Module 3
Rolling
Rolling is a metal forming process in which the thickness of the work is reduced by
compressive forces exerted by two rolls rotating in opposite direction.
Basic Principle of Rolling:
Rolling is a metal forming process in which a metal workpiece is passed between two or
more rotating rolls, which apply compressive forces to reduce thickness, change cross-
section, or improve surface finish. The metal plastically deforms under the rolling pressure
while maintaining approximately constant volume, flowing in the direction of roll rotation.
Proper control of roll speed, gap, and friction ensures uniform deformation and desired
dimensions.
General applications
Sheets and Plates: Steel sheets, aluminum foils, copper sheets.
Structural Sections: I-beams, channels, angles, rails.
Pipes and Tubes: Seamless and welded tubes. Flat rolling
Wire and Rods: Steel wires, aluminum rods.
Automotive & Aerospace Parts: Panels, strips, and structural components.
Packaging Materials: Aluminum foils, metal sheets for cans and containers.
Important terminologies:
Bloom: It has a square cross section 150 mm x 150 mm or more.
Slab: It is rolled from an ingot or a bloom and has a rectangular cross section of 250
mm width or more and thickness 40 mm or more.
Billet: It is rolled from a bloom and is square in cross-section with dimensions 40mm
on a side or more.
Blooms are rolled into structural shapes like rails for railroad tracks.
Billets are rolled into bars, rods. They become raw materials for machining, wire
drawing, forging, extrusion etc. Slabs are rolled into plates, sheets, and strips. Hot
rolled plates are generally used in shipbuilding, bridges, boilers, welded structures for
various heavy machines, and many other products.
Characteristics of Hot Rolling
•Process carried out above the metal’s recrystallization temperature.
•Reduces hardness and improves ductility.
•Enables large deformation with lower rolling forces.
•Removes internal porosity and refines grain structure.
•Produces oxidized (scale) surface finish due to high temperature.
•Offers less dimensional accuracy compared to cold rolling.
•Commonly used as a primary forming process before further finishing.
Applications of Hot Rolling
•Manufacturing of plates, sheets, and strips for structural use.
•Production of I-beams, channels, rails, and rods.
•Used in automobile frames, shipbuilding, and pipelines.
•Suitable for bulk production of semi-finished products.
•Provides feedstock for cold rolling and forging operations.
Characteristics of Cold Rolling
•Performed below recrystallization temperature.
•Results in high surface finish and tight dimensional control.
•Increases strength and hardness through strain hardening.
•Produces better mechanical properties and surface quality.
•Requires higher forces and power than hot rolling.
•Often followed by annealing to restore ductility.
Strain Hardening:The phenomenon in which a metal becomes stronger and harder
when plastically deformed, due to an increase in dislocation density that restricts
further movement of dislocations.
Applications of Cold Rolling
•Used for automotive body panels and home appliances.
•Manufacturing of steel strips, foils, and sheets.
•Production of precision tubes and electrical steel.
•Applied in aerospace and defense components requiring high accuracy.
•Used in construction and consumer goods for aesthetic finish and durability.
2. Cold Rolling
Basic Rolling Processes •Performed below recrystallization
temperature.
•Improves surface finish, strength, and
accuracy.
1. Hot Rolling •Commonly used for thin sheets and strips.
•Conducted above recrystallization •Applications: Automotive panels, household
temperature. appliances, and precision strips.
•Produces blooms, billets, and slabs from
ingots. 3. Warm Rolling
•Suitable for large deformation and bulk •Done at moderate temperatures
shaping.
(between hot and cold rolling).
•Applications: Plates, sheets, rails, beams, and
•Reduces rolling load and improves
rods for construction and shipbuilding.
ductility.
•Applications: Aluminum alloys and high-
strength steels where moderate strength
and ductility are needed.
4. Flat Rolling
•Used to reduce thickness of plates and sheets.
•Most widely practiced rolling process.
5. Shape Rolling
•Produces structural profiles like I-beams,
channels, and rails.
•Applications: I-beams, channels, angles, and T-
sections.
Specialized Rolling Processes
1. Ring Rolling
•Expands thick rings into larger diameters.
•Used in bearings, turbines, and pressure
vessels.
•Applications: Bearings, gears, flanges, and
aerospace rings.
2. Thread Rolling
•Forms threads on bolts or rods without
cutting.
•Produces stronger threads with good surface
finish.
•Manufacturing of bolts, screws, and fasteners.
3. Gear Rolling
•Used to form gear teeth by plastic
deformation.
•Ensures high precision and durability.
•Applied in automotive transmissions,
industrial gearboxes, and aerospace systems.
4. Tube Rolling
•Manufactures seamless tubes and pipes
using mandrels.
•Ensures uniform wall thickness and smooth
finish.
•Used for manufacturing seamless and welded tubes.
•Common in boiler, heat exchanger, and oil & gas pipelines.
Rolling mills
Two high rolling mill: This type of rolling mill consists of two
rolls rotating in opposite directions.
Roll diameters: 0.6 to 1.4 m
Three high rolling mill: In this case, there are three rolls
one above the other.
The top two rolls will be used for first reduction and the
sheet is shifted to the bottom two rolls and further
reduction is done. This cycle is continued till actual
reduction is attained.
Common rolling defects, their causes, and remedies
Defect Causes Remedies
Uneven roll gap, excess reduction at Adjust roll gap, use edge drop rolls,
Wavy Edges
edges reduce reduction per pass
Tensile stress in center due to low Use more ductile material, reduce
Zipper Crack
ductility or high reduction rolling speed and reduction per pass
Uneven deformation; center stretches Use proper lubrication, reduce roll
Alligatoring
more than edges bite, ensure uniform heating
High tensile stress at edges, improper Trim edges, use edge rollers, proper
Edge Cracks
roll alignment roll alignment
Surface defects, high friction, or Clean material, apply lubrication,
Surface Cracks
impurities in material control reduction
Wire, rod, bar drawing
In this bulk forming process, a wire, rod, bar are pulled through a die hole reducing
their cross-section area.
Principle of Wire Drawing:
Wire drawing is a metal forming process in which a metal rod or wire is pulled through a die
of smaller diameter to reduce its cross-section. The process works on the principle of plastic
deformation under tensile stress, where the applied tensile force exceeds the yield
strength of the material. The volume of the metal remains approximately constant, so as
the cross-sectional area decreases, the length increases, producing a long, thin wire with
improved surface finish and mechanical properties.
Stages of Wire Drawing
[Link] and Annealing: Prepare the wire and improve ductility.
[Link]: Apply lubricant to reduce friction in the die.
[Link] through Dies: Wire is pulled through successive dies to reduce the diameter gradually.
[Link] Annealing (if required): Restore ductility for further drawing.
[Link] Finishing: Inspect, coil, and clean the finished wire.
Advantages
•Produces long, uniform, and precise wires.
•Improves surface finish and mechanical strength.
•Can produce various diameters and shapes.
•Economical for mass production of wires and cables.
Wire, rod, bar drawing
Always a cold working
process
Semi Die angle
To have a successful wire drawing operation, drawing stress should be less than yield
strength of the drawn metal.
Maximum possible reduction, rmax is 0.632 (theoretical maximum limit)
Reductions of 0.5-0.3 per pass seem to be possible in industrial operations
True strain in wire drawing under ideal deformation (no friction and
redundant work) is given by,
Under ideal deformation, the stress required in wire drawing is given by,
is the average flow stress corresponding to ε mentioned in above equation.
K= strength coefficient, n= strain hardening coefficient
Drawing force F = Af σd
The power required for drawing is given by multiplying drawing force with exit velocity
of the workpiece
Q. Wire is drawn through a draw die with entrance angle 15°. Starting
diameter is 2.5 mm and final diameter 2 mm. Consider ideal condition. The metal
has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa and a strain-hardening exponent n = 0.2.
Determine the draw stress and draw force in this operation.
Solution
Extrusion
Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or
compressed to flow through a die hole to produce a desired cross-sectional shape.
Example: squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube.
Working Principle: A billet or workpiece is placed in a container and a ram or screw
applies compressive force, pushing the material through the die opening. The metal
plastically deforms and emerges as a product with the die’s cross-sectional shape,
maintaining approximately constant volume.
Advantages :
- Variety of shapes are possible, especially using hot extrusion
- Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
- Close tolerances are possible, mainly in cold extrusion
Types of extrusion:
Direct or forward extrusion, Indirect or backward extrusion
Direct extrusion: - A metal billet is first loaded into a container having die holes. A ram
compresses the material, forcing it to flow through the die holes.
In direct extrusion, a significant amount of friction exists between the billet surface
and the container walls, as the billet is forced to slide toward the die opening.
Because of the presence of friction, a substantial increase in the ram force is
required.
Indirect extrusion: In this type, the die is mounted to the ram and not on the container.
As the ram compresses the metal, it flows through the die hole on the ram side which
is in opposite direction to the movement of ram.
Since there is no relative motion between the billet and the container, there is no
friction at the interface, and hence the ram force is lower than in direct extrusion
Classification of Extrusion Processes
Type Description Typical Applications
Billet moves in the same
Direct (Forward) Extrusion Pipes, rods, bars
direction as ram
Indirect (Backward) Die moves toward the billet; Hollow tubes, seamless
Extrusion billet remains stationary pipes
Pressure applied via fluid to High-strength alloys, brittle
Hydrostatic Extrusion
reduce friction metals (Mg, Cu, Al)
Performed at elevated
Aluminum rods, copper
Hot Extrusion temperatures to reduce
busbars
force
Performed at or near room Fasteners, bolts, nuts, small
Cold Extrusion
temperature precision parts
High-speed extrusion using Aluminum cans, tubes,
Impact Extrusion
hammer or punch collapsible tubes
Defects during extrusion
Centerburst: A type of internal defect in metal
forming where cracks or voids develop along the
central axis of the workpiece due to excessive tensile
stress during deformation.
Piping: It is the formation of a sink hole in
the end of the billet.
Surface cracking: This defect results from high workpiece
temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface.
Extrusion Defects
Defect Cause Remedy / Prevention
Improper billet surface, oxidation,
Surface Cracks Clean billet, lubricate, smooth die edges
poor die design
Tensile stress along axis, high Preheat billet, reduce extrusion ratio, use
Central Cracks
extrusion ratio, low ductility ductile metals
Folds Metal flow irregularities at die entry Proper die design, reduce extrusion speed
Surface Roughness Poor lubrication or die finish Lubricate properly, polish die
Maintain and align dies, use hardened die
Die Marks Die wear or misalignment
materials
Folds
Shearing Operations
•Blanking: Part removed from sheet (product is blank)
•Punching: Hole made in sheet (product is scrap)
•Trimming & Notching: Excess removed
•Shear force depends on thickness × shear strength × perimeter
1. Parting: Cutting a sheet into two or more pieces by applying shearing force.
2. Notching: Removing a portion of metal from the edge or corner of a sheet.
3. Blanking: Punching out a flat piece (blank) from a sheet for further processing.
4. Piercing: Creating a hole in a sheet by punching out a small portion of metal.
5. Shearing: Cutting a sheet metal along a straight line without removing material.
Tube drawing
This operation is used to reduce the diameter or wall thickness of the seamless tubes
and pipes. Tube drawing can be done either with or without mandrel. The
simplest method uses no mandrel and is used for diameter reduction called as
tube sinking. But inside diameter and wall thickness cannot be controlled. So
mandrel is required.
Swaging:
Swaging is used to reduce the diameter of a tube or a rod at the end of the work
piece to create a tapered section.
• Mechanical deformation by repeated
impacts or blows
• It consists of dies
• Good surface qualities, better grain
structure, and higher tensile strength
Diameter Tube tapering Swaging to form
reduction of solid a groove on the
work tube