Dr.

SANJANA RAHMAN CAIE O LEVELS, IGCSE & A LEVELS

+8801711667174

BIOLOGY O LEVELS

CHAPTER 17 INHERITANCE
Types of Variation

 Variation means differences between individuals of the same species.

 Phenotypic variation = visible or measurable differences (e.g., height, skin

colour).

 Genotype variation means differences in the genetic makeup (alleles)

between individuals of the same species.

Causes of phenotypic variation:

1. Genetic variation – caused only by genes.

2. Environmental variation – caused by surroundings (diet, climate, lifestyle).

Examples of genetic variation in humans:

 Blood group

 Eye colour

 Tongue-rolling ability

 Free or attached earlobes

Environmental Variation
Many characteristics are affected by the environment (things outside the organism).
 Environmental factors include climate, diet, accidents, culture, and
lifestyle.
Examples:
 Accidents can cause scars.
 Eating too much + little exercise → weight gain.
 Growing up in a country → you learn that language and accent.
 A plant growing in shade → grows taller to reach light.
Types of phenotypic variation:
1. Continuous variation
2. Discontinuous variation
Continuous Variation (Simple Notes)
 Continuous variation = characteristics that show many small differences
between individuals.
 They can be measured on a scale and arranged in order.
Examples:
 Height
 Body mass
 Finger length
Causes:
 Usually a mix of genes and environment.

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o Tall parents → children inherit height genes.

o But poor diet → child may not grow tall.
o So both genes and environment affect height.
Discontinuous Variation (Simple Notes)
 Discontinuous variation = characteristics with clear, separate categories.
 No in-between values.
Examples:
 Blood group (A, B, AB, O)
 Male or female
 Can roll tongue or cannot
 Seed shape or seed colour in peas
Cause:
 Usually caused only by genes.
Genes & Protein Production
 A gene is a short section of DNA on a chromosome.
 Each gene gives instructions for making a protein (by coding for a sequence
of amino acids).
Proteins made include:
 Structural proteins (e.g., collagen in skin)
 Enzymes
 Hormones
 The order of bases in a gene decides the order of amino acids in a protein.
 Different amino acid sequences → different protein shapes and functions.

Inheritance = passing genetic information from parents to children.

 Alleles = different versions of the same gene.
 We have two alleles for each gene (one from mother, one from father).
o They can be same or different.
Phenotype
 The observable characteristics (e.g., eye colour, blood group).
Genotype
 The allele combination an organism has.
Dominant vs Recessive Alleles
 Dominant allele: shows its effect even if only one copy is present.

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 Recessive allele: shows only if both copies are recessive.

o If only one recessive allele is present, it is hidden.
Homozygous
 Two same alleles.
o Could be homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive.
Heterozygous
 Two different alleles.
 You cannot always tell the genotype just by looking at the phenotype.
 A dominant phenotype can come from homozygous dominant or
heterozygous genotypes.
 If two parents are homozygous for the same allele, they are pure breeding.
 They will always produce offspring with the same genotype and phenotype
as themselves.

Genetic Diagrams
Monohybrid inheritance = inheritance of one characteristic controlled by one gene.

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 We use a Punnett square to show all possible allele combinations in the

offspring.
 Dominant allele = capital letter (T)
 Recessive allele = small letter (t)
Example:
 Pea plant height is controlled by one gene with two alleles:
o T = tall (dominant)
o t = short (recessive)
Question:
“Show the allele combinations when a pure breeding tall plant is crossed with a
pure breeding short plant.”
 Pure breeding = homozygous
o Tall = TT
o Short = tt
All offspring get T from tall parent and t from short parent → all Tt (tall).
 This shows that there is a 100% chance that all the offspring will be tall

‘Show the possible allele combinations of the offspring produced when two of
the offspring from the first cross are bred together’

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A genetic cross diagram (F2 Generation) with a 3:1 possible outcome of

offspring phenotypes
 All F1 offspring from the first cross are Tt (heterozygous tall).
 When two Tt plants are crossed, the offspring show more variation.
Possible genotypes:
 TT (tall)
 Tt (tall)
 tt (short)
Ratio:
 3 tall : 1 short
 This means:
o 75% tall
o 25% short
 The F2 generation is made when F1 offspring are bred with each other.
‘Show the results of crossing a heterozygous plant with a short plant’
 The heterozygous plant will be tall with the genotype Tt
 The short plant is showing the recessive phenotype and so must be
homozygous recessive - tt
 The results of this cross are as follows:

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A cross between a heterozygous plant with a short plant

 In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of tall to short, meaning a 50% chance of
the offspring being tall and a 50% chance of the offspring being short
 The predicted genotypes that Punnett squares produce are all based
on chance
o There is no way to predict which gametes will fuse so sometimes the
observed or real-life results can differ from the predictions, especially
when there are small numbers of offspring
How to Construct Punnett Squares
1. Write down the parental genotypes.
2. Choose letters with clear lower case (e.g., Aa, Bb, Dd).
3. Split each parent’s alleles and place them around the square.
4. Fill in the middle squares to find offspring genotypes.
5. From this, you can:
o Give the ratio of genotypes/phenotypes
o Calculate percent chances of traits
o Determine phenotypes
 Punnett squares help predict probabilities in monohybrid crosses.
Codominance
 Blood group inheritance is an example.
 There are three alleles: IA, IB, IO.
 IA and IB are codominant; both are dominant over IO.
 IA → antigen A, IB → antigen B, IO → no antigen.
Genotypes & Phenotypes:
 IAIA or IAIO → blood group A
 IBIB or IBIO → blood group B
 IAIB → blood group AB
 IOIO → blood group O

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 We can use genetic diagrams to predict the outcome of crosses that involve
codominant alleles:
 ‘Show how a parent with blood group A and a parent with blood group B
can produce offspring with blood group O’

Blood Group Inheritance (Example Punnett Square)

 Parent A = IAIO
 Parent B = IBIO
 Child can inherit:
o IAIB → blood group AB
o IAIO → blood group A
o IBIO → blood group B
o IOIO → blood group O
 Chance of child with blood group O = 25%
Sex Determination
 Determined by sex chromosomes:
o Female = XX
o Male = XY
 Father decides sex:
o Produces ~250 million sperm → half carry X, half carry Y
o X sperm + egg → female (XX)
o Y sperm + egg → male (XY)
Mutation

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 Mutation = a random change in the DNA sequence.

 Most mutations do not affect the organism.
 Some mutations can be harmful, e.g., sickle cell anaemia.
Sickle Cell Anaemia
 Caused by a mutation in the haemoglobin gene.
 Red blood cells become stiff and sickle-shaped.
 Sickled cells block blood vessels, causing:
o Painful crises in joints and bones
o Risk of strokes, blindness, lung, kidney, or heart damage
Chromosome mutations
 Chromosome mutations occur when there is a change in the number or
structure of chromosomes
o E.g. Down's syndrome is a genetic condition in which individuals have
47 chromosomes rather than 46; this occurs when the chromosomes
do not fully separate during meiosis
 Down's syndrome is sometimes referred to as Down syndrome,
or as Trisomy 21
Mutation as a Source of Genetic Variation
 Mutation creates new alleles that can be passed to offspring → adds
genetic variation.
 Other sources of genetic variation:
o Meiosis → gametes have new allele combinations
o Random mating → offspring get new allele combinations
o Random fertilisation → which sperm fuses with egg affects allele
combination
Factors Affecting Mutation Rate
 Mutations occur spontaneously but increase with:
o Ionising radiation (gamma rays, X-rays, UV)
o Chemicals (e.g., tar in tobacco)
 Higher mutation rates → higher cancer risk
Natural Selection
1. Genetic variation exists in a population (from mutation, meiosis).
2. More offspring are born than the environment can support.
3. Competition for food and resources occurs.
4. Individuals with advantageous traits survive and reproduce more.
5. Advantageous alleles are passed on.
6. Over generations, these alleles become more common → population
evolves.
 Known as “survival of the fittest” (Charles Darwin).
Example: Snail Shell Colour
 Variation: black, grey, or white shells (white from mutation).
 White snails survive better if environment is pale → camouflaged.
 White allele is passed on more → population evolves to mostly white shells.
Example: Moths
 Body colour changes over generations depending on which colour helps
survival.
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria & Natural Selection
 Natural selection can happen quickly in bacteria due to short generation
times.
 Example: MRSA (resistant to methicillin).

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How resistance develops:

1. Variation exists – some bacteria have a resistance allele (from mutation).
2. Bacteria reproduce → many offspring, not all survive.
3. Competition for survival occurs.
4. Bacteria with resistance survive antibiotic exposure and reproduce.
5. Resistance allele is passed to offspring.
6. Over generations, resistant bacteria increase rapidly – sometimes in hours.
Artificial Selection (Selective Breeding)
 Humans choose desirable traits in animals or plants and breed for them.
 Works like natural selection, but humans select, not the environment.
Process:
1. Select individuals with desired traits.
2. Crossbreed them.
3. Select offspring with the traits.
4. Breed those offspring.
5. Repeat for many generations until all offspring show the traits.
Examples:
 Dogs → many breeds with chosen traits.
 Plants → valuable crops and garden plants.

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