PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT REPORT
on

p-n Junction Diode

SUBMITTED TO :[Link] sir

SUBMITTED BY: Yash sharma
XII-A
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Yash sharma , student of class

XII has successfully completed the research on the
project carried out under the guidance of Mr. Manish
sir (PGT Physics) and our esteemed principal Mrs.
Anisha malik during the year 2025-26 in particular
fulfilment of the curriculum of Central Board of
Secondary Education (CBSE), New Delhi.

SIGNATURE OF EXAMINER
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the accomplishmentof this project successfully,
many people have bestowed upon me their blessings
and the heart pledged support, this time I am utilizing
to thank all the people who have been concerned
with this project.
Primarily, I would like to thank God for being able to
complete this project with success. Then, I would like to
thank my Principal Mrs. Anisha malik and Physics
teacher Manish sir for her valuable guidance.
 CONTENTS

i. Introduction
ii. p-Type Semiconductor
iii. n-Type Semiconductor
iv. Formation of p-n Junction
v. Forward biasing in p-n Junction
vi. Reverse Biasing in p-n junction
vii. Uses of p-n Junction
viii. Limitations of p-n Junction
ix. Conclusion
x. Bibliography
INTRODUCTION
Semiconductor
materials are a class of materials with electrical
conductivity between conductors and insulators. Key features
includea crystalline structure, a band gap that allows control of
electrical properties, and the ability to be doped for specific
conductivity modifications. Silicon and germanium are common
semiconductors, and advancements in semiconductor
technology underpin modern electronics, from transistors and
integrated circuits to solar cells and LEDs.
A p-n junction is a boundary or interface between two
semiconductor materials—one doped with positive charge
carriers (p-type) and the other with negative charge carriers (n-
type). This junction forms the basis of many electronic
components. Under forward bias, it allows current flow, while
under reverse bias, it acts as a barrier. P-n junctions are
fundamental to the operation of diodes, transistors, and other
semiconductor devices in electronic circuits.
p-Type Semiconductor
Here, a trivalent atom from group III elements such as Boron,
Aluminium, Gallium and Indium is added to the Germanium
or Silicon substrate. As Germanium atom has four valence
electrons, one electron position of the dopant in the
Germanium crystal lattice will remain vacant. The missing
electron position in the covalent bond is denoted as a hole. To
make complete covalent bonding with all four neighbouring
atoms, the dopant is in need of one more electron. These
dopants can accept electrons from the neighbouring atoms.
Therefore, this impurity is called an acceptor impurity. The
energy level of the hole created by each impurity atom is just
above the valence band and is called the acceptor-energy
level. For each acceptor atom, there will be a hole in the
valence band in addition to the thermally generated holes. In
such an extrinsic semiconductor, holes are the majority
carriers and thermally generated electrons are minority
carriers. The semiconductor thus formed is called a p – type
semiconductor.
n-Type Semiconductor
A n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure Germanium
(or Silicon) crystal with a dopant from group V pentavalent
elements like Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony. The dopant
has five valence electrons while the Germanium atom has four
valence electrons. During the process of doping, a few of the
Germanium atoms are replaced by the group V dopants. Four of
the five valence electrons of the impurity atom are bound with the
4 valence electrons of the neighbouring replaced Germanium
atom. The fifth valence electron of the impurity atom will be
loosely attached with the nucleus as it has not formed the
covalent bond. The energy level of the loosely attached fifth
electron from the dopant is found just below the conduction band
edge and is called the donor energy level. The group V
pentavalent impurity atoms donate electrons to the conduction
band and are called donor impurities. Therefore, each impurity
atom provides one extra electron to the conduction band in
addition to the thermally generated electrons.
 These thermally generated electrons leave holes in valence band.
Hence, the majority carriers of current in an n-type
Semiconductor are electrons and the minority carriers are holes.
Such a semiconductor doped with a pentavalent impurity is
called an n-type semiconductor.

Formation of p-n Junction

A p-n junction is a single crystal of Silicon or Germanium
doped in such a manner that one half of it acts as a p-type
semiconductor while the other half acts as n-type
semiconductor. Two processes occur during the formation
of semiconductors, namely diffusion and drift. As soon as
the p-n junction is formed, due to concentration gradient,
holes diffuse from p to n side and electrons diffuse from n
to p side leaving behind acceptor ions on p-side and donor
ions on n-side which are immobile. This diffusion of
majority charge carriers across the junction gives rise to an
electric current from p to n side known as diffusion
current. The small region in the vicinity of the junction
which is depleted of free charge carriers and has only
immobile ions is called depletion layer. The accumulation
of negative charges in p-region and positive charges in n-
region sets up a potential difference across the
 junction which acts as a barrier and opposes further diffusion of
electrons. This barrier is known as potential barrier. The
barrier potential sets up a barrier field from n to p side which
pushes the electrons towards n-side and holes towards p- side.
This current set up by barrier field from n to p side is known as
drift current. In equilibrium state, diffusion current is equal to
drift current.

Forward Biasing of p-n

Junction
When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor
diode in such a way that the p-side is connected to the positive
terminal of the battery and the n-side is connected to the negative
terminal, then the semiconductor diode is said to be forward-
biased.
In this case, the built-in potential of the diode and thus the width
of the depletion region decreases, and the height of the barrier gets
reduced.
Initially current increases slowly, almost negligibly, till voltage
crosses a certain value called threshold or cut-in voltage.
After cut-in voltage current increases rapidly for small increase
in bias voltage. Resistance across the junction is quite low.
Reverse Biasing of p-n
Junction
When we apply the external voltage across the semiconductor
diode in such a way that the positive terminal of the battery is
connected to its n-side and the negative terminal of the battery
is connected to the p-side of the diode, then it is said to be in
the condition of reverse bias.

When the diode is reverse biased, the reverse bias voltage

produces a very small current(in microamperes) which
almost remains constant with bias. This small current is
called reverse saturation current, which is due to the drift of
minority charge carries.
When reverse bias voltage reaches a sufficiently high value,
reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This
voltage at which breakdown of diode occurs is known as
breakdown voltage or peak inverse voltage.
Uses of p-n Junction
1) Rectifiers
Themain application of p-n junction diode is in rectification
circuits. These circuits are used to describe the conversion of a.c
signals to d.c in power supplies. Diode rectifier gives an
alternating voltage which pulsates in accordance with time. The
filter smooths the pulsation in the voltage and to produce d.c
voltage, a regulator is used which removes the ripples. a)Half
Wave Rectifier
In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is
rectified. When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it
gives little resistance and when it is reversed biased it
provides high resistance. During one-half cycles, the diode
is forward biased when the input voltage is applied and in
the
 opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During alternate half-
cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

b)Full Wave Rectifier

The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input.
When the p-n junction is forward biased, the diode offers low
resistance and when it is reverse biased it gives high
resistance. The circuit is designed in such a manner that in
the first half cycle if the diode is forward biased then in the
second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.

2) Zener Diode
3)A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is
designed to
4)operate in the reverse direction. A Zener Diode, also known as a
breakdown
5)diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed
to operate in
6)A Zener diode is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is
designed to
7)operate in the reverse direction. A Zener Diode, also known as a
breakdown
8)diode, is a heavily doped semiconductor device that is designed
to operate in A Zener Diode, also referred to as a breakdown
diode, is a specially doped semiconductor device engineered to
function in the reverse direction. When the voltage across a
Zener diode’s terminals is reversed and reaches the Zener
Voltage (also known as the knee voltage), the junction
experiences a breakdown, allowing current to flow in the
opposite direction. This phenomenon, known as the Zener Effect,
is a key characteristic of Zener diodes. When the input voltage is
higher than the Zener breakage voltage, the voltage across the
resistor drops resulting in a short circuit, this can be avoided by
using the Zener diode.
3) Photodiodes
Photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to
produce an electric current. They are also called a photo-detector, a
light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are designed to work
in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon,
Germanium and Indium gallium arsenide.
4)Light Emitting Diodes(LEDs)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
light when an electric current flows through it. When current passes
through an LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in
the process. LEDs allow the current to flow in the forward direction
and blocks the current in the reverse direction.
Light-emitting diodes are heavily doped p-n junctions. Based on the
semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an LED will
emit coloured light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward
biased. As shown in the figure, an LED is encapsulated with a
transparent cover so that emitted light can come out.

Limitations Of p-n Junction

While p-n junctions are fundamental to the operation of many
electronic devices, they do have certain limitations. Here are some key
limitations associated with p-n junctions:

Temperature Sensitivity:

The electrical characteristics of p-n junctions are temperature-

dependent. Changes in temperature can affect the mobility of
charge carriers and alter the performance of semiconductor
devices.

Breakdown Voltage:
P-n junctions have a breakdown voltage, beyond which the
junction can experience a sudden increase in current flow,
potentially damaging the device. Special precautions, such
as adding protective components, are necessary to prevent
breakdown
Reverse Bias Leakage Current:

Even in reverse bias conditions, a small leakage current may

exist across the p-n junction. This leakage can limit the
effectiveness of certain applications, particularly in high-
precision circuits.

Cost of Manufacturing:

The fabrication of high-quality p-n junctions, especially in

materials like silicon, can involve complex processes,
contributing to the cost of manufacturing semiconductor
devices.
Conclusion
Inconclusion, p-n junctions represent a foundational and versatile
element in the realm of semiconductor physics and electronic device
engineering. Through the intentional combination of p-type and n-
type semiconductors, these junctions enable the controlled flow of
electrical current, forming the basis for a plethora of electronic
components. The ability to manipulate the behavior of p-n junctions
through forward and reverse biasing has paved the way for the
development of essential devices such as diodes, transistors, and
integrated circuits. These devices, in turn, have become the building
blocks of modern electronics, influencing various industries and
technologies. While p-n junctions offer remarkable advantages,
including their role in energy-efficient light-emitting diodes (LEDs),
solar cells, and the precision control of electronic signals, they are
not without limitations. Temperature sensitivity, breakdown voltage
concerns, and manufacturing challenges are among the factors that
engineers and scientists continually strive to address. In practical
terms, the applications of p-n junctions are extensive, ranging from
power supplies and communication devices to sensors and renewable
energy technologies. As research advances and technology evolves,
the limitations of p-n junctions are being mitigated, and innovations
are expanding the horizons of their applications. In summary, the
significance of p-n junctions in the field of electronics cannot be
overstated. Their fundamental role in shaping the landscape of
modern technology underscores their importance, and ongoing
research and development aim to harness their potential while
addressing existing limitations.
Bibliography
[Link]
[Link]
NCERT TextbookClass – XII
NCERT PhysicsLabManual
S.L. Arora