrigation Management
Transfer (IMT) to Water User Societies (WUS), which will be
responsible for the management of irrigation assets.
o Support: WUS will be given handholding support for five years,

helping them connect with economic entities such as Farmer

Producer Organisations (FPOs) or Primary Agricultural Cooperative
Societies (PACS).
 Youth Engagement in Farming: Attract youth to adopt modern

irrigation techniques and engage in farming, helping to modernize

agricultural practices across the country.
Implementation Strategy
 Pilot Phase (2025-26): Challenge funding to states for projects
across different agro-climatic zones.
o Lessons will shape the National Plan for Command Area
Development.
 Full-scale Launch (From April 2026): Aligned with 16th Finance
Commission period.

Key data on groundwater depletion in India

 According to the CGWB’s 2025 “National Compilation of Dynamic

Ground Water Resources of India,” about 25% of India’s ~6,762
groundwater blocks are now categorised as “over-exploited,”
“critical,” or “semi-critical.”
 Nationally, groundwater extraction stands at about 60.6% of the
total annual replenishable groundwater resource.
 In 2024, total annual groundwater recharge of India was estimated
around 446.9 Billion Cubic Metres (BCM), compared with previous
years a marginal decline.
 Some states and districts are drastically over-drawing groundwater.
For example, in the northwestern states, extraction frequently
exceeds 100% of recharge.
Worst-affected States & Major Problem Zones

Based on recent CGWB data and other studies, some of the most stressed
states / regions are:

State / Region Problem / Key Findings

Highest groundwater extraction in India —

156.36% of its annual groundwater resource,
Punjab
making a large share of its assessment units
“over-exploited.”

Very large area under “over-exploited” category

Rajasthan due to arid climate and poor recharge; many of
its blocks use more water than can be recharged.

Extraction at 136.75 % of annual recharge; many

Haryana
blocks “over-exploited” or “critical.”

Urban demand + over-extraction has pushed

Delhi / NCR region many blocks into critical or over-exploited
categories.

Tamil Nadu, parts of

Over-exploitation due to low natural recharge,
Peninsular India (hard-
poor aquifer storage & high demand.
rock aquifers)

Also, a widely cited study covering 2003–2020 estimated that Punjab and
Haryana together lost about 64.6 BCM of groundwater over those 17
years — a clear sign of rapid depletion.

Data Interpretation

 The “overall national groundwater extraction ~60% of recharge”

sounds okay on paper, but it masks enormous regional disparities.
Some states are vastly over-exploiting, others remain relatively
safe.
  Groundwater levels (i.e. depth to water) are falling in many areas:
as per the 2024 CGWB data, a majority of monitored wells — ~61%
— showed a decline in water level compared to the previous year.
Even where “recharge” as a total number appears stable or rising at
national scale, local conditions differ wildly (rainfall patterns,
aquifer type, usage intensity), so many aquifers remain under
severe stress.
 There is heavy dependence on groundwater for irrigation and
drinking water — so depletion in stressed states has major
implications for water security, agriculture, and livelihoods.
Reported groundwater decline rates

 In the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB)’s classification, a

“significant long-term decline” is often defined as 10–20 cm per
year.
 In some small pockets (especially in cities), depths have dropped by
4 metres or more over a decade or more, as per monitoring by
CGWB and other local agencies.

Important outcomes

 These are average or region-specific rates — they cannot be

generalized for the entire country. Some areas show little or no
decline (or even rise in groundwater), while others show rapid
depletion.
 “Decline in groundwater storage” (measured via aquifer storage,
water-table depth) may not directly translate to “years of water
supply left,” because recharge, pumping, rainfall variability, and
aquifer characteristics differ widely.
 Some measurements are over long timescales (decades), so short-
term fluctuations (seasonal recharge, monsoon) may mask or
exaggerate underlying trends.

Assam

 The Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) 2024 report for Assam
estimates total annual groundwater recharge at ~ 27.21 billion
 cubic metres (bcm), and total “annual extractable groundwater
resources” at ~ 20.89 bcm.
 Current annual groundwater extraction (for all uses) is fairly low
compared to extractable resource: ~ 2.64 bcm, which corresponds
to a “stage of groundwater extraction” of ~ 12.6%.
 Out of 245 “assessment units” (blocks) in Assam, 244 are classified
as “Safe” (i.e. extraction < 70% of resource), and only one —
Guwahati / Kamrup (Metro) — is classed “Semi-Critical” (extraction
between 70-90%).
 However, groundwater “extractable resources” seem to be
decreasing: a recent report noted that Assam lost about 800 crore
cubic metres of extractable groundwater over the last decade
(declined from ~ 2,800 crore m³ in 2013 to ~ 2,000 crore m³ in
2023).
 Groundwater quality guidance seems good for many parts of
Assam: a 2024 report on groundwater quality categorized Assam
(and other Northeast states) as “excellent for irrigation.”

Data Interpretation

 The low “extraction rate” (12–13%) suggests that, at a statewide

scale, groundwater use is well below the natural recharge. That is a
positive sign compared to over-exploited states elsewhere in India.
 But decline in “extractable resources” over time suggests possible
reduction in recharge, changes in aquifer health, or over-estimation
of past resources — indicating emerging stress.
 Even though most blocks are “safe”, localized stress exists
(Guwahati Metro is “semi-critical”), and “safe” status doesn’t
guarantee good supply everywhere — variations in rainfall,
recharge, urbanization, and water demand may still produce
shortages at a local level.
 Groundwater quality, though “good for irrigation” broadly, may still
vary locally; and for drinking water, issues like contamination
(naturally occurring or anthropogenic) may not be captured in the
broad “irrigation-quality” rating.
Recent Groundwater Resource Numbers for Assam (2023–2024)

Indicator Value / Status (2024)

Total annual groundwater recharge 27.21 billion m³ (bcm)

Annual extractable groundwater

20.89 bcm
resource (after natural discharge etc.)

Current annual groundwater extraction

2.64 bcm
(all uses)

Stage of groundwater extraction

~ 12.6%
(extraction ÷ extractable resource)

Net groundwater available for future ~ 18.23 bcm (after allocation for
use domestic use up to 2025)

Number of assessment units / blocks in

245
state

Blocks classified as “Safe” 244 (≈ 99.6%)

1 — that is Guwahati / Kamrup

Blocks in “Semi-Critical” condition
(Metro) Urban block

Blocks classified “Critical” or “Over- 0 (none) according to 2024

exploited” state-level report

 On a state-wide average, Assam seems to have a low groundwater

extraction pressure (12–13%), which suggests ample groundwater
availability for now.
 The classification of almost all blocks as “Safe” is a positive sign
compared to many other Indian states.
 The only “Semi-Critical” unit is the urban block covering
Guwahati/Kamrup (Metro), reflecting higher stress in the
urbanized zone.
  The lack of “Critical” or “Over-exploited” blocks suggests that large-
scale over-exploitation (as seen in many north-western states) is for
now not typical in Assam (at the block-level classification).
 However, state-level data can mask local variation: there may be
local aquifer stress, quality issues, or seasonal shortage that are
not visible in the state average. Also, “safe” status is based on
comparison of extraction vs “extractable resource” which itself is an
estimate depending on recharge data and assumptions.

Q. The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater.

What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly
discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.
(Answer in 250 words)

Freshwater scarcity is a significant global issue, driven by both natural

factors and human activities. The United Nations recognizes access
to clean water and sanitation as a fundamental necessity
under Sustainable Development Goal 6 (SDG-6). As populations grow and
climate change worsens water shortages, innovative technologies are
essential for securing sustainable freshwater sources.
Reasons Why the World is Facing an Acute Shortage of Clean and Safe
Freshwater:
Increasing Population: The rising global population escalates the demand
for freshwater for drinking, sanitation, and agriculture.
For example: The world’s population is expected to increase by nearly 2
billion persons in the next 30 years, from the current 8 billion to 7
billion in 2050 and could peak at nearly 10.4 billion in the mid-2080s.
Growing Agricultural Demand: Agriculture consumes 70% of global
freshwater, and rising food demand is increasing the strain on these
water resources, challenging sustainable management.
For example: According to estimates compiled by the FAO, by 2050 we
will need to produce 60 per cent more food to feed a world population
of 3 billion.
Climate Change: Altered weather patterns disrupt precipitation and
freshwater availability, resulting in droughts in many regions.
Pollution: Contamination from industrial runoff, agricultural chemicals,
and untreated sewage diminishes the availability of safe freshwater.
Overexploitation of Groundwater: Excessive extraction leads to the
depletion of aquifers.
For example: The Central Groundwater Board of India estimates that
about 17% of groundwater blocks
are overexploited while 5% and 14% blocks are at critical and semi-critical
stages, respectively.
Rapid Urbanization: Increased urban populations place significant
pressure on existing water supply systems.
Ineffective Water Management Policies: Poor management practices
contribute to wastage and inequitable distribution of water resources.
Alternative Technologies to Solve the Water Crisis:
Atmospheric Water Generation: This technology extracts moisture from
the air to produce potable water.
For example: The Watergen device, used in various countries can
generate water from humidity in the air, providing an alternative source
in arid regions.
Desalination Technologies: Desalination involves converting seawater into
freshwater, making it suitable for drinking and irrigation.
For example: The Ras Al Khair desalination plant in Saudi
Arabia produces 1,036,000 m3/day of freshwater per day.
Greywater Recycling: This technology treats and reuses greywater
(wastewater from sinks, showers, and washing machines) for non-potable
purposes.
For instance: Residential buildings can utilize greywater systems to
irrigate gardens and flush toilets, significantly reducing freshwater use.
Rainwater Harvesting: This method captures and stores rainwater for
reuse, particularly in areas with seasonal rainfall.
Solar-Powered Water Purification: This technology uses solar energy to
purify water, making it safe for drinking.
Nanotechnology-Based Filtration: This advanced filtration
uses nanomaterials to remove contaminants from water at a
molecularlevel.
For example: Researchers have developed nanofilters that can effectively
remove heavy metals and pathogens from water, improving water quality
in regions affected by industrial pollution.
Fog Harvesting: This method captures water droplets from fog
using specialized nets, providing a source of freshwater in fog-prone
areas.
For example: In Chile, fog nets are used in the Atacama Desert to collect
moisture from fog, supplying water to local communities where
conventional sources are scarce.
Three Alternative Technologies with merits and demerits:
Desalination Technologies: Desalination technologies
convert seawater into freshwater by removing salt and impurities,
providing an alternative water source in regions facing freshwater
scarcity.
For example: The Sorek desalination plant in Israel supplies
approximately 20% of the country’s drinking water.
Merits: Provides a reliable water source for coastal regions.
Demerits: It requires high energy consumption and raises environmental
concerns related to brine disposal, which can harm marine ecosystems.
Rainwater Harvesting: This technique captures and stores rainwater for
reuse.
For example: Traditional Johads in Rajasthan effectively recharge
groundwater and provide irrigation water.
Merits: It is simple to implement and reduces reliance on groundwater.
Demerits: Its effectiveness is limited in regions with low rainfall and
necessitates adequate storage infrastructure.
Wastewater Recycling and Reuse: This involves treating and reusing
wastewater for various applications.
For example: Singapore’s NEWater project treats wastewater for
industrial use and potable water, meeting about 40% of the country’s
water needs.
Merits: It conserves freshwater by recycling used water.
Demerits: The initial setup costs are high, and there may be public
resistance to using treated wastewater.
Tackling freshwater scarcity demands an integrated strategy combining
innovative technologies, robust policies, and active community
involvement. Solutions like desalination, rainwater harvesting,
and wastewater recycling, alongside government initiatives and public
awareness, can enhance water resource management and ensure
sustainable access.