Forging
Grain Flow Comparison
Casting Machining Forging
Module 2
Metal forming:
Large set of manufacturing processes in which the material is deformed plastically to
take the shape of the die geometry. The tools used for such deformation are called die,
punch etc. depending on the type of process.
Plastic deformation: Stresses beyond yield strength of the workpiece material is
required.
Categories: Bulk metal forming, Sheet metal forming
General classification of metal forming processes
Classification of basic bulk forming processes
Bulk forming: It is a severe deformation process resulting in massive shape
change. The surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively small. Mostly done in
hot working conditions.
Rolling: In this process, the workpiece in the form of slab or plate is compressed
between two rotating rolls in the thickness direction, so that the thickness is
reduced. The rotating rolls draw the slab into the gap and compresses it. The final
product is in the form of sheet.
Forging: The workpiece is compressed between two dies containing shaped
contours. The die shapes are imparted into the final part.
Extrusion: In this, the workpiece is compressed or pushed into the die opening to
take the shape of the die hole as its cross section.
Wire or rod drawing: similar to extrusion, except that the workpiece is pulled
through the die opening to take the cross-section.
Cold working, warm working, hot working
Cold working: Generally done at room temperature or slightly below RT.
Advantages compared to hot forming:
(1) closer tolerances can be achieved; (2) good surface finish;
(3) because of strain hardening, higher strength and hardness is seen in part;
(4) grain flow during deformation provides the opportunity for desirable directional
properties;
(5) since no heating of the work is involved, furnace, fuel, electricity costs are
minimized,
(6) Machining requirements are minimum resulting in possibility of near net shaped
forming.
Disadvantages: (1) higher forces and power are required;
(2) strain hardening of the work metal limit the amount of forming that can be done,
(3) sometimes cold forming-annealing-cold forming cycle should be followed,
(4) the work piece is not ductile enough to be cold worked.
Warm working: In this case, forming is performed at temperatures just above room
temperature but below the recrystallization temperature.
The working temperature is taken to be 0.3 Tm where Tm is the melting point of the
workpiece.
Advantages: (1) enhanced plastic deformation properties, (2) lower forces required,
(3) intricate work geometries possible, (4) annealing stages can be reduced.
Hot working: Involves deformation above recrystallization temperature, between
0.5Tm to 0.75Tm.
Advantages: (1) significant plastic deformation can be given to the sample, (2)
significant change in workpiece shape, (3) lower forces are required, (4) materials
with premature failure can be hot formed, (5) absence of strengthening due to work
hardening.
Disadvantages: (1) shorter tool life, (2) poor surface finish, (3) lower dimensional
accuracy, (4) sample surface oxidation
Differentiating cold and hot forging
Feature Cold Forging Hot Forging
Performed at or near room Performed above the recrystallization
Temperature temperature; material work-hardens temperature; metal remains ductile and
during deformation. avoids work hardening.
Provides high dimensional precision Moderate accuracy; may require secondary
Dimensional Accuracy and tight tolerances; minimal machining machining due to thermal expansion and
needed. scaling.
Smooth surface finish due to lack of Surface is generally rough and may have
Surface Finish
oxidation; suitable for aesthetic parts. scale, requiring finishing operations.
Higher forming force needed due to Lower forming force as material is softened
Force Requirement
work hardening and low ductility. by heat, reducing stress on dies.
Production of fasteners, bolts, nuts, Manufacturing of shafts, gears, automotive
Applications washers, and small precision engine parts, aerospace components
components. requiring large deformation.
Forging
• It is a deformation process in which the work piece is compressed between two
dies, using either impact load or hydraulic load (or gradual load) to deform it.
• It is used to make a variety of high-strength components for automotive,
aerospace, and other applications. The components include engine crankshafts,
connecting rods, gears, aircraft structural components, jet engine turbine parts etc.
• Category based on temperature : cold, warm, hot forging
• Category based on presses:
impact load => forging hammer; gradual pressure => forging press
• Category based on type of forming:
Open die forging, impression die forging, flashless forging
Open die forging
In open die forging, the work piece is compressed between two flat platens or dies,
thus allowing the metal to flow without any restriction in the sideward direction
relative to the die surfaces.
In impression die forging, the die surfaces contain a shape that is given to the work
piece during compression, thus restricting the metal flow significantly. There is some
extra deformed material outside the die impression which is called as flash. This will
be trimmed off later.
In flashless forging, the work piece is fully restricted within the die and no flash is
produced. The amount of initial work piece used must be controlled accurately so that
it matches the volume of the die cavity.
Open die forging
A simplest example of open die forging is compression of billet between two flat die halves which is like
compression test. This also known as upsetting or upset forging. Basically height decreases and diameter
increases.
Under ideal conditions
force evaluation
F = Kf σf A
actual forging operation
Kf = forging shape factor
Start of compression Partial compression Completed compression
FORGING – OPERATIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS
Forging is a metal working process in which useful shape is obtained in solid
state by hammering or pressing metal.
• It is usually performed at elevated temperatures to increase plasticity and
reduce the force required.
Principle:
• Deformation of metal in solid state
• Controlled application of compressive forces
• Produces refined grain structure and improved mechanical properties.
Key Benefits:
•High strength and toughness
•Excellent fatigue resistance
•Minimal material wastage compared to machining
Types of operation in forging:
1. Upsetting
• This is applied to increase the cross-
sectional area of the stock at the
expense of its length.
• Force applied in a direction parallel
to the length axis.
2. Drawing
• Metal elongated with a reduction in the
cross-sectional area.
• Force applied in a direction perpendicular
to the length axis.
Classification Based on Method
Type of Forging Description Applications
Workpiece placed between Shafts, rings, large industrial
Open Die Forging
flat dies, free to flow laterally components
Closed Die (Impression) Workpiece deformed inside Gears, connecting rods,
Forging shaped die cavity wrenches
Slow squeezing action gives Turbine disks, automotive
Press Forging
better control components
Increases diameter of part by
Upset Forging Bolts, valves, couplings
compressing lengthwise
Workpiece passed through
Roll Forging Leaf springs, tapered shafts
rotating rolls
Types of Forging
1. Smith Forging:
• Also called hand forging.
• Metal is heated and shaped manually using hammer and anvil.
• Suitable for small and custom jobs.
2. Drop Forging:
• Involves dropping a hammer onto the workpiece
placed in a shaped die.
• Produces accurate and repeatable shapes.
• Commonly used in mass production
(e.g., wrenches, spanners).
Press Forging:
•Uses gradual squeezing action of a
hydraulic or mechanical press.
•Ensures better control over deformation
and grain structure.
•Suitable for large components.
Machine Forging (Upset Forging):
•Performed using a forging machine where the metal is compressed
axially.
•Increases the diameter of the workpiece.
•Ideal for making bolts, valves, and couplings.
Applications of Forging
•Automobile Industry: Crankshafts, gears, connecting rods
•Aerospace: Landing gear, turbine shafts, structural parts
•Power Sector: Turbine rotors, generator shafts
•Hardware: Hand tools, bolts, fasteners
Work Materials for Forging Operations
1. Ferrous Materials
•Carbon Steels (Low, Medium, High)
• Widely used due to good ductility and strength.
• Applications: bolts, shafts, gears.
•Alloy Steels
• Better strength, toughness, and wear resistance.
• Used in automotive and aerospace parts.
•Stainless Steels
• Good corrosion resistance and formability.
• Ideal for medical tools, valves, and fittings.
2. Non-Ferrous Materials
•Aluminum and its Alloys
• Lightweight, excellent ductility.
• Applications: aircraft components, automotive parts.
•Copper and its Alloys (Brass/Bronze)
• High ductility and thermal/electrical conductivity.
• Used for electrical contacts, plumbing components.
•Titanium Alloys
• High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistant.
• Widely used in aerospace, marine, and medical applications.
3. Superalloys and Others
•Nickel-based Superalloys
• Excellent high-temperature strength.
• Common in turbine blades and jet engine components.
•Magnesium Alloys
• Very lightweight, used in automotive and defense.
•Ideal forging materials have good ductility and low work-hardening rate.
FORGING DEFECTS
The different types of defects, occurring in the forging operations are as
follows:
1. Incomplete die filling.
2. Die misalignment.
3. Cold Shut: Appears as small cracks at the corner, or fillet radii too
small
4. Flakes: Internal rupture due to improper cooling of the large forging
5. Incomplete forging penetration- should forge on the press.
6. Hot shortness, due to high sulphur concentration in steel and nickel.
7. Pitted surface, due to oxide scales occurring at high temperature sticks
on the dies.
8. Buckling, in upsetting forging, due to high compressive stress.
9. Surface cracking, due to temperature differential between surface and
center, or excessive working of the surface at too low temperature.
10.. Microcracking due to residual stress.
[Link] Shift
[Link] grain flow
1. Smithy Forging
A manual or power hammer forging process performed in
a smithy using hammers and anvils. Used for small
components like hand tools, agricultural implements, and
custom parts.
2. Drop Forging
A die-forging process where a hammer is dropped onto a
heated or cold workpiece to shape it in a die. Used for high-
strength components like crankshafts, connecting rods, and
wrenches.
3. Press Forging
A forging process using a slow, continuous press to apply pressure and deform metal
gradually. Suitable for large or complex shapes like shafts, rolls, and aerospace structural
parts.