REPRODUCTION

This is the process by which living organisms produce offspring (young ones of the same kind)

types of reproduction,

I. sexual
II. asexual reproduction.

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

This is a type of reproduction where one parent produces one or more genetically identical
offspring by mitosis without involving the fusion of gametes.

Advantages of asexual reproduction

 A mate is not required for offspring to be produced

 Large numbers of offspring can be produced in a short time
 Desirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged.
 It makes it possible to grow new plants of certain species even when seeds fail.
 It can take place even in harsh environmental conditions e.g. fungi such as Mucor
switch to asexual reproduction when environmental conditions are harsh.
 No pollination and dispersal agents required for plants

Examples of plants produced using asexual reproduction are sugar cane (using stem cuttings),
bananas (using suckers) and pineapples.

Disadvantages of asexual reproduction.

 Undesirable features of parents are passed on to the offspring unchanged

 Lack of genetic variation makes it difficult to adapt to a variety of habitats.
 It often leads to overcrowding and competition for resources

FORMS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

I. binary fission,
II. budding,
III. fragmentation,
IV. spore formation
V. vegetative propagation.

BINARY FISSION

This is a type of asexual reproduction where one parent cell divides into two daughter cells.
The stages involved in binary fission are:

I. The parent cell first grows bigger by increasing the amount of cytoplasm

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 II. The DNA replicates and the nucleus undergoes mitosis, resulting in the formation of
two daughter nuclei
III. The cell membrane constricts thereby dividing the cytoplasm in two so that each
nucleus is surrounded by its own cytoplasm
IV. The two daughter cells separate.
 This type of reproduction occurs in bacteria and Amoeba.

Figure 1: Binary Fission in Amoeba

BUDDING

This is a type of asexual reproduction where a parent cell or body of an organism develops an
outgrowth called a bud which increases in size and eventually detaches from the parent to
become an independent organism. Examples of organisms that carry out budding are yeast and
hydra. A group of undetached buds is called a colony.

Figure 2: Budding in Yeast

SPORE FORMATION

This is a type of asexual reproduction where an organism forms spores. Spores are microscopic
round structures produced asexually in very large numbers and are capable of germinating
when conditions are favourable. They are normally produced when conditions are not
favourable for sexual reproduction and are dispersed by wind. Examples of organisms that
produce spores are the fungi Mucor and Rhizopus.

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Note: Mucor and Rhizopus can also reproduce sexually by conjugation which results in
formation of zygospores. They only carry out asexual reproduction when environmental
conditions are harsh e.g. when the temperature is extremely low or high and when there is
insufficient moisture.

FRAGMENTATION

This is a type of asexual reproduction where pieces cut from an organism develop into
independent organisms e.g. in Spyrogyra, some flat worms and sponges.

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

This term refers to asexual reproduction in flowering plants where new plants are grown from
vegetative parts of a plant such as roots, stems and leaves, without involving seeds.

Vegetative propagation can be either natural or artificial.

(a) Natural vegetative propagation

A lot of flowering plants can naturally propagate themselves vegetatively using underground
structures called perennating organs which enable plants to survive from year to year. The
features possessed by perennating organs,Examples of perennating organs are root tubers, stem
tubers, corms, suckers, bulbs and rhizomes.

Root tuber: This is a root that has become swollen because of stored food and is able to grow
into a new plant e.g. sweet potatoes and carrots.

Stem tuber: This is an underground stem that has become swollen because of stored food and
contains eye buds that are able to grow into new plants e.g. Irish potatoes.

Corm: This is swollen underground and vertical short stem with apical and axillary buds that
can grow into new shoots e.g. Crocus sp.

Bulb: A bulb is made of underground fleshy leaves growing from a short stem e.g. garlic and
onion (Allium sp). The fleshy leaves contain food in them.

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Rhizome: This is a swollen underground horizontal stem e.g. ginger. A rhizome has
adventitious roots and buds that can develop into new shoots at the nodes.

Suckers: These are underground lateral branches of stems having terminal buds and
adventitious roots e.g. bananas and plantains.

Runners, stolons and vines: These are horizontal stems growing above the ground and have
adventitious roots and buds at the nodes e.g. lawn grass, sweet potato vines.

Leaves: Certain plants such as Bryophyllum have leaves that are swollen with stored food and
have buds and adventitious roots that can develop into new plants.

(b) Artificial Vegetative Propagation

Examples of artificial vegetative propagation are discussed below:

Stem Cuttings: These are stems cut just below the node and planted to produce new plants.
Adventitious roots develop from the node and the buds on the stem develop into shoots, giving
rise to new plants. Sugar cane and cassava can be propagated this way.

Grafting: This involves bringing together a stock and a

scion coming from two closely related plants. The stock is
the part whose aerial (upper) parts have been cut off. The
scion is the aerial part that bears buds which later form the
shoot. This is the part that has the desired stem, leaves,
flowers or fruits.

Budding: This a type of vegetative propagation where a

bud is used as scion and the bark of an entire plant used as a
stock. The bud is cut in such a way that it has some
cambium. Citrus fruits can be propagated using this method.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

The sexual organs of plants are flowers.

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THE FLOWER

Flowers are made up of-

i. male parts (stamens or androecium) - The male parts of a flower include the
filament and anther
ii. female parts (carpels or pistil or gynoecium).- the female parts include the stigma,
style and ovary.

FUNCTIONS OF FLOWER PARTS

Pedicel or Flower Stalk: This part links the flower to the stem and conducts water, nutrients
and hormones between these two parts.

Receptacle: This is the swollen end of the pedicel where other parts of the flower are attached.

Sepals: These are leaf-like structures that enclose the flower in the bud stage and protect it
from desiccation (drying up) and damage by pests and harsh weather conditions. A group of
sepals from the flower is called a calyx

Petals: These are structures that are brightly coloured and scented in insect-pollinated flowers
to attract insects.

Stigma: This is the part that where pollen grains are deposited during pollination.

Style: This holds the stigma in position and links it to the ovary. It is also used as a passage for
the pollen grain on its way from the stigma to the ovary through the pollen tube.
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Ovary: This is the part that makes and contains ovules. It becomes the fruit after fertilization.

Ovule: Ovules contain female gametes and they develop into seeds after fertilization. Each
ovule has an embryo sac containing eight haploid nuclei

Filament: This supports the anther and supplies it with water and nutrients.

POLLINATION

This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma on the same plant or different
plants of the same species.

TYPES OF POLLINATION

I. self pollination – This is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
on the same plant
II. cross pollination- this is the transfer of pollen grains from an anther present on a
given plant to a stigma on another plant of the same species.

AGENTS OF POLLINATION

i. Insects-pillinated flowers are also called entomophilous flowers while

ii. wind pollinated flowers are also called anemophilous flowers.
The following table compares the structures present in insect and wind pollinated
flowers:

Structure Insect-pollinated flower Wind-pollinated flower

Petals Brightly-coloured, scented, large Dull-coloured, non-scented, small, and

and have nectaries have no nectarines

Anthers Small, firm and enclosed within Large, pendulous and exposed.
petals

Filaments Short and firm Long and dangling outside the flower

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 Stigmas Short, firm, lobed and enclosed in Long, feathery and exposed so as to
petals to ensure insects brush easily trap pollen grains from air
against them

Pollen Large, few and sticky Small, numerous and smooth

grains

THE POLLEN TUBE AND FERTILIZATION

After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs water from the stigma and becomes swollen. Then
the pollen tube nucleus (tube nucleus) germinates to form a pollen tube which grows through
the stigma, style and ovary until it reaches the embryo sac inside the ovule. To form the pollen
tube, the pollen tube nucleus secretes enzymes that break down part of the stigma, style and
ovary. Growth of the tube nucleus towards the ovule is guided by chemicals secreted by the
synergids that are found in the ovule. This is an example of positive chemotropism. After
reaching the micropyle (an opening in the wall of the ovule), the tube nucleus disintegrates.

The generative nucleus follows the tube nucleus behind and divides into two haploid cells
called male nuclei. The first male nucleus fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygote
which later develops into the embryo. The second male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to
form a triploid cell which later develops into the endosperm. The function of the endosperm is
to act as a food storage tissue. This type of fertilization where one male nucleus fuses with the
egg cell to form a diploid zygote and the other male nucleus fuses with two polar nuclei to
form a triploid cell is called double fertilization.

After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed while the ovary develops into a fruit. Refer to
notes on plant growth and development for seed structure.

FRUIT AND SEED DISPERSAL

This refers to the scattering of fruits or seeds from the parent plant to others places. The
advantages of seed dispersal are:

(i) Animal-dispersed Seeds

Animal-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:

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  Presence of hooks to cling to the fur of animals e.g. black jack (Bidens pilosa). The
hooks irritate the animal causing it to shake the seeds off some distance away from the
parent plant.
 Succulent (juicy) mesocarps to attract and reward animals e.g. mangoes.
 Brightly coloured epicarps to attract animals to fruits, especially when ripe e.g. oranges.
 Seeds have hard testas that are resistant to digestive enzymes found in the guts of
animals e.g. guavas.
 Scented fruits to attract animals e.g. oranges.

(ii) Wind-dispersed Fruits

Wind-dispersed seeds have the following characteristics:

‘Parachute’ of hairs formed from sepals after fertilization causes the fruit to float thereby
delaying landing and encouraging dispersal. An example of a seed that has a pappus is the
dandelion seed.

(iii) Water-dispersed fruits

Water-dispersed fruits have fibrous pericarps that enable them to float in water e.g. coconut
fruits.

(iv) Self-dispersed fruits (Explosive mechanism of Dispersal)

Such fruits have fruit walls that develop tension and split to scatter seeds when dry. Such pods
(fruit walls) are said to be dehiscent pods. This mechanism of dispersal is common in legume
fruits e.g. beans.

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN HUMANS

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FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Testes (singular= testis): These are a pair of structures that produce spermatozoa (sperm) and
secrete the hormone called testosterone. They are found in a sac of skin called the scrotum.
The scrotum holds the testicles outside the body to keep them at a temperature slightly lower
than that of the body for more effective production of spermatozoa.

Epididymis: This is made of coiled tubes where sperms are stored.

Sperm duct (vas deferens): This is the tube that carries spermatozoa from the epididymis to
the urethra.

Urethra: This is the tube that carries semen from the sperm duct and urine from the bladder.

Penis: This is an erectile organ that is used to deposit semen into the vagina during sexual
intercourse. The semen is deposited into the vagina by a process called ejaculation.

FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Ovaries: These are a pair of gonads responsible for formation of eggs and for secretion of
oestrogen and progesterone.

Oviduct: This is the tube through which the ovum travels from the ovary to the uterus. It is
also the sight where fertilization occurs.

Uterus: This is the site for implantation and development of the foetus.

Cervix: This connects the vagina to the uterus and forms part of the birth canal. It is the point
where semen is deposited during sexual intercourse. The cervix also secretes fluids that
lubricate the vagina during sexual intercourse.

Vagina: This is the part where an erect penis is inserted during sexual intercourse. It also
forms part of the birth canal.

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Secondary Sexual Characteristics

During sexual development, the human being first develops the primary sexual characteristics
which include the sexual organs and the reproductive systems. To complete its sexual
development, the human body must develop secondary sexual characteristics. These are
characteristics that a human body develops after reaching puberty. They make the body more
adapted to carry out reproduction and are influenced by hormones. In males, their development
is influenced by the hormone called testosterone which is secreted by the testicles. In females,
their development is influenced by the hormone called oestrogen which is secreted by the
ovaries

Male Secondary Sexual Characteristics Female Secondary Sexual Characteristics

 Sperm production  Menstrual cycle commences

 Enlargement of testicles and penis  Enlargement of breasts
 Development of pubic hair, beards,  Widening of hips
hair on the chest and in the armpits  Development of pubic hair and hair in
 Deepening of voice the armpits
 The body becomes more muscular  Enlargement of vagina
 Skin becomes more tender and supple

Note: Females stop their menstrual cycles when they reach a stage of sexual development
called menopause (at 45 to 50 years of age)

THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

This is a cycle of about 28 days during which a woman experiences ovulation and
menstruation, one after the other. Ovulation is the release of an ovum from the ovary.
Menstruation is the shedding of the uterus lining together with some blood through the vagina
which occurs when an ovum does not get fertilized. It lasts three to five days. Ovulation and
menstruation occur approximately 14 days (two weeks) after each other.

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones secreted by the pituitary gland and the ovaries.
The hormones from the pituitary gland (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone)
act on the ovaries while those from the ovaries (oestrogen and progesterone) act on the lining
of the uterus (endometrium). The roles of these hormones are as follows:

(i) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) is secreted by the pituitary gland and causes
ripening of the eggs in the ovaries by stimulating the development of Graafian follicles around
them.

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(ii) Oestrogen is secreted by the Graafian follicle in the ovary. It builds up the lining of the
uterus, inhibits further secretion of follicle stimulating hormone and stimulates secretion of
luteinising hormone.

(iii) Luteinising Hormone (LH) is secreted by the pituitary gland. It stimulates ovulation and
the development of the corpus luteum (yellow body) from the remains of the Graafian follicle.

(iv) Progesterone is secreted by the corpus luteum in the ovaries. It maintains the growth of
the uterus lining and increases blood supply to it in readiness for implantation in case
fertilization occurs. It also inhibits secretion of FSH and LH by the pituitary gland. However,
the corpus luteum gets progressively smaller until it completely degenerates and there is no
more progesterone being secreted. When this happens, lining of the uterus breaks down and the
pituitary gland starts secreting FSH to begin the cycle all over again. On the other hand, if the
egg gets fertilized, the corpus luteum takes longer to degenerate until the placenta has
developed in the uterus.

Figure 3: Events of the Menstrual Cycle

Fertilization, Implantation and Foetal Development

Fertilization is the fusion of the nucleus of a male gamete with the nucleus of a female gamete
to form a single cell called a zygote. It normally occurs in the oviduct. After fertilization, the
zygote travels through the oviduct towards the uterus and divides repeatedly by mitosis to form
an embryo. Upon reaching the uterus, the embryo undergoes implantation. Implantation is the
process by which by which an embryo gets attached to the wall of the uterus (about 11 or 12
days after fertilization).

Figure 4: Ten-week Old Foetus

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The Placenta: The placenta performs the roles normally performed by the intestines, kidneys
and lungs in adult human being. These include absorption of food, excretion and gaseous
exchange, respectively. The functions of the placenta are summarized as follows:

 Attaching the foetus to the uterus of the mother

 Protecting the foetus from the mother’s immune system, mother’s blood pressure and
pathogens. It does this by forming a barrier that prevents mixing of the blood of the
mother and the blood of the foetus.
 Exchange of materials between foetus and mother by the process of diffusion.
Dissolved food and oxygen diffuse from the mother’s blood to the blood of the foetus
while carbon dioxide and urea diffuse from the blood of the foetus to the mother’s
blood. The placenta has finger-like projections called villi that increase the surface area
for exchange of substances.
 Secretion of hormones. It secretes progesterone to maintain the thickness of the uterus
lining during pregnancy. It also secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) which
prolongs the activity of the corpus luteum. The presence of HCG in the urine of a
woman is a sign that she is pregnant.
 Besides the useful materials that cross the placenta from the mother’s blood to the
blood of the foetus, some harmful substances that are made of small molecules also
manage to cross the placenta and affect the baby negatively. These substances include
carbon monoxide from cigarette smoke, drugs such as alcohol and viruses. Carbon
monoxide combines with haemoglobin irreversibly, thereby reducing the amount of
oxygen available to the cells of the foetus. This leads to low birth weights. Alcohol
makes a baby be born with a condition called foetal alcoholic syndrome (FAS) which is
characterized by mental retardation and deformation of the baby.

Umbilical Cord: The umbilical cord contains blood vessels (umbilical artery and umbilical
vein) that transport blood between the foetus and the placenta. The umbilical artery carries
blood rich in metabolic wastes (mainly ncarbon dioxide and urea) from the foetus to the
placenta while the umbilical vein carries blood rich in dissolved food and oxygen from the
placenta to the foetus.

Amnion and Amniotic Fluid: The amnion is the membrane responsible for enclosing the
amniotic fluid. The amniotic fluid protects the foetus from mechanical shocks, drying up and
also maintains a constant temperature around the environment of the foetus.
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NB: The mucus plug blocks the cervical canal to keep away foreign substances from the uterus
during pregnancy.

Gestation Period and Birth

Gestation period refers to the period of time between fertilization and birth. In human beings,
the gestation period lasts for about nine months for a boy child and about eight months for a
girl child.

BIRTH CONTROL (FAMILY PLANNING)

This involves limiting the number of children and spacing their births so as to get the following
benefits:

Give the mother time to recover from the effects of giving birth before she can have another
child.

Ensuring each child receives enough nutrition, shelter, clothing, education and attention.

The methods of birth control are also called contraceptive methods because they are used to
prevent conception (fertilization and implantation). Contraceptive methods are divided into
two groups, namely natural methods and artificial methods. Natural methods include the
withdrawal method (coitus interruptus) and the rhythm (safe period) method. The main
advantage of natural methods is that they cost no money. Otherwise, they are unreliable and
require a lot of discipline. Artificial methods include barrier methods (condom, diaphragm and
intra-uterine device), chemical methods (spermicides and hormones such as those found in the
oral contraceptive pill) and surgical methods (vasectomy and tubal ligation or laparatomy)

Withdrawal Method: This is the removal of the penis from the vagina just before ejaculation.
It is an unreliable method because the fluids that a man releases before ejaculation contain
traces of spermatozoa that may still fertilize an ovum.

Rhythm Method: This is a contraceptive method where a couple only copulates during the
safe period of the menstrual cycle when fertilization is less likely to occur. This method is also
unreliable because the length of the menstrual cycle is modified by factors such as type of diet,
stress and physical exercise.

Condoms: A condom is a thin latex sheath that is fitted around an erect penis or inserted into
the vagina before intercourse so as to keep semen from being deposited directly into the
vagina. It is the only contraceptive method that prevents the transmission of sexually
transmitted infections (STI’s) such as syphilis, gonorrhoea and AIDS. However, if expired or
not properly used, they can break or leak. Some people complain that they reduce enjoyment of
sex and cannot be used spontaneously.

Diaphragm (cap): This is a thin latex cap fitted over the cervix before intercourse so as to
block spermatozoa from entering the uterus. It is more reliable if used in conjunction with
spermicides. Initially, the diaphragm must be fitted by a doctor.

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Intra-uterine Device (IUD): This is a device made of plastic and copper wire that is inserted
into the uterus to prevent implantation by irritating the lining of the uterus. The device can only
be fitted by experts and it may cause discomfort if wrongly placed.

Spermicides: These are chemical substances that are applied inside the vagina before sexual
intercourse in order to kill spermatozoa. They are normally used together with the diaphragm.

Hormones: Hormones such as oestrogen and progesterone are administered in the form of pills
or injections to prevent ovulation and implantation. They are only reliable if taken according to
prescription and may have side effects such as interfering with the pattern of the menstrual
cycle, nausea and weight gain.

Vasectomy: This is the cutting and tying of sperm ducts to block passage of spermatozoa from
the testicles. The man is still able to engage in sexual intercourse but ejaculates seminal fluids
that have no spermatozoa. The method is highly reliable but may be irreversible.

Tubal Ligation (Laparatomy): Oviducts are cut and tied to prevent passage of eggs from the
ovaries to the uterus. This method is also highly reliable and usually irreversible.

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